APPLE DRYING BY USING TRAY DRYER

MOHD AMIR ZAFRAN BIN MAT ZAHIR

55102315127

UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR

JULY 2017
 APPLE DRYING BY USING TRAY DRYER

MOHD AMIR ZAFRAN BIN MAT ZAHIR

55102315127

Report Submitted to Fulfill the Partial Requirements

For the Diploma of Chemical Engineering and Technology (Process)

Malaysian Institute of Chemical & Bioengineering Technology

Universiti Kuala Lumpur

JULY 2017
 DECLARATION

I declare that this thesis entitled Apple Drying by Using Tray Dryer is my own
work and research with all the references have been cited adequately as
required by the University.

Date: 28 November 2017 Signature:……………...………

Name: Mohd Amir Zafran bin Mat Zahir
ID Number: 55102315127

3
 APPROVAL PAGE

I have supervised and examined this report and verify that it meets the
program and University’s requirements for the Diploma in Chemical
Engineering and Technology (Process).

Date: 28 November 2017 Signature:………………………

Supervisor’s Name: Nurulain Binti Ngah

4
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks to God and may His peace and blessings be upon all his prophets for
granting me the chance and the ability to successfully complete this study. I
would like to express my appreciation to a number of individuals, who have
provided invaluable assistance to me during the process of writing this thesis

I would like to express a big thanks to my supervisor, Madam Nurulain binti

Ngah for giving me the golden opportunity for this project. Her trust, belief,
encouragement and guidance throughout this project are really appreciated. I
also would like to express my grateful to my family for their full support
throughout this project until completed. Last but not least, a big thanks to my
fellow friends for their supports and help when I had any difficulties during
completing this project.

5
Dedicated to my beloved family, lecturers and friends

6
 CONTENTS

DECLARATION iii
APPROVAL PAGE iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
DECLARATION vi
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xii
ABSTRACT xiii
ABSTRAK xiv

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background study 1-3
1.2 Problem statement 3-4
1.3 Aim of study 5
1.4 Objectives of study 5
1.5 Scope of study 5

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Drying 6
2.2 Previous study 6-9
2.3 Tray dryer 9
2.4 Mechanism of drying 9-10
2.5 Apple 11-14
2.6 Current drying technology 14
2.6.1 Oven dryer 14-15
2.6.2 Vacuum drying 16
2.6.3 Sun drying 16-17
2.6.4 Spray drying 17-18
2.6.5 Food dehydrator 18-19

7
 2.7 Quality analysis 19
2.7.1 Moisture content 19-20
2.7.2 Physical observation 20-21
2.7.3 Vitamin C 21-22
2.7.4 Fourier-Transform Infrared 22-23
2.7.5 Hardness Texture of Apple 23-24

CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY
3.1 Overview 25
3.2 Equipment 25
3.2.1 Tray dryer 25-26
3.2.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy 26
3.2.3 Texture analyser 27-28
3.3 Materials and Chemical 28
3.4 Procedure 28
3.4.1 Sample preparation 28-29
3.4.2 Tray drying 29
3.4.3 Analysis of moisture content determination 29-30
3.4.4 Analysis of determination of vitamin C 30-31
Concentration
3.4.5 Analysis of Fourier-Transform Infrared 31
3.4.6 Analysis of hardness texture of apple 31
3.4.7 Analysis of physical observation 31-32

CHAPTER 4 : RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Overview 33
4.2 Apple drying result 33-34
4.3 Analysis 34
4.3.1 Physical observation 34-36
4.3.2 Moisture content 36-37
4.3.3 Vitamin C 37
4.3.4 Fourier-Transform Infrared 38-39
4.3.5 Hardness texture of apple 39-40
4.4 Drying curve 40-43

8
CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Overview 44
5.2 Conclusion 44
5.3 Recommendation 45

REFERENCES 46-49

APPENDICES 50-58

9
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Top 10 Country for Most Apple Production 2

1.2 Most Popular Fruit in Malaysia Market 3
2.1 USDA National Nutrient data base 12
2.2 Vitamin C Required for Human Ages 22
3.1 Chemicals Used in the Experimentation 28
4.1 Fresh Apple FTIR Scan Result 38
4.2 Dried Apple FTIR Scan Result 39

10
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Type of Apple 11

2.2 Phenolic Compounds Present in Apples 14
2.3 Oven Dryer 15
2.4 Laboratory Oven Dryer 15
2.5 Vacuum Dryer 16
2.6 Sun Drying 17
2.7 Spray Drying 18
2.8 Food Dehydrator 19
2.9 Functional Group in Organic Chemistry 22
3.1 Tray Dryer 25
3.2 FTIR equipment 26
3.3 Texture Analyser 27
3.4 Blade Probe 27
3.5 Apple Slice 29
4.1 Graph of Mass of apple loss versus Time 34
4.2 Graph of Moisture Content, X versus Time 41
4.3 Graph of Drying Rate Curve 42

11
 LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

X Moisture Content
R Drying rate
B.C Before Century
FTIR Fourier-Transform Infrared
o
C Degree Celcius
% Percentage
KI Potassium Iodide
KIO3 Potassium Iodate
H2SO4 Sulfuric Acid
g Gram
cm3 Cubic centimetre
min Minute
sec Second
m/s Metre per second

12
 ABSTRACT

Drying is one of the oldest method that people used to preserve agricultural
product such as fruits and vegetables. Drying is a heat and mass transfer
process to remove water or moisture in a substance. The objective of this
research is to study drying apple by using tray dryer, to compare the
difference of apple quality before and after drying and to study drying rate
curves of apple drying. The experiment was begun with apple sample to be
prepared. The apple will be cut with same thickness of 5 mm per slice and
being wash. The apple slices the being dried using tray dryer until constant
mass with temperature of 68.3 oC and air flowrate of 1.26 m/s. The mass of
apple will be weighted in every 10 minutes. After being dried, the fresh and
dried will be analyse and compare to determine the behaviour of both apples
properties. There are changes in physical properties, decreasing in vitamin
C, changing and additional in functional group and increasing in hardness of
fresh apple after being dried. It shows that the colour of apple slices was
change to brownish and being shrank. It has been calculated that moisture
content in the apple sample is 79.66 %. Then, it is found that the vitamin C
content in apple slices were lose from drying process which is from 42 mg to
0.3 mg. The drying process also change the functional group of apple sample
which alkenes turns to alkanes and additional amide compound is present.
Drying rate curve was being done by using the data that has been obtained
during drying process. We can conclude the tray drying process is achieved
but there are changes of apple properties before and after being dried. Thus,
there are a few ways to maintain the properties of apple after it being dried.

13
 ABSTRAK

Pengeringan adalah salah satu kaedah tertua yang digunakan orang untuk
memelihara produk pertanian seperti buah-buahan dan sayur-sayuran.
Pengeringan adalah proses pemindahan haba dan massa untuk membuang
air atau kelembapan dalam bahan. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji
pengeringan epal dengan menggunakan pengering dulang, untuk
membandingkan perbezaan kualiti epal sebelum dan selepas pengeringan
dan untuk mengkaji keluk kadar pengeringan epal pengeringan. Percubaan
bermula dengan sampel epal untuk disediakan. Epal akan dipotong dengan
ketebalan yang sama sebanyak 5 mm setiap kepingan dan dibasuh. Epal
epal yang dikeringkan menggunakan pengering dulang sehingga jisim malar
dengan suhu 68.3 oC dan aliran udara 1.26 m/s. Jisim epal akan ditimbang
dalam setiap 10 minit. Setelah kering, segar dan kering akan menganalisis
dan membandingkan untuk menentukan kelakuan kedua-dua sifat epal.
Terdapat perubahan dalam sifat fizikal, menurunkan vitamin C, berubah dan
tambahan dalam kumpulan berfungsi dan meningkatkan kekerasan epal
segar selepas dikeringkan. Ia menunjukkan bahawa warna irisan epal
berubah menjadi coklat dan menjadi menyusut. Ia telah dikira bahawa
kandungan lembapan dalam sampel epal adalah 79.66 %. Kemudian,
didapati bahawa kandungan vitamin C dalam kepingan epal hilang daripada
proses pengeringan iaitu dari 42 mg hingga 0.3 mg. Proses pengeringan
juga mengubah kumpulan fungsian sampel epal yang alkenes bertukar
kepada alkana dan komoditi tambahan amide hadir. Kurva kadar
pengeringan sedang dilakukan dengan menggunakan data yang diperoleh
semasa proses pengeringan. Kita dapat membuat kesimpulan bahawa
proses pengeringan dulang dicapai tetapi terdapat perubahan sifat epal
sebelum dan sesudah kering. Oleh itu, terdapat beberapa cara untuk
mengekalkan sifat epal selepas ia dikeringkan.

