Sections of writing are marked off into paragraphs signaled by indentation.

A new paragraph normally

signals to the reader ai shift in perspective. It means that the writer will now begin to discuss a different
aspect of the subject at hand. Look, for exam ple, at the composition on reactions to foreigners on page
27. Note that this student changed paragraphs with each new cate gory of person he discussed. But in
English not every sentencei should begin a new paragraph, even though in a sense every sentence is a
new idea. Instead, group sentences into categories of ideas, each paragraph 1s a group of sentences on
a related idea. Paragraphs in English vary in length, but most are several sentences long, rather than just
one or two. Each time you begin a new paragraph, indent, that is, leave blank about an inch of space
from the left-hand margin (five spaces if you are typing).

Left-hand margins are usually printed on lined paper. Do not i write beyond that margin. There are no
right-hand margins marked on the paper, but maintain an imaginary margin of one-i half to one inch on
the right side. Do not try to squeeze words in; they will be too hard to read. Do not squeeze words into
the bot-i tom line of your paper either. In typed papers, keep a margin of about one inch on all four
edges of the paper.

The first page typically has the title in the middle of the top line, then a blank line, then the beginning of
the text (with the first line indented). Usually the first page is not numbered. Subse-i quent pages may
be numbered at the top or the bottom of the page, either in the middle or on the right-hand side. After
thei first page, most people skip the very top line and begin writing on the next line. In formal papers,
write only on one side of thei page. Your papers should look something like those shown in Figure 4.1. It
is not necessary to follow this format in a first draft, because you will be rewriting the draft later
anyway. On the otheri hand, some people like to see neat copies even of their first i drafts. If you are
such a person, you may want to follow this for-i mat now and become accustomed to writing this way. If
not, youl may refer to this section when you are writing subsequent

Journal suggestions

How do people in the community where you are now livino react when they find out where you are
from? Try to think of all the different types of reactions you have seen. Is there any pattern that you can
see in the types of people who have various reactions? What kinds of stereotypes do people here have
about your country? Did any of these stereotypes surprise you? Do any of them correspond at all to
reality? What do you find difficult to understand about U.S. culture? What would your friends and family
back home find difficult to understand about this culture? What did you imagine the United States
would be like before you arrived here? What is it actually like? How is it different from your
expectations? If you were a student at a university in your home country, how would your life be
different from the way you are living now? Tell the story of the strangest (or funniest or most frustrat
ing) experience that you or someone else has had withi English. Think of advice your parents or
someone else gave you when you were a child that you still follow. Do you have any ad vice to offer,
perhaps on the subject of familv. strangers, friends, money, sex, or education Have you had anv exper
ences that show the wisdom of this advice?

Journal definitions

As you have learned, a finished academic paper usually begins with a general idea, gives the details that
support that general ization, and finally returns to another general statement on the same topic.
Generalization Specifics that allowed you to make the generalization Return to a general, more abstract
level The three student essays in the last chapter illustrate this typical movement from general to
specific. These essays follow the typical three-part blueprint or pattern that English-speak ing readers
seem to expect. Look at each essay and indicate where you might separate the beginning from the
middle. Where do general comments end, and where do the specific cases begin? Then divide the
middle section from the end. Where do the com ments become general again? Finally, how might you
divide the middle section? These kinds of divisions often correspond to paragraphs, but not always.
Whether or not you begin a new paragraph depends on how long each section is and how great a shift
of perspective occurs between the sections. Most English-speaking readers would probably expect the
student examples you just reread to consist of only one paragraph because they are short and explain
only one main idea. Look back at the drafts you have written for this class. Reread the one you like best
and try to write in one sentence the main idea of the whole draft. What were you trying to show in that
composition?

The main point or central idea of a piece of writing in English is often explicitly, or directly, expressed
near the beginning of the text. This statement is traditionally called the thesis. In addi. tion, if the article
has several paragraphs, the main point of each paragraph (traditionally called the topic sentence of the
para.i graph) is often expressed somewhere near the beginning of the paragraph. You can think of these
explicit statements of the main ideas in a composition as labels. To help you understand how these
labels function, imagine that you are moving to a new i apartment and must pack all your belongings in
boxes. In order to remember which box contains kitchen utensils, which box contains books, and which
box contains clothes, you might label thel outside of each box with a statement of what is inside.
Similarly a thesis helps the reader understand immediately what the ba sic content of an essay will be,
and a topic sentence near the be gnning of a new paragraph helps the reader see in which direc tion the
author intends to move in that paragraph. What you say in a thesis or in a topic sentence will make your
reader expect t read certain things in your discussion, and English-speaking readers trust you to meet
their expectations. Pigure 5.1 shows the usual pattern of a typical academt essay.
Making main ideas and text fit

