HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

HARAMAYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

LABORATORY MANUAL

Department of Food Science and Postharvest

Technology
Engineering Properties of Food Materials

By Kelali Mehari
(Saymon(BSc.)

December, 2019

This Manual is prepared for the Laboratory facilities the FSPT program has. Some of the
Exercises may be added in the future in line with the laboratory capacity development.
Currently there are no equipments that can be used for the measurement and testing of
thermal, electrical, dielectric and acoustical properties of foods and related other parameters.

Laboratory Manual for Engineering Properties of Foods (FSPT 2082), Page 2

Table of Contents

List of Figures............................................................................................................................... 2
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ 2
1. Volume and Density ........................................................................................................................ 3
2. Estimation of size of particulate foods ................................................................................... 13
3. Estimation of shape (roundness of food particles) ......................................................................... 18
4. Viscosity determination of liquid and pasty foods ................................................................... 21

List of Figures

Figure 1-1: Typical Liquid displacement method for volume measurement ...................................... 6
Figure 1-2: Typical solid displacement method for volume measurement ....................................... 7
Figure 2-1: A typical Digital Caliper for the measurement of size and shape parameters ..................14
Figure 2-2: Sieve sets for particle size distribution analysis of particulate Foods ............................. 15
Figure 2-3: Typical sketch of particle distribution .................................................................. 17
Figure 4-1: Brookfield Viscometer .................................................................................... 22

List of Tables

Table 1-1: Volume of various regularly-shaped 3D shapes.......................................................................... 4

Table 1-2: Liquid-displacement methods to determine volumes of various irregularly-shaped food
samples ...................................................................................................... 9
Table 2-1: Dimensions of seeds of Food Grains............................................................ 16
Table 2-2: Particle size distributions parameters (weight basis) ...............................................16
Table 3-1: Sphericity of different food samples determined by volume method .............................20

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 Laboratory Exercise

1. Volume and Density

1.1 Volume Determination
1.1.1 Background

Volume is defined as the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by an object, usually

expressed in units that are the cubes of length units, such as cubic inches and cubic centimeters,
or in units of liquid measure, such as gallons and liters. In the SI system, the unit of volume is
m3. It is an important quality attribute in the food industry. It appeals to the eye, and is related to
other quality parameters. For instance, it is inversely correlated with texture. Volume of solids
can be determined by using the following methods:

 Volume can be calculated from the characteristic dimensions in the case of objects
withregular shape.
 Volumes of solids can be determined experimentally by liquid, gas, or solid displacement
methods.
 Volume can be measured by the image processing method. An image processing method
has been recently developed to measure volume of ellipsoidal agricultural products such
as eggs, lemons, limes, and peaches
Table 1-1: Volume of various regularly-shaped 3D shapes

Names of 3D 3D Shapes Volume Formulas for 3D Shapes (in

Shapes cubic units)

a3
Cube
Where : a = side of cube

l×w×h

Cuboid
Where : l = Length, w = Width and h =
Height of cuboid

43 π (r)3
Sphere
Where: r = Radius of Sphere

π (r)2 h

Cylinder
Where: r = Radius and h = Height of
Cylinder

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 13 π (r)2 h
Cone
Where: r = Radius and h = Height of cone

Ah

Prism
Where: A = Area of base and h = Height of
Prism

13 Ah
Pyramid Where A = Area of base and h = Height of
Pyramid

1.1.1.1 Liquid Displacement Method

Liquid displacement method can be used to measure the volume of food samples which are not
absorbing the liquid very fast (intact grain legumes). In this method, volume of food materials
can be measured by pycnometers (specific gravity bottles) or graduated cylinders.

The volume of a sample can be measured by direct measurement of volume of the liquid
displaced by using a graduated cylinder or burette. The difference between the initial volume of
liquid in a graduated cylinder and the volume of liquid with immersed material gives us the
volume of the material. That is, the increase in volume after addition of solid sample is equal to
the solid volume.

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Figure 1-1: Typical Liquid displacement method for volume measurement

In the liquid displacement method, liquids used should have a low surface tension and should be
absorbed very slowly by the particles. Most commonly used fluids are water, alcohol, toluene,
and tetrachloroethylene. For displacement, it is better to use a non-wetting fluid such as mercury.
Coating of a sample with a film or paint may be required to prevent liquid absorption.