14
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Study

Drying is a heat and mass transfer process of removing water or other

solvents. Based on scientists’ theory “drying involve the application of heat to
vaporize volatile substances (moisture) and some means of removing water
vapor after its separation after its separation from the solid (Jayamaran and
Gupta, 2006)”. Heat is being transfer from the air surrounding and to the
surface of the substances. Then, some part of air will transfer to the interior
of substance which cause the temperature will increase and will produce
water vapor and the other of heat will evaporate as a moisture to the
surrounding surface.

Drying is one of the oldest method that consumers used to preserve

agricultural product such as fruits and vegetables. This type of process will
prevent from bacteria, yeast and mold to grow. Based on drying process, the
products will remain live longer, minimize losses during in storages and
reduce transportation cost.

Fruit and vegetables is one of the important role in human nutrition as

it serves vitamins and minerals to human body even though it gives a good
flavor to human diet. For dried fruit, the product still contains concentrated
sugar even it already been processed by using drying method and it will give
a huge source of energy to human. However, it will destroy some of nutrition
such as vitamin A and vitamin C. To prevent from the losses of these nutrient,
exposing the fruit to the sulfur will help to contain that nutrients but it destroys
thiamine, one of the type vitamin B as it did give any bad effects to its
consumer. The dried fruit will also contain new nutrients such as iron and
riboflavin after the products has been dry.

Apple is the third most production fruits in the world with annually
production of 65,237,921 ton. Asia is the largest provider of apple fruit in the
world as China is the most contribute country for apple production. The

1
export of apples in China was 1 million ton while the import in China was
100,000 metric ton in 2016. The largest exports of apples in 2012 is United
States which that country has exported 1.9 billion tons of apples because of
market liberalization. For the largest import of apples, United States also hold
the highest importation of this production which is 1,800,000 metric tons.
Table 1.1 shows top 10 country for most apple production.

Table 1.1 Top 10 Country for Most Apple Production

In Malaysia, apple is one of the most popular fruits purchased followed

by banana. It shows that Malaysian society are preferred this fruit for their
culinary. This fruit can be found and purchase in the market or fruit store.
Even though apple fruit is imported from other country, it always available in
any time in Malaysia as weather climate in this country is suitable to be
stored and this fruit will be available in the market throughout the year. In
addition, apple is the most purchased because most of Malaysian local fruits
are only in seasonal period every year compared to the apple.

2
 Table 1.2 Most Popular Fruit in Malaysia Market

1.2 Problem Statement

Food are the main source for human to replenish energy, for growth,
repairing or replacing new tissues other than to keep alive. However, the
lifespan of food is short after it being harvested. Food drying is one food
preservation method which the food is dried and prevent the growth of
bacteria. Drying has been using widely during ancient times as it was found
and practice in 12,000 B.C of the Middle East and Asia civilization. On that

3
time, they are using sun drying which they put their food under the hot sun.
Most type of food were vegetables and fruits.

When fruits and vegetables are being harvested, it will begin to rot or
decay. Microorganisms in the surrounding will come and feed at the products
nutrients and moisture. At that time, chemical reaction will also occur as the
cells will break out from the product. Speedy decomposition is a good thing in
nature to get seed in a soil. But for human to consume those products, it will
be a problem when the fruits and vegetables cannot be kept for a long time.

There are a few reasons why fruits are easily to spoil. First, the
presence of microorganism. As we know that microorganism is everywhere in
surrounding. The reason for fruit spoilage is bacteria, molds and yeast need
water and nutrients for growth and reproduction. Fruit will be like a magnet to
these microorganisms when the average of water content is more than 90
percent and it will spoil quickly. There are a few signs of fruit decaying as we
can see with naked eyes which are the fruit will become blemishes, slimy
patches and mold and can also cause unpleasant smell and unappetizing.

The second reason is excess of moisture. When the fruit is wash and
store it wet, the chance of inviting bacteria will increase. So, the fruits needed
to by dry before being store and wash before being use. A few ways that are
needed to avoid spoilage happen from this situation. The fruits need to be
closed with cloth or plastic bag to ensure air circulation of moisture will be
avoided.

Finally, exposure of oxygen will increase the rate of decaying.

Oxidation can be seen when fresh apple flesh turns brown when it has been
exposed in air surrounding. In food, there are some chemicals present which
is oxidizing enzymes as oxygen will react and spoilage will speed up as it
contacts with air. In addition, the presence of bacteria will occur as it requires
oxygen for living. The exposure of oxygen to fruit will cause an unpleasant
tastes and odors.

4
1.3 Aim of Study

The aim of the study is to make an apple is long lasting in marketing.

Besides, this experiment also will compare between fresh and dried apple
based on its moisture, water activity, vitamin C, functional group and
hardness.

1.4 Objective of Study

Based on the problem statement and the need of the research, a few
objectives have been outlines. The objectives of this research are:

I. To perform drying apple by using tray dryer

II. To compare the difference of apple quality before and after drying
(Moisture Content, Water Activity, Vitamin C, Functional Group,
Hardness and Physical Observation)
III. To study drying rate curves of apple drying

1.5 Scope of Study

This study involves experimental work at a laboratory scale. For drying, the
experiment is being done in Lab 6A which is Thermofluid Laboratory. Tray
dryer is used to dry apple with fixed parameter of temperature and air flow.
The dried and fresh apple then being analyze with six different criteria to
determine and compare the quality of both apples which is Moisture Content,
Water Activity, Vitamin C, Functional Group, Hardness and Physical
Observation. In Lab 22A which is Food Analysis Laboratory, four analyses
have been done to determine the quality of apple in this lab which is Moisture
Content, Water Activity, Vitamin C and Physical Observation. Moisture
content can be determined by the difference weight of apple before and after
drying using analytical balance. For water activity analysis, water activity
analyzer has been used to determine in the fresh and dried apple. To
determine the hardness of apple, texture analyzer is the equipment used in
Food Microbiology Laboratory (Lab 14B).

5
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Drying

Drying is a heat and mass transfer process of removing water or other

solvents. Based on scientists’ theory “drying involve the application of heat to
vaporize volatile substances (moisture) and some means of removing water
vapor after its separation after its separation from the solid (Jayamaran and
Gupta, 2006)”. Heat is being transfer from the air surrounding and to the
surface of the substances. Then, some part of air will transfer to the interior
of substance which cause the temperature will increase and will produce
water vapor and the other of heat will evaporate as a moisture to the
surrounding surface.

Drying is one of the oldest method that consumers used to preserve

agricultural product such as fruits and vegetables. There are a few reasons
why drying is being used in food industries such as bacteria, yeast and mold
will be prevented from growing inside the product. Thus, the products will
more longer to be preserved in the marketing as drying will cause the
enzyme action will be slowed. Drying also will make the materials are easier
to be handled. So, the cost of the transportation will be cheaper when the
huge mass of material is transferred from one place to another.

2.2 Previous Study

There are a few studies that related to the apple drying. Most of the
researches will considered temperature, air flow and humidity are main
priority for drying processes.

Kaya et al (2007) has studied apple slice drying by using drying air
parameters such as temperature, velocity and humidity. Experiments
parameter used is air temperature at 35, 45 and 55 oC, velocities at 0.2, 0.4
and 0.6 m/s and relative humidity values at 40 %, 55 % and 70 %. The
experimental data of moisture can be used in Henderson and Pabis model,
the Newton model and the term exponential models. The value of moisture
6
diffusivity Deff were obtained from Fick’s diffusion model. The objectives of
this study to determine the effect of humidity, temperature and velocity of
drying air on drying kinetic of red apple. To determine the sorption isotherms
of apple slice at 35, 45 and 55 oC, a static gravimetric is used. As a
conclusion obtained on this experiment, a constant humidity, moisture
content decreased while temperature increased. When temperature is
constant, moisture content will increase as humidity also increase. Thus,
when temperature is increasing or decreasing air velocity, humidity will
decrease. If velocity or temperature is increase or humidity is increase,
effective diffusivity coefficient will be increased.