As you have seen, the main idea of an essay is usually expressed somewhere near the beginning of the
text. However, you do not need to know exactly what the main idea is before you begin to write.
Although you will probably know the topic you want to write on, you may not know exactly what you
want to say about it until you have done some invention writing and seen your ideas on paper.
Formulating a thesis or a topic sentence that ex-i actly fits your discussion is a form of revising, of
focusing more clearly and sharply. Once you know more or less what your main idea is, that is, once you
know what you intend your essay to ex-i plain or prove, keep this idea in mind as you gather information
and write or reread your draft. On one hand, the way you state or even think of your main idea will have
an important effect on what you then write about your main idea in your paper. Keeping your main idea
in mind will help you to select what to include in your paper and also to recognize what is irrelevant. On
the other hand, you may find as you gather information or write your draft that your main idea changes
or becomes clearer to you in different terms. That is fine. Just change your thesis or topic sentences so
that they become good summary statements of the ideas you discuss in the essay or paragraph. Then
reread your paper and remove any statements that are now irrelevant to your new main idea.

Benefit of explicit theses and topic sentences

Explicitly stating your main idea is useful for two reasons: i 1. For the writer: It helps you control your
writing by helping you decide what to include in your essay and how to organize your ideas. Writing
down on paper a clear statement of your main idea forces you to think through fully what you want to
say and to crystallize it into a few words. For your reader: A clear, explicit statement of the main idea
helps your reader know quickly what direction you intend to take in the essay and within the paragraphs
of the essay. This efficiency and clarity are especially impori tant in business or industry, where your
audience may be an administrator who wants a quick overview of what youi will communicate in a
report you submit. In fact. in somei situations, particularly in technical writing for business or industry,
readers will request a statement like this at the beginning of a piece of writing: "In this report I am go ing
to define (or explain or compare Xto Yor show or ana ." However, this kind of blunt announcement y2e)
violates the conventions of academic writing in some situ ations. You should avoid such a statement
unless you are specifically asked to include one.

There is no rule of English that says a statement of the main idea must appear near the beginning of a
paper. In fact, while there is always a main idea in published writing, it sometimes appears at the end of
the piece, especially in editorials in news.i papers and journals. Sometimes, the main idea is not
explicitly stated at all in the article. In most academic writing, however.i readers appreciate being told
early what the main idea will be. and it is probably a good idea for you to meet that expectation. The
ability to produce a clear summary statement of youri main idea is a valuable skill to develop for your
school work. Look at the following question and answers from an essay exam in a U.S. history course.
The specific answers to the question arei the same, but the second one is more powerful intellectually
andi gives a better impression because the generalization or topici sentence at the beginning suggests
that the writer is in control of all the ideas. Question: What were the main causes of the U.S. Civil War?
Answer I: One cause of the Civil War was that the North was developed industrially while the South was
mainly agricultural. Another cause was that the South wanted to l expand the number of slave states.
Another cause. Answer 2: The main causes of the U.S. Civil War fall into two distinct but interlinked
categories: economic causes and political causes. Economically, the North was developed industrially
while. i Notice that in the second answer the general statement of the main idea is not long or
elaborate. It is a straightforward one-sentence general answer to the exam question. The generall
answer is then followed by a specific explanation of the main idea expressed in the topic sentence.
Because the main idea isi not explicitly expressed in the first answer, it is hard to tell if the student is in
control of the information. This answer gives the impression that the student's ideas are listed in a
random order, not analyzed logically. (For further discussion of essay exams, see Chapter 15.) In this
section, you have learned about the concept of thei thesis, topic sentence, or main idea of a piece of
writing. The following assignments will give you practice, identifying and ex-i tracting the main idea from
a body of data.

Extracting the main idea from survey data

Collect data on a subject of interest to you by surveying a group of people. Then analyze your data by
generalizing from the infor-i mation you collect. For this assignment, you will work with another student
to gather facts and statistics by conducting a survey or interview-i ing people on a subject of interest to
you. Once you have col-i lected the data, you will generalize from those specifics and reach a conclusion
about people's opinions on a certain issue.i That conclusion will be the main idea of your report. Once
you have your general results and before you write up the details of your inquiry, your teacher may first
ask you to briefly report the results orally to the class.