1.1.1.2 Gas Displacement Method

Volumes of particulate solids and materials with irregular shape can be determined by
displacement of gas or air in pycnometer. The most commonly used gases are helium and
nitrogen. Volume is determined based on the ideal gas law.

1.1.1.3 Solid Displacement Method

The volume of irregular solids can also be measured by sand, glass bead, or seed displacement
method. Rapeseeds are commonly used for determination of volume of baked products such as
bread. In the rapeseed method, first the bulk density of rapeseeds is determined by filling a glass
container of known volume uniformly with rapeseeds through tapping and smoothing the surface

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with a ruler. All measurements are done until the constant weight is reached between the
consecutive measurements.

Figure 1-2: Typical solid displacement method for volume measurement

The densities of the seeds are calculated from the measured weight of the seeds and volume of
the container. Then, the sample and rapeseeds are placed together in the container. The container
is tapped and the surface is smoothed with a ruler. Tapping and smoothing are continued until a
constant weight is reached between three consecutive measurements. The volume of the sample
is calculated as follows:

MSeeds  MTotal  MSample  MContainer

M
VSeeds  Seeds
Seeds

VSample  VContainer VSeeds

Where: M=Mass (kg), V=Volume (m3), ρ= Density (kg/m3)

1.1.2 Equipments and Consumables

Samples/Consumables

 Carrot roots, green pepper, green beans, lemon fruits, grape fruits, onion bulbs (smaller
ones), garlic cloves and so on.
 Breads and other baked or fried foods

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Equipments/Materials

 Calipers, graduated measuring cylinders, trays, beakers and buckets, Rulers and spatulas

1.1.3 Procedures

1. Clean the food samples by washing and cutting of the tips (stems and roots).
2. Measure volume of water in a graduated cylinder (about half of its maximum volume) and
record it as V1; carefully read to the meniscus (Figure 1-1).
3. Gently put a single average-sized food sample in the cylinder containing the liquid of known
volume (V1); carefully read and record the new volume as V2.
4. Repeat procedures 2 and 3 above for varieties of food samples and compute their volumes in a
table of the following format.
5. Use the equation below to calculate the sample volumes:

VSamples  V2  V1

Where V1 is volume of liquid and V2 is volume of liquid and sample

6. Prepare and clean rape seeds of about 1000 ml volume and fill them into a container of know
volume (e.g. 1 L beaker) leveling them with a ruler or spatula.
7. Prepare another container of similar volume and pour one-third of the seeds to the second
container.
8. Put the baked/fried food sample carefully in the center of the container as demonstrated in the
Figure 1-2 above with care not to leave air space in the container.
9. Pour the remaining seeds to the second container carefully without disturbing the position of
the sample, but filling to the same level in the first container avoiding any spills.
10. Measure the volume of the left-over seed in a graduated cylinder; which is equivalent to the
volume of the baked/fried food sample.
11. Express all the volumes in the SI unit (m3) (1 ml = 0.000001 m3).

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Table 1-2: Liquid-displacement methods to determine volumes of various irregularly-shaped food samples

Volume of Liquid Volume of Liquid + Volume of Food Volume of Food sample

No. Food Sample
(ml) Sample (ml) sample (ml) (m^3)
1 Carrot (Daucus carota)
2 Lemon (Citrus limon)
3 Onion (Allium cepa)
4 Garlic (Allium sativum)
5 Green pepper (Capsicum annuum)
6 Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
 1.1.4 Discussion Questions

1) What are the required characteristics of foods to measure volumes using liquid displacement
methods?
2) Mention some liquids used in the liquid displacement techniques of volume measurement.
3) How do you compare the characteristics of foods that are suitable for the solid displacement
with those suitable for liquid displacement?

1.2 Determination of Apparent and Bulk Densities

1.2.1 Background

Quality of food materials can be assessed by measuring their densities. Density data of foods are
required in separation processes, such as centrifugation and sedimentation and in pneumatic and
hydraulic transport of powders and particulates. In addition, measuring the density of liquid is
required to determine the power required for pumping.

Density is one of the most important mechanical properties and so is widely used in process calculations.
It is defined as mass per unit volume:

Mass m
Density  
Volume V

The SI unit of density is kg/m3. Different clearly explained forms of density are known and used in
process calculations and characterizing food products.