Akpinar and Bicer (2003) has studied drying behavior of single layer of
apple slices in cyclone dryer. They also used mathematical modeling by
using models of single layer drying. The experiment was conducted at three
different drying air temperature which is 60, 70 and 80 oC. while two different
air velocities which is 1 and 1.5 m/s. They used mathematical model to make
a single layer drying curves. It was then being determined using nonlinear
regression analysis. The apple slices were dried at the optimum processing
conditions by using a few parameters such as drying time, drying rate,
moisture content, air velocity and drying air temperature. The Logarithmic
model was acceptedly explained that the single layer behavior of apple
samples was examined the effect of drying air, velocity and sample area and
coefficients of logarithmic model. The transfer of moisture of apple slices
happened at falling rate period of drying during diffusion coefficient of air in
the experiment.

Velic et al. (2004) has studied influence of airflow velocity in apple

drying, heat transfer and average diffusion coefficients. This experiment was
dried by using tray dryer with using rectangle shaped size (20x20x5 mm) of
apple samples. This experiment was setup at fix drying temperature which is
60 oC. An additional parameter is included in the experiment which is
rehydration ratio to determine the quality of dried sample. The exponential
mathematical model was used to estimate kinetic equation. The calculations
result shows that it is acceptable with the experimental data. This
experiments also were observing falling rate period and constant rate period

7
at low air velocity. This experiments also determined when airflow velocity
and heat transfer coefficient increase, diffusion coefficient will be more
effective. From overall study, it was calculated that 72 % of water is removed
from the apple in this drying process during rehydration phase.

Srikiatden and Roberts (2005) has studied the effectiveness of

moisture diffusivity of apple during isothermal drying and hot air drying. They
also studied the comparison of moisture loss from diffusivity and first order
kinetic model to experimental data. From the result obtained, Fick’s diffusion
model had shown failed result as experimental drying curves to predict
moisture loss. The temperature profiles show temperature gradient in hot air
drying. This prediction of moisture loss was inaccurate because of the lack of
isothermal condition. So, a combined microwave-convection hot air
apparatus was used to quantify drying kinetic. However, the Fick’s diffusion
model still not get the same prediction even though isothermal condition is
already achieved. A hypothesis was being made as hygroscopic porous
materials for drying is limited by evaporation of water to water. Thus, a
suggestion was made to predict isothermal drying of apple was using
irreversible first-order kinetic model. From the slope of normalized drying
curves that had been calculate, an accurate has been obtained for moisture
loss at each temperature during moisture range.

Bialobrzewksi (2006) has studied the impact of drying shrinkage on

the kinetic of convection apple slab drying. The method used in this study is
arbitrary Lagrange-Eulerian (ALE) to find a problem with moving boundaries.
The results show that drying shrinkage had huge relationship with water
content and temperature in specific material. It has been concluded that the
lower moisture content in particles during drying, the higher the effect of
shrinkage on heat and mass transfer

As conclusion, most of the studies are determined the effect of

temperature, air velocity moisture content and shrinkage. One of studies only
determines the effect of temperature, air velocity moisture content in one
experiment (Kaya, et al. 2007). They studied that the range of moisture
content is between 40 % and 70 %. The objectives of this thesis was to study
the effectiveness of apple drying by using tray dryer, to study drying rate
8
curves of apple with fixed temperature and air flow and to study the
comparison of wet and dried apple by using five analysis.

2.3 Tray Dryer

Tray dryer is an equipment that been designed for food, pharmaceutical,

chemical and other industries. This type of dryer contains a cabinet including
a heater at the bottom of the machine. The simplest form of tray dryer type is
called laboratory oven. It has small amount of value that the heat transfer and
humidity cannot be control. Tray dryer combines with a fan. This fan will help
to increase heat transfer as the forced hot air is circulated inside the oven.
However, it still did not have adequate control.

Mehta RM (1996, p.187) insists that the best type of tray dryer is the
dryer go through direct circulation form, which the air is heated and flow
directly across to the material in a controlled flow. The material that wants to
be dried is spread on the specific trays. The trays used must also have solid,
perforated and wire mesh bottoms. The paper will line up at the surface of
the tray or it called disposable tray liner. It will reduce cleaning time and
prevent the product from having contamination. Nowadays, tray dryers
contain insulated cabinet that has been placed with heating coils and fans to
maintain a uniform temperature and air flow rate. There also alternative
arrangements of the shelves to ensure that the air can uniformly flow without
any obstructions. Before the air flow through each shelf, it will be reheated by
the heater in the dryer. A certain amount of latent heat of vaporization will
produce as the air passes through all shelves.

2.4 Mechanism of Drying

Drying is defined as removal of moisture content of water or other liquid

either from liquid of wet solid to form a dry product. It is one of the process
that relates with mass transfer and simultaneous heat, and involving with
physicochemical transformations. Effect of drying process will give a result of
liquid vaporization but using heat to wet substances. From the heat transfer

9
mechanism, drying process can be categorized into four types which is direct
(convection), indirect or contact (conduction), radiant (radiation) and dielectric
or microwave (radio frequency) drying.

Heat transfer and mass transfer are important things that involves in
drying process. Heat is transferred through the substance for liquid
evaporation while mass which is vapor is transferred into surrounding gas.
Heat transfer and mass transfer also are a factor to determine drying rate.
Solid drying will generally follow to two distinct drying zones, which is called
constant-rate period and falling-rate period. Both zones are separated by a
break point called critical moisture content.

When drying process is occurred, the moisture content is starting to

lose from the solid. The solid will started to change as the outer surface
moisture is lose and moisture in inner surface will be pushed to the outer
surface to keep solid still wet. In constant rate period, there is no resistance
to moisture transport within the solid. The water vapor or moisture will act if
the solid is not present. The surface of solid also is wet because of inner
surface is pushed to the outer surface. an unbound water will be remove from
the solid. The water will act as if solid not present. The surface of the product
will be very wet and water. Thus, it can be standardized that the water activity
during this event is equal to one. It will continue as amount water evaporates
is same as amount of water that is supplied to the surface of the solid. It is
also called as constant rate period.

The moisture content removal then will be decreases from time to

time. Thus, the surface water activity of solid will be less than one. It is
caused by the internal flow of moisture content. Then, falling rate period
occurred because there is not enough water on the surface of apple sample
to maintain water activity value of one.

10
2.5 Apple

Apple or Malus domestica is from deciduous tree in rose family which are
sweet and pomaceous fruit. The scientific name of apple is Malus pumila.
The apple tree was found and originated from Central Asia which is
Kazakhstan and it is hugely cultivated around the world. Mostly apples were
grown in Asia and Europe before is has been brought to the America. It has
also related in some culture for religious purposes such as Greek and
European Chinese tradition in some events. There are many types of apples
in the world which has been used in cooking such as baking, sauce, salads
and pie.

Figure 2.1 Type of Apple

Apple has many nutrients such as vitamin C, minerals, carbohydrates, fiber

and others. Apples basically composed of water and carbohydrates. It also
contains low Glycaemic Index even though contain high carbohydrates and
rich in simple sugar. As Glycaemic Index is low, the risk of high blood sugar
level is low. Apple also packed with soluble and insoluble fiber which can help
to lower blood sugar level, reduce weight and improve digestive system.
Thus, apples have many types of vitamin such as Vitamin C, Vitamin A,
Vitamin E, Vitamin K, Thiamine and Riboflavin. Apple also contain anti-
oxidant which is Quercetin as it is anti-cancer properties.

11
Table 2.1 USDA National Nutrient data base

12
 Apple fruit has many health benefits to its consumer. First, apple has
low calories as 100 g of fresh slice contain 50 calories. But saturated fats and
cholesterol are not presence. Next, apple contains huge quantities of Vitamin
C and β-carotene as Vitamin C is natural antioxidant. It helps body to
increases of infectious resistance. Furthermore, it has many B-complex
vitamin such as riboflavin, thiamin and pyridoxine. There vitamin helps the
enzymes in the body for stable metabolism. Lastly, apple also have small
quantities of minerals such as calcium, potassium and phosphorus. For
potassium, it can help to control heart pressure and heart rate.

