Learning Theories 2 Behaviorism PDF

FACILITATING LEARNING &
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

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LEARNING THEORIES
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BEHAVIORISTS
• Ivan Pavlov
• E.L. Thorndike
• B.F. Skinner
• Edward Tolman
• John Watson
IVAN PAVLOV
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• “Classical” in that it is the first systematic study of
basic laws of learning.
• Involves learning to associate an unconditioned

stimulus that already brings abut a particular
response with a new stimulus, so that the new
stimulus brings abut the same response.
EXPERIMENT: Ivan Pavlov was measuring stomach
secretions as the dog’s response to such things as
meat powder when he noticed that the mere sight
of food caused the dog to salivate.
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• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
• Unconditioned Response (UCR)
• Conditioned Response (CR)
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS):
A stimulus that automatically elicits a response
without any prior conditioning or learning.
• Unconditioned Response (UCR):

That response that occurs automatically to the UCS.
It is an unlearned reaction/response to an UCS
without previous conditioning.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
Is a previously neutral stimulus that, through pairing
with the UCS, also eventually elicits a response.
• Conditioned Response (CR):

That response that occurs to the Conditioned
Stimulus (CS). It is a learned reaction/response to
the CS.
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• Neutral Stimuli
Stimuli that have no effect on a particular response.
• Classical conditioning
The process of repeatedly associating a previously
neutral stimulus with an US in order to evoke a CR.
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EXTINCTION
• A CR depends on a US for its existence, and that is
precisely why the US is referred to as a reinforcer.
• If after a CR has been developed, the CS is

continually presented without the US following the
CS, experimental extinction is said to have occurred.
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DISCRIMINATION
• The opposite of generalization is discrimination.
• Tendency to respond to a very restricted range of

stimuli or to only the one used during training.
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STIMULUS/RESPONSE
• Stimulus – event that activates behavior
• Response – Observable reaction to a stimulus
*Contiguity – Association of two events because of

repeated pairing.
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EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE
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CONNECTIONISM
• Behavior as a response to stimuli in the environment
(S-R Theory).
• Association between sense impressions and impulses

to actions; neutral connection between stimuli and
responses.
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EXPERIMENT: Thorndike (1898) studied learning in
animals (usually cats). He devised a classic experiment
in which he used a puzzle box to empirically test the
laws of learning.
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LEARNING LAWS OF THORNDIKE
(1) LAW OF EFFECT
(2) LAW OF READINESS
(3) LAW OF EXERCISE
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LAW OF EFFECT
(1) LAW OF EFFECT - responses to a situation which are
followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be
strengthened and become habitual responses to that
situation;
Strengthening or weakening of connection as a result of

consequences of response:
– Satisfying state of affairs: increase in strength of behavior.
– Annoying state of affairs: decrease in strength of behavior.
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LAW OF READINESS
(2) LAW OF READINESS - a series of responses can be
chained together to satisfy some goal which will
result in annoyance if blocked.
– When one is ready to perform, to do so is satisfying.

– When one is ready to perform, not to do so is annoying.
– When one is not ready to perform, being forced to perform
is annoying.
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LAW OF EXERCISE
(3) LAW OF EXERCISE - connections become
strengthened with practice and weakened when
practice is discontinued. A corollary of the law of
effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood
of achieving a rewarding state (i.e., punishments,
failures) will decrease in strength.
Law of use: Exercising S-R connection strengthens it.

Law of disuse: Not exercising S-R connection weakens
it. 21
B. F. SKINNER
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OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Means roughly changing of behaviour by the use of
reinforcement which is given after the desired
response
• Dealt only with observable behaviour
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EXPERIMENT: Skinner studied operant conditioning by
conducting experiments using animals which he placed
in a “Skinner Box” which was similar to Thorndike’s
puzzle box.
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Skinner identified three types of responses or operant
that can follow behaviour.
Neutral operants: responses from the environment

that neither increase nor decrease the probability of
a behaviour being repeated
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• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that
increase the probability of a behaviour being
repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or
negative.
• Punishers: Response from the environment that

decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being
repeated. Punishment weakens behaviour.
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The use of pleasant or unpleasant consequences to
control the occurrence of behavior.
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OPERANT CONDITIONING TECHNIQUES
• POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a

behavior by administering a reward
• NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a
behavior by removing an aversive stimulus
when a behavior occurs
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• TYPE I PUNISHMENT (PRESENTATION

PUNISHMENT) – Decreasing the chances that a
behavior will occur again by presenting an aversive
stimulus following the behavior.
• TYPE II PUNISHMENT (REMOVAL PUNISHMNET) –