Apparent Density: Apparent density (ρa) is the density of a substance including all pores
remaining in the material. Examples can be the densities of grain kernels including the pores
inside each.

Bulk Density: Bulk density (ρB) is the density of a material when packed or stacked in bulk. The
bulk density of packed materials depends on the geometry, size, and surface properties of
individual particles. Example for bulk density can be the density of grain bulk in a package
including the air space among kernels due to their shape.

Bulk density is less than the apparent density as the space among kernels in most cases is larger
than the space within each kernel. You will exercise on estimating the densities of wheat and
maize in this laboratory.
 1.2.2 Materials and Equipments
 Consumables
o Water
o Wheat and other food Samples including roots and vegetables.
o Maize
 Equipments and utensils
o Analytical Balance
o Graduated beakers/cylinders

1.2.3 Procedure

1. Weigh about 80-120 gram of the grain (wheat for some group and maize for others) using
analytical balance and record the weight as M. express the mass in SI units.

Bulk density (ρB)

2. Measure the volume of the grain bulk approximately using beakers/cylinders, record it as
V0 and convert the unit to SI (m3), (1 mL = 0.000001 m3).

3. Calculate the bulk density by dividing the mass (M) of the grain by its volume (V0).
M
B 
V0

Apparent density (ρa)

4. Measure the volume of the grain using liquid displacement method; i.e. measure about
200-250 mL of tap water in to a 400 mL beaker/cylinder and record as V1.

5. Transfer the weighed grain into the beaker/cylinder containing the water.

6. Record the new volume of the water in the beaker/cylinder as V2.

7. Determine the volume of the grain by subtracting volume of the water from volume of
the water and grain (i.e. V2 – V1). Express the volume in SI units (1 mL = 0.000001 m3).

8. Calculate the apparent density of the grain by dividing the mass of the grain (M) by the
volume (V2 – V1).

M
a 
V2  V1

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 9. Compare ρB and ρa for both maize and wheat

1.2.4 Discussion Questions:

2. Which of the forms of density is larger and why is this so?

3. Which of the grains has larger densities and what does this indicate?

4. How do porosity (air space) and density related?

5. What do you understand from this laboratory exercise?

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 Laboratory Exercise

2. Estimation of size of particulate foods

2.1 Background

Size is an important physical attribute of foods used in screening solids to separate foreign materials,
grading of fruits and vegetables, and evaluating the quality of food materials. In fluid flow, and heat and
mass transfer calculations, it is necessary to know the size of the sample. Size of the particulate foods is
also critical. For example, particle size of powdered milk must be large enough to prevent
agglomeration, but small enough to allow rapid dissolution during reconstitution. Particle size was found
to be inversely proportional to dispersion of powder and water holding capacity of whey protein
powders (Resch & Daubert, 2001).

It is easy to specify size for regular particles, but for irregular particles the term size must be arbitrarily
specified. Particle sizes are expressed in different units depending on the size range involved. Coarse
particles are measured in millimeters, fine particles in terms of screen size, and very fine particles in
micrometers or nanometers.

Size can be determined using the projected area method. In this method, three characteristic
dimensions are defined:
i. Major diameter, which is the longest dimension of the maximum projected area
ii. Intermediate diameter, which is the minimum diameter of the maximum projected area or the
maximum diameter of the minimum projected area; and
iii. Minor diameter, which is the shortest dimension of the minimum projected area.

Length, width, and thickness terms are commonly used that correspond to major, intermediate, and minor
diameters, respectively. The dimensions can be measured using a micrometer or caliper (Figure 3 below). The
micrometer is a simple instrument used to measure distances between surfaces.

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Most micrometers have a frame, anvil, spindle, sleeve, thimble, and ratchet stop. They are used to
measure the outside diameters, inside diameters, the distance between parallel surfaces, and the depth
of holes.

Particle size of particulate foods can be determined by sieve analysis, passage through an electrically
charged orifice, and settling rate methods. Particle size distribution analyzers, which determine both the
size of particles and their state of distribution, are used for production control of powders.

Determination of major, intermediate and minor diameters of some grain seeds (using digital caliper)
and determination of particle size distribution of certain particulate foods (using sieve sets) will be
exercised in this particular laboratory session.