Apples contain a few chemical compounds such as malic acid,

amygdalin and flavonol molecules which mostly presents in fruits and
vegetables. Flavonols is a chemical compound from flavonoids and known
for their antioxidant properties and also play huge role to protect organisms
from many types of disease. It contributes to the red colors which attractive
cultivars. In apple compound, phenolic compounds also present which
contain an aromatic ring and connected to at least one hydroxyl (OH) group.
The flavonol compounds in apple are phenolic. Apples also have other
compounds such as caffeic acid (3-(3-4-Dihydrocyphenyl)-2-propenoic acid)
which is cinnamic acid. The oxidation reaction that is take place is catalyzed
through an enzyme called polyphenoloxidase (PPO) and produce quinones
and then polymerize a brown pigment called melanin.

13
 Figure 2.2 Phenolic Compounds Present in Apples

For sourness of green apples, there are one compound that caused
the sour taste which is malic acid. The compound contains chiral center and
naturally form as single isomer (-)-malic acid, (S)- hydroxybutanedioic acid.

2.6 Current Drying Technology

Nowadays, there are many types of drying method being used for certain
purposes either food or non-food products. For food products, the drying
method is used for food preservation. It also removes water from the fruit to
prevent the growth of bacteria, molds and yeasts. However, the purpose of
drying method for non-food products is different from food products as one of
purpose of drying is to eliminate or avoid corrosion that caused from the
moisture. There are few examples of drying methods in today’s world.

2.6.1 Oven Dryer

An oven is a thermally insulated chamber to heat, bake or dry a substance.

This technology is most commonly used for cooking. As example microwave
oven. This oven uses heat from micro radiation wave to cook food instead of
using fire sources. The first commercial microwave oven was in 1947 after

14
Dr. Percy Spencer discovered microwaves heating properties while studied
magnetron.

Figure 2.3 Oven Dryer

Other than that, laboratory oven is used high-forced volume thermal

convection applications. This oven can be used for drying, annealing,
Polyimide baking, sterilizing and other laboratory functions. The temperature
can be uniformly with over than 340 degrees Celsius.

Figure 2.4 Laboratory Oven Dryer

For oven drying operational principle, it depends on gravity air

convection which is electrically heated in the chamber of the oven. An
automatic control unit and two jacket designs of the chamber is applied to
this oven to make the temperature profile is homogenous, accurate
processes and recovery time is short. It is one of the economical operation of
drying method and suitable for simple drying.

15
2.6.2 Vacuum Drying

Vacuum drying is one of the mass transfer method to remove moisture in a

wet solid by creating vacuum. This method is most widely used in chemical
industries such as food, pharmaceutical and agricultural to remove the
moisture in a substance. Vacuum drying is used to the substances that are
heat sensitive and hygroscopic. Most of drying process are convective where
heat or hot air is used to remove the moisture from the product but not for
vacuum drying and that is why this type of dryer is so expensive in the
market.

Figure 2.5 Vacuum Dryer

This vacuum drying is based on creating a vacuum principle to

decrease pressure below water vapor pressure. Vacuum dryers apply low
temperature drying for thermolabile materials and it is suitable for recovery of
the solvent from solid products that contain solvents.

2.6.3 Sun Drying

Sun drying is a traditional method for removal of moisture. Most of this

method used for food and agricultural products by spreading the substances
under the sun. This method will apply solar radiation as it will heat up the
substances with the surrounding air. So, it will increase the water evaporating
rate from the substances. Sun drying method is mostly used in Asia and
Malaysia as the cost is low compared to other drying method. This method

16
also is environmental friendly as the source used is sun and CO 2 will not be
produced.

Figure 2.6 Sun Drying

Before the drying process is started, the product will be placed at the
flat surface and exposed to the atmosphere. The moisture in a product
represent as free water surface which is called surface evaporation
phenomenon. When the product is dried up, the moisture will migrate from
interior to exterior which caused evaporation. This evaporation is caused by
the solar radiation and solar energy will heat air as the hot air will remove
moisture from the product.

2.6.4 Spray drying

Spray drying is a method by convert a mixture from liquid based to a powder.

This method will remove moisture component from the liquid solution by
using hot air as a medium. There are three stages for spray drying process
which is atomization, spray-drying mixing and moisture evaporation and dry
product separation from the exit air. This method is used in vary wide of
industries such as pharmaceutical, food, environmental and chemical.

17
 Figure 2.7 Spray Drying

The principle of spray dryer is the solution or emulsion will be sprayed

from the top into the chamber by though a nozzle. During the sprayed of the
solution, the hot air will be blow from the below of the chamber. As the
droplets of the solution are being contact with the hot air, the moisture
content is being removed and the droplets will be turned into powder form.

2.6.5 Food Dehydrator

Food dehydrator is the latest equipment for drying process. However, it just
specializes in food drying for preservation as moisture is removed from the
food. Before this technology is being invented, food dehydration was done in
outdoor as foods will be place under the sun. After that, more proper food
dehydration is used as the presence of the rack will allow the food is not spoil
from the surrounding. Nowadays, electrical dehydrator is used as the product
will be dehydrate with constant temperature compared to the solar
dehydrator.

18
 Figure 2.8 Food Dehydrator

This equipment uses heat such as solar and electric power and air
flow to remove or reduce water content of food. Removing water content from
food will ensure the bacteria are not growing in the food. So, the lifespan of
the food will be extended compared to fresh food. As the water content are
being removed, the weight of food will decrease drastically.

2.7 Quality Analysis

In this research, there are six analyses that need to be observed to

determine the quality of apple fruit. The six analyses are moisture content,
vitamin C, functional group, hardness and physical observation.

2.7.1 Moisture content

Moisture content is also known as water content is the quantity of water

content in a solid such as food. Moisture content can be used in huge range
of scientific are and the result will show as a ratio.

Moisture content will affect texture, appearance, taste and weight of

the food. A slight changes of moisture content can give a huge impact to the
physical properties of food. For example, the substances used in food
processing is too dry can affect the final product. Then, excess moisture also
can cause food material to agglomerate when in processing the product. In

19
addition, the rate of microorganisms also increases as moisture increase and
cause the food is easily to spoil in short term of time.

Water is an important role in food production as it is the cheapest and

can solute in all type of food material. Thus, moisture content analysis is
important to determine the suitable analytical value for food production. For
these reasons, food analysts have a huge responsibility to make a balance
between food material and moisture for safety to consumer, good quality
product and give huge profit to food manufacturer.

There are many reasons why moisture content analysis is important

for food industries. First, the government has setup a legal and labeling
requirement for requirement of water that must be present in different types
of foods. Second, the costs of food products will depend the amount of water
contain in the food products Third, microbial stability. Microorganisms grow
faster when water content of the product is huge. Most of food products are
being dried to prevent the growth of bacteria. Finally, the amount used of
water will give effect to the food quality such as texture, taste, appearance
and food stabilization.

2.7.2 Physical Observation

Physical observation is mostly used during the experiment is conducted.

Observation can act as receive the knowledge through human senses or
recording information by using instruments or scientific tools. Any data
recorded during an experiment are observation. There are five steps followed
based on scientific process of physical observation. The first step is scientific
observation. The experimenter must observe something and ask questions
about natural phenomenon. Second, the experimenters should make
hypothesis of natural phenomenon explanation. The third one is the
experimenters should make predictions from the hypothesis created. Fourth,
conduct an experiment based on the predictions for observation study. Lastly,
make a conclusion based on the data and information collected in the
experiment.

20
 Physical observation cannot be done by single observer. With many
observers it can be compare the result and making a conclusion. The use of
measurement is must for the experiment as it will allow for recording and
comparison because human sense is subjective and qualitative. Thus, it will
difficult to record or compare the result. Measurement is the observation to
compare the data by using a standard unit.

The sense of the human is limited and it can leads to errors such as
optical illusions. Scientific instruments then were invented to increase the
observation range such as clocks, telescopes, weighing scales, microscopes,
thermometers and cameras. An unobservable instruments by human senses
also is invented such as voltmeter, spectrometers, radio receivers and
oscilloscopes.

2.7.3 Vitamin C

Vitamin C also known as L-ascorbic acid and ascorbic acid which is in fruits
and vegetables. Vitamin C is water-soluble vitamin and powerful antioxidant
as it will help body growth and maintaining and repair connective tissue such
as bones, blood vessels and skin.