Decreasing the chances that a behavior will occur
again by removing a pleasant stimulus following the
behavior.
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ANTECEDENTS AND BEHAVIOR CHANGE
• PUNISHMENT = decreasing a behavior by

administering an aversive stimulus following a
behavior OR by removing a positive stimulus
• Cueing – Providing a stimulus that sets up a desired

behavior.
• Prompting – a reminder that follows a cue to make

sure the person reacts to the cue.
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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
• Reinforcement is necessary in operant behavior.
• Reinforcement schedules:
continuous
fixed and variable
ratio and interval
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• Interval schedules:
reinforcement occurs after a certain amount of time
has passed
• Fixed Interval
reinforcement is presented after a fixed amount of
time
• Variable Interval
reinforcement is delivered on a random/variable
time schedule
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• Ratio schedules: reinforcement occurs after a
certain number of responses
• Fixed Ratio = reinforcement presented after a fixed
number of responses
• Variable Ratio = reinforcement delivery is variable
but based on an overall average number of
responses
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• EXTINCTION = decreasing a behavior by not

rewarding it.
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LIMITED EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT
• Punishment does not teach appropriate behaviors
• Must be delivered immediately & consistently
• May result in negative side effects
• Undesirable behaviors may be learned through
modeling (aggression)
• May create negative emotions (anxiety & fear)
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METHODS FOR ENCOURAGING
BEHAVIOR
• PREMACK PRINCIPLE – Principle stating that a more-
preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-
preferred activity.
• SHAPING – Reinforcing each small step of progress
toward a desired goal or behavior.
• TASK ANALYSIS – System for breaking down a task
hierarchically into basic skills and subskills.
• POSITIVE PRACTICE – Practicing correct responses
immediately after errors.
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HANDLING UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIORS
• REPRIMANDS – criticisms for misbehavior.
• RESPONSE COST – Punishment by loss of reinforcers.
• SOCIAL ISOLATION – Removal of a disruptive student
for 5 to 10 minutes.
• TIME OUT – The removal of all reinforcement.
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JOHN WATSON
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BEHAVIORISM
• Watson believed that all individual differences in
behaviour were due to different experiences of
learning
• Watson proposed that the process of classical

conditioning (based on Pavlov’s observations) was
able to explain all aspects of human psychology.
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EXPERIMENT: “LITTLE ALBERT”
"Little Albert" was a 9-month-old infant who was
tested on his reactions to various stimuli.
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EDWARD C. TOLMAN
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PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
• Attempts to explain goal-directed behavior.
• Other behaviorists described behaviors in animals in

terms of observations.
• Tolman described behaviors as purposive, or goal-

directed.
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SIGN LEARNING
• Stimulus-Stimulus Associations:
an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal; I.e.,
learning is acquired through meaningful behaviors.
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SIGN LEARNING
• A new stimulus becomes associated with already
meaningful stimuli through a series of pairings.
• There is no need for reinforcement for learning to

occur.
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SIGN LEARNING
• Cognitive Map- the animal creates a picture of the
environment in his mind through the exploration of
the environment.
• Vicarious Trial- When the animal comes to a choice

point in a maze, he thinks which way to go.
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5 TYPES OF LEARNING
• Approach Learning
• Escape Learning
• Avoidance Learning
• Choice-Point Learning
• Latent Learning- learning that occurs in the absence
of an obvious reward
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PRINCIPLES
• Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.
• Learning often always involves the use of

environmental factors to achieve a goal.
• Organisms will choose the shortest/easiest path to

achieve a goal.
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FACILITATING LEARNING &

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT

• Involves learning to associate an unconditioned

• Unconditioned Response (UCR):

• Conditioned Response (CR):

• If after a CR has been developed, the CS is

• Tendency to respond to a very restricted range of

*Contiguity – Association of two events because of

• Association between sense impressions and impulses

(2) LAW OF READINESS

(3) LAW OF EXERCISE

Strengthening or weakening of connection as a result of

– When one is ready to perform, to do so is satisfying.

Law of use: Exercising S-R connection strengthens it.

• Dealt only with observable behaviour

Neutral operants: responses from the environment

• Punishers: Response from the environment that

• POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT = increasing a

• TYPE I PUNISHMENT (PRESENTATION

• TYPE II PUNISHMENT (REMOVAL PUNISHMNET) –

• PUNISHMENT = decreasing a behavior by

• Cueing – Providing a stimulus that sets up a desired

• Prompting – a reminder that follows a cue to make

• EXTINCTION = decreasing a behavior by not

• Watson proposed that the process of classical

• Other behaviorists described behaviors in animals in

• Tolman described behaviors as purposive, or goal-

• There is no need for reinforcement for learning to

• Vicarious Trial- When the animal comes to a choice

• Learning often always involves the use of

• Organisms will choose the shortest/easiest path to

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