Figure 2-1: A typical Digital Caliper for the measurement of size and shape parameters

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Figure 2-2: Sieve sets for particle size distribution analysis of particulate Foods

2.2 Materials and Equipment

 Food Samples
o Seeds of different grains (cereals and legumes)for major and minor diameter
measurement
o Powders (for sieve size distribution)
 Digital Calipers
 Electrically operating sieves of different mesh sizes
 Balance (digital)

2.3 Procedures

2.3.1 Size of seeds

1. Clean the jaws of the calipers and set the measurement to zero mm
2. Select representative seeds of the different grains and measure the three dimensions:

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 a. Major diameter: the longest dimension in the maximum projected area
b. Intermediate: minimum diameter of the maximum projected area or the maximum
diameter of the minimum projected area
c. Minor diameter: the shortest dimension of the minimum projected area
3. Record the measurements in a Table of the following format:

Table 2-1: Dimensions of seeds of Food Grains

No. Grain type Diameter (mm)
Major Intermediate Minor
1 Broad beans
2 Lentils
3 Maize
4 Peas
5 Wheat
6 Rice (polished)
7 Chickpea
8 Barley

4. Compare the size of the different grains

2.3.2 Particle size distribution of powders

1. Arrange the sieves of the analyser in its increasing mesh size from bottom to top and load it
properly
2. Weigh the powder samples and put it on the largest sieve size.
3. Put on the sieve vibrator and allow it to shake for sufficiently long time (until there is no more
particles passing any of the sieves)
4. Collect the samples left on each sieve carefully and weigh them separately.
5. Record the original sample weight and the distribution samples separately in a Table of the
following Format.
6. Calculate the percent of particles retained on each mesh size using the formula:
Weightof Retained particles
% Retained  100
Weightof OriginalSample

Table 2-2: Particle size distributions parameters (weight basis)

Original 710 500 250 <250 200
Sample
Weight (gm)
Retained
Particles (%)

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 7. Sketch the Size distribution of the sample (% of particles retained versus the mesh size) as show
in the figure below.

a) 70.0
% of retained particles

60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
200 < 250 250 500 710

Figure 2-3: Typical sketch of particle distribution

2.4 Discussion Questions

The following questions are designed to help you discuss the result of this particular demonstration:

1. Which of the grains have the largest seed size and which ones have the smallest?
2. Which of the dimensions apply for which grains?
3. Which of the seeds have large difference among the measured dimensions?
4. On which mesh size did the most particle size retained?
5. Where do you think will the size distribution analysis applicable?

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 Laboratory Exercise

3. Estimation of shape (roundness of food particles)

3.1 Background

Shape is also important in heat and mass transfer calculations, screening solids to separate foreign
materials, grading of fruits and vegetables, and evaluating the quality of food materials. The shape of a
food material is usually expressed in terms of its sphericity and aspect ratio.

Sphericity is an important parameter used in fluid flow and heat and mass transfer calculations.
Sphericity or shape factor can be defined in different ways. According to the most commonly used
definition, sphericity is the ratio of volume of solid to the volume of a sphere that has a diameter equal
to the major diameter of the object so that it can circumscribe the solid sample.

 Volumeof solid sample  31

Sphericity   Volumecircumscribed sphere 
 

The volume of the sphere is given by the following formula and that of the solid sample will be
determined by a liquid displacement method.

Bayram (2005) proposed another equation to calculate sphericity as:

 D D 
2


i

DN 
 2

Where: Di = any measured dimension (m), D = average dimension or equivalent diameter (m), N =
number of measurements (larger N implies better accuracy)

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 According to this formula, equivalent diameter for irregular shape material is accepted as the average
dimension. Differences between average diameter and measured dimensions are determined by the
sum of square of differences. When this difference is divided by the square of product of the average
diameter and number of measurements, it gives a fraction for the approach of the slope to an
equivalent sphere, which is sphericity. The Bayram’s formula will be used in this laboratory exercise to
see the spherisity of different seeds. The dimensions will be measured using the digital caliper (Figure 2-
1).