Vitamin C has many benefits such as repair tissues, prevent heart

disease, aid in absorption of iron, decrease cholesterol and prevent scurvy.
Research has shown that vitamin C can also help to prevent cancer and
helping neutralize nitrites effect which can be found in some foods. Vitamin C
also will increase immunity system in the body to avoid from cold and
cataracts.

Too many excess of vitamin C consume also can give an effect to

body. The type of side effects are diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea and
other gastrointestinal symptoms. For most healthy individual, the body can
consume about 200 to 250 mg of vitamin C per day and any excess will lose
through urine. For ill or injury individuals, the use of vitamin C can be higher.
High doses of vitamin C can cause kidney stones formation.

21
 Table 2.2 Vitamin C Required for Human Ages

2.7.4 Fourier-Transform Infrared

A functional group is a portion of a molecule that is a recognizable or

classified group of bound atoms. In organic chemistry it is very common to
see molecules comprised mainly of a carbon backbone with functional
groups attached to the chain. The functional group gives the molecule its
properties, regardless of what molecule contains it*; they are centers of
chemical reactivity. The functional groups within a molecule need to be
identified when naming. (Steven Hardinger, 2008).

Figure 2.9 Functional Group in Organic Chemistry

22
 To determine the functional group in a material, an analytical
instrument is used which is Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR).
The device act to obtain an infrared spectrum of absorption or emission of a
solid or liquid of substances. FTIR most commonly used to determine the
functional group that are existed in a substance. Other than that, it can
identify organic, inorganic and polymeric materials. A data from the device is
detected a form of wavelength with different types of peaks that represent
different type of functional group from computer calculation.

2.7.5 Hardness Texture

Texture testing is a technique to evaluate the properties of raw ingredients

and food structure. Texture testing has many variety of applications of food
types such as fruit, cereals, meat, fish pasta, snacks and other types of
foods. This test is technique that related to the sense of human touch and it
can be measured by using mechanical methods in units such as force.

In food texture testing, there are few standard tests such as

compression, flexure and tension to measure properties of food such as
crispiness, crunchiness, hardness, springiness and others. The result
obtained has shown that measurements have a high correlation with sensory
attributes and texture quality.

For fruit, vegetables, meat and other natural products, the texture
properties can be found back to the way the product is grown while for
processed food, texture properties can be found for process optimization.
This food texture analysis can show quality to improve for supply chain and
production process. At laboratory stage, new ingredients can be compared
with existing ingredients. In production industries, food texture analysis is
used to measure and control process variable such as temperature, cooking
time and humidity.

For hardness analysis, blade version of the Kramer Type Shear Cell is
used which is designed to measure the bulk shear and extrusion forces of
fruits, cereals and meat. The common blade version used when the shape

23
and size of sample is irregular. The sample is compressed, sheared and
extruded through the bottom opening. There will be a reduction in the bulk
shearing force or compression to the samples if the samples with many
particles or food with irregular texture.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Overview

24
This study involves drying works done in laboratory. The fruits involved in the
drying process were green apple precisely South African Royal Gala as
sample. The sample were cut equally into slices with 5mm thickness. Dried
using standard lab oven. Several analyses done to test the sample.

3.2 Equipment

In this research there are a few equipment that has been used for drying
process and analyses. The equipment used in drying process is tray dryer
and analytical balance. For analyses there are few equipment that has been
used such as texture analyser and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
(FTIR).

3.2.1 Tray Dryer

For drying process, tray dryer has been used to dry apple fruits. SOLTEQ
Tray Drier (Model: BP 772) is the manufacturer and model for this research.
This model of tray dryer is one of best design and can be used for any type of
solids that need to be dried.

Figure 3.1 Tray Dryer

This type of tray dryer can be setup in different temperature controller

from knob 1 to knob 10 same as air flow controller. The apple sample will be

25
put in the dryer along with the tray after the tray dryer is being heated for a
few minutes. The sample will be put out until mass constant is occurred.

3.2.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

To analyse functional group in apple fruit, FTIR is the equipment that has
been used throughout the research. The model used is Thermo Scientific
(Model: iS50 FT-IR).

Figure 3.2 FTIR equipment

For this type of equipment, the apple sample will be placed on top of
the infrared scanner and the system from the computer will be read for a few
seconds. The result will be showed as a graph with wavelengths of functional
group.

3.2.3 Texture Analyser

26
To analyse the hardness of fresh and dried apples, texture analyser has been
used with blade probe. The manufacturer for this equipment is TA.XT plus
Texture Analyser.

Figure 3.3 Texture Analyser

Figure 3.4 Blade Probe

This equipment will be installed with the blade probe first before
analysis has been made. The analysis will be setup in a software in the
computer as to test the hardness of the apple sample. When the apple
sample has been tested, a graph of force per second will be showed in the
software which is the hardness result.

27
3.3 Material and Chemical

In this research there are a few chemicals used for vitamin C determination.
Table 3.1 shows the list of chemicals used in this research.

Table 3.1 Chemicals Used in the Experimentation.

Chemicals
Potassium Iodide (KI)
Potassium Iodate (KIO3)

Potassium iodide, KI comes with solid form and it is soluble with the
water. Potassium iodate. KIO3 comes with powder for and it is also soluble
with the water. Both chemical will be added and dissolve together along with
distilled water as it represents iodine solution.

3.4 Procedure

In this experiment, there are sample preparation for apple sample to ensure
the result obtained is achieved with past studies. Only one experiment is
conducted which is drying process using tray dryer. After being dried, five
analyses have been made to determine and compare the quality of fresh and
dried apple. There analyses conducted are moisture content, physical
observation, vitamin C, functional group and hardness.

3.4.1 Sample Preparation

The green apple need to be clean by dipping in the lukewarm water and rub
gently in order to remove the wax which usually available at all fruits. Then,
the apple was cut into slices of 5 mm thickness with clean knife.

28
 Figure 3.5 Apple Slice
The apple slices then arranged on the tray before entering the oven.
The weight of tray was weigh beforehand and total weight of apple were
calculated.

3.4.2 Tray Drying

The tray drying need to be switch on before starting drying process. The
indicator turned green as the power on. The tray dryer is being preheat first.
The knob for fresh air control were set at position 2 indicate limited renewed
air flow. The temperature then set at 7 using a knob and need to be waited
until temperature rose and stable before inserting the sample.

After the temperature is stabilized, the sample was load into the dryer
by using a tray by pulling the door knob and seal closed. The timer was set
for interval of 10 minutes. The sample need to be weigh every 10 minutes
intervals until it reached constant weight which indicate the complete dry of
apple sample. The sample then stored into tightly sealed container.

3.4.3 Analysis of Moisture Content Determination

The moisture content done to determine the amount of moisture present in

the apple sample. It also used to determine how much of moisture that has
been dried in the drying process. The moisture content analysis is done by
calculated the weight of the sample before and after drying. The moisture
content can be calculated by using this formula:

29
 weight of moisture
moisture content ( )= ×100
weight of sample

Where,

weight of moisture=[ ( weight of wet apples )− ( weight of dry apples ) ]

3.4.4 Analysis of Determination of Vitamin C Concentration

This analysis is using titration to determine vitamin C concentration. It uses

redox titration with potassium iodate and potassium iodide as a mixture
solution.

For iodine solution preparation, 0.5 g of soluble starch is needed to

mix with the 50ml of near boiling distilled water and let it cool. 5 g of KI and
0.268 g of KIO3 are dissolved together with 200 ml of distilled water. Then,
the mixture will be added with 30 ml of 2 M H 2SO4. That solution will be
diluted by adding distilled water until 500 ml. The mixture will be stirred and
transferred to 600 ml beaker. The beaker will be labelled as iodine solution.

For vitamin C solution, the apple sample need to be mash first in

pestle and mortar to get its juice. Then dissolve 0.25 g of juice in 100 ml of
distilled water. The mixture will be diluted to 250 ml distilled water in
volumetric flask. The solution will be labelled as Vitamin C solution.

For the analysis, standardizing solution of vitamin C is needed to

determine the amount of Vitamin C content in the samples. First, 25 ml of
Vitamin C solution is added to 125 ml of Erlenmeyer flask. 1 % starch
solution is added a few drops into that flask. The burette will be fills with the
solution after it has already been rinse with iodine solution. Record the initial
volume. The solution will titrate until endpoint is reached. Swirl the solution
during titration. Stop the titration when the blue colour is seen. Record the
final volume of iodine solution.

3.4.5 Analysis of Fourier-Transform Infrared

30
FTIR is a method used to obtain an infrared spectrum of emission or
absorption of matters. For this analysis, it was used to identify the presence
of functional group in the apple sample.

To run FTIR equipment, the programmed computer must be switched

on and set up. The apple sample must be grind into the powder including a
spatula of Potassium Bromide (KBr) by using agate mortar. The mixture is
needed to grind for 3 until 5 minutes. The mixture will be inserted to the
equipment after the accessory is clean with ethanol. The sample will be
detected by the machine and the result will appeared in the computer for 30
second. Then, clean the sample and print out the result obtained.

3.4.6 Analysis of Hardness Texture of Apple

Texture analyser is used to measure and analysis of food product. There are
many type of tests that can be used by using this equipment. For the
analysis, the apple sample will be tested by its hardness.

For the analysis, the programmed computer is turned on and open the
texture analyser application. Then, choose hardness analysis. After that,
setup the blade probe to the texture analyser. Then, put the apple sample
and run the test. The result will be shown in the application.

3.4.7 Analysis of Physical Observation

In this analysis there are three types of observation that has been made to
determine and compare the quality of fresh and dried apples. The first one is
the colour changes between fresh and dried apple. The fresh apple will be
observed as the brownish colour because of oxidation occurred. The colour
of dried apple will observe after it being dried.

For moisture sense, the sense of touch will be used to compare the
moisture of fresh and dried apple. Lastly, the shrinkage of apple. The apple
will be compared the shrinkage of apple after it being dried.

31
 CHAPTER 4: RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Overview

This chapter were explained about the result of the experiment after being
done with a few methods. In this research, there are three objectives that are
needed to achieve. The first objective is to study drying apple by using tray

32
dryer. This objective is used to determine the effectiveness of drying a
product by using tray dryer. Next, to study the effect of temperature and air
flow on the quality of apple. From the setup of drying, there are a few
changes of apple quality after being dried. So, six analyses had been made
to observe the quality of apple such as moisture content, water activity,
vitamin C, functional group, hardness and physical observation. The last
objective is to study the drying curve. From graph that has been plotted,
there are a few things that might need to be discuss such as falling-rate
period, constant-rate period, equilibrium moisture content and critical
moisture content.

4.2 Apple Drying Result

Drying is defined as the removal of water from solid with the help of mass
transfer and simultaneous heat. By using tray dryer, there is also air flow
which help for drying process. During drying process, the temperature of tray
dryer is set to knob 7 while air flow is set to knob 3. The fresh apple slices
are put into tray with area of 540 cm 2. The experiment was running for 4
hours without stopping until the mass become constant. Then every 10
minutes, the tray with apple sample is being weight until the mass become
constant.

After being check during drying process, the temperature and air flow
has been identified by using a sensor device. Then after being dry for four
hours, the result of drying was obtained. Then, the graph of mass versus time
and moisture loss versus time has been plotted. The figure of 4.1 graph
shows mass of apple loss versus time.

33
 Figure 4.1 Graph of Mass of apple loss versus Time

From the graph above, it was shown that the mass of the apple
sample is decrease after it being dried. In 0 minute, the mass of the sample
is 47.7 g has been decrease drastically for 150 minutes which is from point 1
to point 2. The mass drops until 11.5 g and it shows that the mass loss within
that time is 36.2 g. After that, the mass of apple sample decreases slowly
from point 2 until point 3 which is in 150 minutes to 210 g to 9.9 g and
starting to constant starting at point 3 in 210 minutes and the last mass
obtained is 9.7 g.

4.3 Analysis

There are five types of analyses that has been made to determine and
compare the quality of fresh and dried apple. The analyses are physical
observation, moisture content, vitamin C, functional group and hardness of
the apple. The analyses had been made by following the procedure in
chapter 3.

4.3.1 Physical Observation

Physical observation is an analysis of physical changes of an apple of the

apple slices before and after drying experiments. This analysis is to compare
34
physical difference of fresh and dried apples. This analysis also does not use
any analysis equipment as it only uses the sense of touch and sight of the
experiments. This physical observation is occurred to determine the colour,
moisture and shrinkage of the fresh and dried apple slices.

For the first observation, it was shown that the colour of apple slices
began to change of being dried in a tray oven. It turns to brownish colour
right after the apple slice is being dried. The major factor of this colour
changes occurred because of the presence of heat and time exposure. The
longer the apple slices are being exposed to heat, the darker the colour. The
colour changes cause enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning. The browning
reaction will depend on raw material and drying method. The enzyme
inactivation is called Maillard reaction where this depends the exposure of
temperature, time, and content of water activity in the raw material. When
high temperature is set during drying process, the apple slices will begin to
change colour into brownish as soon it being dried. It is caused as enzymes
are inactivated as soon as the drying process starts, therefore enzymatic
decomposition reactions may not occur; but the substrates may be destroyed
by Maillard reactions in the final stages of drying. Same as time exposure,
the longer the time exposed to heat, the colour will become darker. The water
activity of the material also makes a point to the colour changes. When the
content of water activity is high, the time taken for brownish is longer. For an
apple slice analysis, the time taken for the colour changes is fast because the
slices of apple are thinner and the surface area is bigger.

For fresh apple slices observation, it also shows the colour changes
into brownish but it is not a factor of heat as it is the factor of air surrounding.
In other research, when apple is being cut, oxygen will be present into injured
plant tissue. PPO enzymes in the chloroplast will rapidly oxidize phenolic
compounds to form o-quinones when oxygen present in a cell. Thus, the
white colour will change to brown-coloured secondary product. O-quinones
will produce brown colour by reaction to form compounds with amino acids or
proteins. To ensure the apple slices do not turn brownish, a sprinkle of lemon
juice can prevent the fresh apple for colour changes.

35
 In moisture observation, the analysis was made by using the sense of
touch of experimenter. For fresh apple, it can determine that there is a
moisture after being touch. It is occurred because the water content of apples
is high. In a theory, the water activity of apple is approximately 0.99 which is
quite high. So, the presence of the moisture can be sense when apple slice
was being touch with bare hand. For dried apple, it can observe that moisture
is lost after it has been dried. The reason there is no moisture in dried apple
slices are the water are being removed by using heat. So, there are no
presence of the moisture when apple slice was being touch with bare hand.

Finally, shrinkage of apple slices only present when the material is

being heat. So that only dried apple shows shrinkage behaviour while fresh
apple slices remain in their own shape. The shrinkage happens because of
the presence the temperature and time exposure. Before drying was begun,
the slice was still remains in its shape but it started to shrink after one hour of
drying. After four hours of drying, it shows significance changes as apple
slices were shrink more than the first hour. The reason of the shrinkage when
it is exposed in high temperature as water content in apple slice is loss. The
apple slice will show more shrinkage when the temperature is high and
exposure time is longer.

4.3.2 Moisture Content

Moisture content is the quantity of water content in solid but specifically in

food. The quantity of moisture content in food will affect the taste, texture
appearance and food stability. In food industry, all types of food have legal
and labelling requirement for marketing and safety reason.

From the experiment, the purpose to analyse apple slices is to

determine the quantity of moisture content in a fresh apple. First, weight of
moisture must be calculated first then calculate moisture content from the
apple.

From the result obtained, the moisture loss in an apple sample is

79.66%. The main factor for moisture loss is the presence of heat. The

36
occurrence of heat from drying process will affected the moisture loss of the
apple sample. When the temperature during the drying process is high, the
moisture loss in the apple sample will increase. In addition, the higher
temperature also will make the time taken for moisture loss is shorter. Thus,
the higher the temperature during drying process, the shorter time of removal
of moisture in the apple sample.

4.3.3 Vitamin C

Most of the fruits contain vitamins such as vitamin A, C, E and K. Each

vitamin has benefits to the humans’ body. For vitamin C, there are many
benefits to its consumer such as skin beauty and strong bones. In this
analysis, titration is a method to determine the quantity of vitamin C.