3.2 Materials and Equipment

 Food Samples: (grains) used in Laboratory Number 2 above (Table 2-1)

 Equipment: Calipers

3.3 Procedures

A) For Larger Food Samples (Fruits, Vegetables, Roots, Tubers)

1. Clean and prepare food Samples (Fruits and vegetables)

2. Calibrate the caliper and measure the major diameter (the longest dimension in the maximum
projected area) for each type of the samples.
3. Record the measurement and use it to calculate the volume of a sphere with the same diameter
as the major diameter of the fruit. Use the following formula for the calculation:
4
VSphere  r3
3
4. Measure the volume of the food sample using a liquid displacement method and convert the
unit to the same as the one used for the sphere calculated under procedure 3 above (1 milliliter
= 1 000 cubic millimeter)
5. Calculate the sphericity of the food sample using the following formula:

 Volumeof solid sample 31

Sphericity   Volumecircumscribed sphere 
 


6. Summarize the data in a Table of the following format:

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 Table 3-1: Sphericity of different food samples determined by volume method
No. Food Samples Major Diameter Volume of a sphere Sphericity of the
(mm) with equivalent di (m3) food samples
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

B) Grains and seeds

1. Compare the different food samples in terms of their sphericity.

2. Which of the samples had the largest sphericity?
3. What do the sphericity values mean?
4. Select representative seed samples (as many as possible) and measure the dimensions (Major,
intermediate and minor diameters) and record them carefully.
5. Compute the average dimensions
6. Calculate the sum of square of difference.
7. Compute the sphericity of the samples by dividing the squared difference by the squared
product of the average dimension and the number of measurements (Bayram’s equations).

3.4 Discussion Questions

1. How do you explain sphericity?

2. How do you explain the sphericity of the sample, compare it with the values of similar samples
in the literatures
3. Which of the grain samples has the largest and the smallest sphericity values
4. Explain the application of sphericity of food particulates in processing.

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 Laboratory Exercise

4. Viscosity determination of liquid and pasty foods

4.1 Background

Viscosity is a term used to describe resistance to flow at a particular temperature. A liquid with a high
internal resistance to flow is described as having a high viscosity (such as honey at room temperature). A
liquid with a low internal resistance to flow is described as having a viscosity (such as water at room
temperature). The internal resistance being referred to is related to the ability for molecules to
rearrange and move past each other. This rearrangement is necessary for flow. Liquids make up of small
molecules have a low viscosity, and liquids with long chain molecules (such as plastics) have a much
higher viscosity. The viscosity of materials generally decreases with increasing temperature. This is true
of plastics. Plastics also generally decrease in viscosity with increasing shear. Shear is created when
Twisting or sliding motion is imposed on a material; such as when plastic is being melted in extrusion or
injection molding by the rotation of the screw while the barrel remains stationary.

Knowledge of the flow properties of foods is very important in designing handling (transportation) and
processing equipment. It is also important to determine the quality of liquid and semi-solid foods. It is
useful to know the flow properties of liquids to determine the amount of energy in mixing, cooling and
standardization processes.

There are different techniques of viscosity measurement. The most commonly used viscosity
measurement devices are capillary flow viscometers, orifice type viscometers, falling ball viscometers,
and rotational viscometers. In the current exercise, a Brookfield viscometer (Figure 4-1) with rotating
spindles will be used to measure viscosities of different fluids at a specified temperature.

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Figure 4-1: Brookfield Viscometer

4.2 Materials and Equipment

 Food Samples: Semisolid foods or beverages

o (batter, catsup, yoghurt, pulpy juices, clear juices, water)
 Equipments:
o Thermometer
o Viscometer

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 4.3 Procedures

1. Prepare about 400 mL of the Food samples in a 500 mL capacity beaker.

2. Choose the appropriate spindle and carefully attach it to the shaft.
3. Select the appropriate speed and turn on the motor.
4. Weight until the speed and spindle combination is optimized (<10% of full scale).
5. Record the reading and turn the motor off.
6. Change the shear rate (RPM) of the shaft to see the change in the viscosity.
7. Remove the sample and clean the spindles.
8. Repeat steps 1-7 above for all the samples

4.4 Discussion Questions

1. What factors affect the viscosity measurement of Samples?

2. Which of the samples showed changes in the viscosity as the shear rate was changing?
3. What kind of change (Increase or decrease) was observed for the samples exhibiting variable
viscosity with shear rate?
4. Which of the samples retained constant viscosity regardless of the changing shear rate?
5. How do you categorize the samples based on their flow behavior?

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