From the result obtained, the vitamin C content in fresh apple is 4.2
mg per 100g while the vitamin C content in dried apple is 0.5 mg per 100 g.
The standard of vitamin C in 100 g of fresh apple is 4.6 mg so we can
conclude that vitamin C in that fresh apple is low but still acceptable on its
content. For dried apple, vitamin C amount are lost because of drying
procedure. In fact, the standard vitamin C in dried apple is 0.3 mg per 100 g.
The vitamin C content are lost during drying because of temperature factor.
Vitamin C is heat sensitive and water-soluble nutrient. Based on the theory,
vitamin C enzyme will start to distinguish if temperature is 60 oC and above.
As conclusion, it can be said the vitamin C are lost because the temperature
is above 60 oC.

Vitamin C is an important nutrient to our body systems. Food

industries must ensure that the contain of vitamin C is enough for customers
beside taste and appearance. To avoid the losses of vitamin C, there are few
ways to maintain this vitamin C in an apple sample. First, low temperature
drying can help this nutrient to lost as vitamin C is heat sensitive. Tray dryer
is not suitable to maintain vitamin C in apple. So, vacuum drying is much
more better because it can retain vitamin C as much as possible. Finally, a
pre-treatment of fresh apple before drying is important as it maintain the
amount of vitamin C during the process.

37
4.3.4 Fourier-Transform Infrared

Functional group analysis purpose is to determine chemical compound in

fresh and dried apple. To identify functional group of apple slice, a device
which FTIR is used to analyze as FTIR act as detecting functional group
present in apple slices. The fresh and dried apple slices were prepared
before undergoes to FTIR scan. Based on the result, fresh and dried apple
will be compared if there is any changes or additional chemical compound in
the samples. The result of fresh apple obtained as in table 4.

Table 4.1 Fresh Apple FTIR Scan Result

Indicator, S= strong, M= medium and W= weak

From the results above, the strongest functional group is carboxylic

acids with molecular motion of O-H stretch. The reason why apple is so tasty
because it got acetal. Furthermore, fresh apple also contains alkenes group
as molecular motion is C=C stretch. Next, apple also have ester group as
molecular motion is C-C(O)-C acetates. Ester in fresh apples cause an
aromatic in cultivar. Lastly, fresh apple slices also contain amines as
molecular motion is C-N stretch alkyl.

Then, there are additional chemical compound occurred in the sample

after drying process. Fingerprint region show organic matter is increasing.
The result of dried apple obtained as in table.

38
 Table 4.2 Dried Apple FTIR Scan Result

From the results of dried apple slices, the major component of apple is
still carboxylic acid with molecular motion of O-H stretch. Acetal functional
group still available even the apple had been dried. Next, apple also still have
ester group as molecular motion is C-C(O)-C acetates which cause aromatic
in cultivar. Lastly, dried apple slices also contain amines as molecular motion
is C-N stretch alkyl.

After drying process, there are additional functional group in dried

apple slices. First, alkanes had appeared because of reaction alkenes and
form C-H stretch. Next, amides group also presence which molecular motion
is C=O stretch. The presence of alkanes and amides is most probably
caused from the high temperature. High temperature will cause the functional
group in apple changes as the oxidation occurred.

As conclusion, there are a few changes when the apple is being dried.
So, the temperature has major influence when apple is being dried. Thus,
there are a bit difference functional group between of fresh and dried apple.

4.3.5 Hardness Texture of Apple

39
Hardness of food is one important things that need to take care in food
industry. Hardness of food must be suitable to the customer when they eat to
give them a pleasure to eat the product. This analysis purpose is to
determine and compare the hardness of fresh and dried apple. The blade
probe was used with in texture analyzer to slice the apple sample. The result
calculated is force, gram per time, second

For fresh apple, three samples have been analyze using texture
analyzer. For test 1, it shows that the result is 6600 g per second. For test 2
and test 3, the results are same which is 9000 g per second. The result for
test 1 is difference than test 2 and test 3. The reason why it not some with
other two because of the thickness of apple slices. It can be assumed that
the apple slice for test 1 is thinner than test 2 and test 3. The average result
for the fresh apple is 8200 g/sec

For dried, three samples have been analyzed with same method. For
test 1, it shows that the result is 12500 g per second. For test 2, the result is
6800 g per second. For test 3, the result is 7500 g per second. It can
conclude that the hardness test 1 is higher compared to other tests because
of difference thickness after being dried. The average result for dried is 8933
g/sec.

As conclusion, this analysis can be concluded that dried apple sample

has more hardness texture compared to the fresh samples. It can be
determined that the effect of the temperature will give the apple sample more
force to be cut as the hardness is higher than fresh apple. The presence of
heat will cost the loss moisture content to the apple and increase the
hardness of the apple.

4.4 Drying Curve

For drying curve, moisture content must be calculated first as it is important

thing to be plotted in that graph. First, moisture content graph must be plotted
first as graph plotted is moisture content, X versus time, minutes. Graph 4.3
shows Moisture Content, X versus Time.

40
 Figure 4.2 Graph of Moisture Content, X versus Time

From the graph above, it shows that the moisture content, X in the
apple decrease from point 1 to point 2 which is from 0 minute to 80 minutes.
However, the moisture content rose up drastically at point 3 which is in 90
minutes. The factor that cost the increasing of moisture content is the air from
outside surrounding had enter to the tray dryer as the tray dryer is not closed
tightly and properly. The other factor that cost moisture increase in that time
is the sample is exposed too much time when it is needed to be weight by
using analytical balance as in the methodology in chapter 3, the weight of the
sample need to be obtained in 10 minutes of interval times. The moisture
then kept decreasing until point 4 which is 210 minutes. The remaining 30
minutes is the moisture content is remained constant and we can assume
that the all moisture in the apple sample is being removed to the air
surrounding.

41
 A

D C

Figure 4.3 Graph of Drying Rate Curve

The graph above shows drying rate curve. Drying rate curve is
obtained by plotting drying rate, R versus moisture content. Theoretically,
drying rate curve is a graph with decline gradient. This graph shows the
decline rate because of the moisture loss in the apple after it being dried in
tray dryer. For point A, it is a mark of the beginning of drying process. It
shows that the graph is declining from point A to point B. It can be assumed
that moisture content is starting to lose from the apple sample. The apple
sample is started changes as the outer surface moisture is lose and moisture
in inner surface will be pushed to the outer surface to keep apple sample still
wet. The point is equilibrium temperature condition in surface of the product.
The constant rate period is happened in point B to point C. In constant rate
period, there is no resistance to moisture transport within the apple sample.
The water vapor or moisture will act if the apple sample is not present. The
surface of apple sample also is wet because of inner surface is pushed to the
outer surface. In this period the water activity is equal to one. The constant
rate period continues as long the amount of moisture evaporates from the
surface in the apple. But in this case the constant rate period is only short
because of the removal of unbound water from apple sample is low.

In point C critical moisture content is identified. This point will indicate

as the end of constant rate period and the rate will become slower. There a
few factors that this critical moisture content is occurred. The factors are

42
thickness of apple sample, drying rate and resistances to heat and mass
transfer within the apple sample. In point C it can also be determined that the
falling rate period is started.

The falling rate period began starting from point C to point E. This
period is achieved when drying rate is started to decrease and surface water
activity of apple sample drop to less than one. The drying rate is governed by
this internal flow of moisture content as it is representing in point C. This
falling rate period occurred because there is not enough water on the surface
of apple sample to maintain water activity value of one. The graph above
shows that falling rate period has two section which is first and second falling
rate period.

The first falling rate period which is from point C to point D occurred
when wet spot in apple surface is continuously diminish until the surface of
the apple is dried. Second rate period begins at point D to point E as the
surface of apple sample is completely dried the evaporation plane recedes
from the surface. Heat is required for removal of moisture and being
transferred through the apple sample and vaporized and the water vapor
moves out into air surrounding. The amount of moisture loss in this period is
even smaller compared to the constant rate and first falling rate period. This
period takes much longer time than constant rate period as the drying rate is
much slower.

43
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Overview

For this chapter, results and discussion has been summarized. The
conclusion can be made after all research has been made. There are also a
few recommendations in the future research for the result improvement that
has been made. The objective of this research is to study drying apple by
using tray dryer. Next, to study the effect of temperature and air flow on the
quality of apple (Moisture Content, Water Activity, Vitamin C, Functional
Group, Hardness and Physical Observation). Finally, to study drying rate
curves of apple drying.

5.2 Conclusion

As conclusion, the food drying by using tray drying are suitable in all scale in
food industries. Tray drying is one of best method for food preservation. For
apple fruit, there are huge changes and differences before and after drying.
For physical observation, there fresh and dried apple slices can be compared
through the color, moisture and shrinkage. Dried apples slice become
brownish and shrink after it had been dry. The moisture also become are not
present after it being dry. For moisture content, the result is acceptable which
the amount of water content is 79.66 %. Next, for vitamin C, the amount
content in that fresh apple is 42 mg per 100 g while for dried apple the result
decrease drastically which is 0.3 mg per 100 g. For functional group analysis,
there are additional and changes compound that were identified of apple
after been dried. For fresh apple, there is carboxylic acids, acetals, alkenes,
ester and amines while dried apple has changes from alkenes to alkanes and
additional amides in the compounds. The texture of apple shows that dried
apple has high hardness compared to the fresh apple. Drying rate curve was

44
being done by using the data that has been obtained during drying process.
We can conclude the tray drying process is achieved but there are changes
of apple properties before and after being dried.

5.3 Recommendation

There are a few recommendations to improvise for the next drying research.
o
First, the tray drying must be heated for 20 to 30 C to stabilize the
temperature before drying process is begun. Next, tray dryer must close
properly to ensure that the flow hot air does not disperse to air surrounding.
To prevent fresh apple slice turns to brownish color, spraying lemon juice will
help apple slice to remain from its color. Besides, to ensure that vitamin C
content is not loss from apple fruit, an alternative drying may help this
problem. As example, freeze drying and vacuum drying will not use any heat
to dry an apple. Other than that, ensure that temperature setup is not above
60 oC also will help vitamin C to maintain its amount. For hardness analysis,
ensure that the sample used is in same thickness and size to obtain constant
result.

45
 REFERENCES

Akpınar, E.K. and Y. Bicer. (2003). Modeling and experimental study on

drying of apple slices in a convective cyclone dryer. Journal of Food
Process Engineering 26:515-541.

Arnarson, A. (2004, October 11). Apples 101: Nutrition Facts and Health
Benefits. Retrieved from healthline:
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/foods/apples#section1

Ball, K. (2008). PERCENTAGE WATER CONTENT OF FRUITS AND

VEGETABLES, (February), 1–2.

Bialobrzewski, I. 2006. Simultaneous heat and mass transfer in shrinkage

apple slab during drying. Drying Technology. 24:551-559.

Bradley, R. L. (2010). Moisture and Total Solids Analysis. Food Analysis.

https://doi.org/10.1038/1841347a0

Dikbasan, T. (2007). Determination of effective parameters for drying of

apples. Izmir Institute of Technology, (December), 70.

Eliçin, A.K. and K. Saçılık. 2005. An experimental study for solar tunnel
drying of apple. Ankara Üniversitesi Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi 11(2):207-
211

Falade, K.O., Akinwale, T.O. and O.O. Adedokun. 2003. Effect of drying
methods on osmotically dehydrated cashew apples. European Food
Research & Technology 216:500-504.

46
Freshfel, E. F. P. A. (2015). World Production of Fruits and Vegetables,
32(August), 49–52.

Gül, M. and M. G. Akpınar. 2006. An assessment of developments in fruit

production in the world and Turkey. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Ziraat
FakültesiDergisi 19(1):15-27.

Harrison;, J. A., & Andress, E. L. (1914). Preserving Food: Drying Fruits and
Vegetables. University of Georgia. Retrieved from
http://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/uga/uga_dry_fruit.pdf

Jayaraman, K.S. and D.K.D. Gupta. 2006. Drying of fruits and vegetables. In
Handbook of industrial drying, ed. by Arun S. Mujumdar, 606-631 CRC
Press.

Kaya, A., Aydın, O. and C. Demirtaş. 2007. Drying kinetics of red delicious
apple.Biosystems Engineering 96(4):517-524.

Mandala, I.G., Anagnostaras, E.F. and C.K. Oikonomou. 2005. Influence of

osmotic dehydration conditions on apple air-drying kinetics and their
quality characteristics. Journal of Food Engineering 69:307-316

Mavroudis, N.E., Gekas, V. and I. Sjöholm. 1998. Osmotic dehydration of

apple. Shrinkage phenomena and the initial structure on mass transfer
rates. Journal of Food Engineering 38:101-123.

Mujumdar, Arun S. 2006. Principles, classification, and selection of dryers. In

Handbook of Industrial Drying, ed Arun S. Mujumdar, 4-31. CRC
Press.

National Institute of Health. (2016, February 11). U.S Department of Health &
Human Service. Retrieved from National Institute of Health:
https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminC-HealthProfessional/#en8

Nummer, B. A. (2002, May). Historical Origins of Food Preservation.

Retrieved from The National Center for Home Food Preservation:
http://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/nchfp/factsheets/food_pres_hist.html

47
Ozilgen, M., Giiveng, G., Makaracl, M., & Tiimer, I. (1995). Colour change
and weight loss of apple slices during drying. Zeitschrift Far
Lebensmittel-Untersuchung Und -Forschung, 201(1), 40–45.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01193199

Parikh, D. M. (2014, april 1). Solids Drying: Basics and Applications.

Retrieved from CHEMICAL ENGINEERING online:
http://www.chemengonline.com/solids-drying-basics-and-applications/

Parikh, D. M. (2015). Vacuum Drying : Basics and Application some

guidelines for the selection and use of various types of vacuum dryers,
(april).

Ramya, V., & Jain, N. K. (2017). A Review on Osmotic Dehydration of Fruits

and Vegetables: An Integrated Approach. Journal of Food Process
Engineering, 40(3), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12440

Rizvi, Syed. S. H., 1995. Thermodynamic properties of foods in dehydration.

In Engineering Properties of foods, ed M.A. Rao and Syed.S.H. Rizvi,
223-309. New York: Marcel Dekker.

Sablani, S. (2006). Drying of fruits and vegetable: Retention of

nutritional/functional quality. Dry Technol., 24: 123-125.

Schultz, E.L., Mazzuco, M.M., Machado, R.A.F., Bolzan, A., Quadri, M.B. and
M.G.N. Quadri. 2007. Effect of pre-treatments on drying, density and
shrinkage of apple slices. Journal of Food Engineering 78:1103-1110.

Sokhansanj, Shahab and Jayas, Digvir S. 2006. Drying of Foodstuffs. In

Handbook of Industrial Drying, ed Arun S. Mujumdar, 522-545. CRC
Press.

Tortoe, C., Orchard, J. and A. Beezer. 2007. Osmotic dehydration kinetics of

apple, banana and potato. International Journal of Food Science and
Technology 42(3):312-318.

48
Velić, D., Planinić, M., Tomas, S. and M. Bilić. 2004. Influence of airflow
velocity on kinetics of convection apple drying. Journal of Food
Engineering 64:97-102.

Wang, D. (2016). PREDICTION OF TEXTURE CHARACTERISTICS IN

APPLE DRYING USING COMPUTER VISION, (July)

Wang, Z., Sun, J., Liao, X., Chen, F., Zhao, G., Wu, J. and X. Hu, 2007a.
Mathematical Modeling on hot air drying of thin layer apple pomace.
Food Research International 40:39-46.

Weil, A. (2012). Vitamin C Benefits - What Does Vitamin C Do? | Vitamin C

Foods | Dr. Weil. Retrieved November 14, 2017, from
https://www.drweil.com/vitamins-supplements-herbs/vitamins/vitamin-
cbenefits/

Yvonne Appoldt, G. R. (2017, february 3). Determining Moisture Content.

Retrieved from Food Quality & Safety:
http://www.foodqualityandsafety.com/article/determining-
moisturecontent/

49
 APPENDICES

Initial and Final Mass

Parameter of Drying

50
Drying data obtained

Moisture Content Calculation

weight of moisture=[ ( 47.7 g ) −( 9.7 g ) ]

¿ 38 g

Thus, the result

51
 38.0 g
moisture content ( )= ×100
47.7 g

¿ 79.66

Fresh apple spectroscopy data

52
Dried apple spectroscopy data

53
Functional group data

54
Texture analyzer data (Fresh Apple)

55
56
57
Texture analyser data (dried apple)

58
59