Choosing the sample

There are two types of people you can question. The first type is the "man or woman in the street."
These are people who have no special reason for being interested in or knowledgeable about the
subject. They can give you the average person's opinion on the subject. This sample might include
students in your classes or in your dorm. The second type of people are those who are particularly
interested in the subject, perhaps an expert in thei area you are exploring, someone who has been
affected by the issue, or someone who has simply thought a great deal about the issue. These people
may be particular students, professors, or members of the community. Whichever type you choose to
survey, it is important to get your participants' cooperation. Do the following for all the people you
question: 1. Ask for their participation. 2. Make sure they have time to talk to you. This may mean
contacting people ahead of time and making appoint ments for times when they will be free to talk to
you for a few minutes. This is particularly important if you intend to survey people while they are at
work (for example, professors or administrators). 3. Explain what the survey is and why you are doing
the survey. 4. Tell participants that their answers will remain confiden tial. 5. Be sure to be prepared
yourself. Have your questions ready, and take notes or use a tape recorder to collect your information. i
6. When you have finished, thank the participants for their cooperation. i Both you and your partner
should speak to as many people as you can (at least ten for each of you). Then, analyze your sam ple:
Who are the people you questioned? What characteristics do they have in common? Consider their age,
sex, nationality, occupation, or any other fea- ture that you think may influence their answers. What is
their interest in the subject of the survey? What is their knowledge of the subject of the survey? How
does the issue you raise in the survey affect them per sonally?

Analyzing the data main ideas

Combine what you and your classmate found and analyze your data. Look for patterns in the data. What
responses were given? What reasons were given for those responses? Did the responses i vary
depending on the type of people you asked? Perhaps most students felt one way about an issue, for
example, while most people in the community felt another way. Group similar reac tions together. (For a
discussion of classification of information in a piece of writing, see Chapter 16.) Arrange your
information systematically-for example, by response (yes, no, maybe, sometimes), by reasons for the re
sponse, or by types of people surveyed. As you look over your data, come to conclusions about the
opinions of the group of peo ple you questioned. Por example, from your findings you may conclude
that a large majorty of participants in your survey op pose the freshman English requlrement for
international stu dents in universities in the United States. This general conclu sion will be the main idea
of your entire paper, the thesis statement, which you will explain or prove by referring to thei data you
collected through your survey. In addition, extract a general statement from each group of similar
responses, the topic sentences of your paragraphs. If you make a brief oral report to the class on the
results of your survey, write down any questions your classmates ask you. " You may decide to include
answers to those questions in your written report. i As you write up the results of your data gathering,
remem ber that writers normally interpret data for their readers. This i does not mean that you must
give your own opinion. It does i mean, however, that your reader will expect you to explain what i the
raw data means. For example, suppose you find that eight out of ten international students prefer an
American roommate but that eight out of ten American students are neutral about i having an
international roommate. You might conclude that international students are looking for contact with
Americans whereas Americans do not seem to be actively looking for an international experience. This is
not just your opinion; it is an interpretation you make for the reader based on the evidence you have
collected. Be sure your data justifies your generalization
Arranging the data

Keep your purpose in mind as you write your report. Perhaps you simply want to inform your classmates
about a group of people's opinions on an issue of interest to you and presumably toi them. On the other
hand, you may have been surprised by your findings and may want to share your surprise with your
classmates. Perhaps your results expose a situation that you would like your classmates to try to change.
Decide what reaction you i want your audience to have to your report, and keep it in mind to help you
decide which of your findings you will report and in how much detail. Begin your report with a
statement of the general results of your survey and a description of your sample (how many questioned,
what type of people). Then discuss your data in any order that seems logical to you. For example, if you
ask the question on cross-cultural marriage, you might organize your information like this: All those
favoring cross-cultural marriages Reason 1 Reason 2

All those opposed Reason 1 Reason 2 Reason 3 All those with no opinion Note: If you refer to
percentages, avoid beginning a sente with a number. Rewrite the sentence to begin with a word stead.
For example, instead of writing 40% of the people polled you might write: Of the people polled, 40% or:
In their answers, 40% of the people polled. If you have a fairly small sample (fewer than twenty
responsest avoid using percentages. Ihe use of percentages implies a lar sample and therefore might be
misleading to the reader. Instead, use the numbers: "The survey showed that four out of the twenty
people questioned/polled/surveved felt/said/ agreed tnte To see how others have used objective data,
you may want to read the following selections in the Appendix. Readings Excerpt 1 from Sauage
Inequalities, page 331"History Proves It: Other Systems of Naming Work," page 337 When you have
collected all your data, drawn your conclu sions, and decided how much information to include and how
to organize that information, write your first draft. When you havei finished your draft, answer the
following questions.

SELECTING SUPPORTING MATERIAL

Types The use of specifics makes writing easier to understand. Writers explain their generalizations in
the following ways: using examples to illustrate a point or to show how a gener alization works in a
representative or typical case using reasons, causes, or effects related to the generalization to make it
understandable using descriptive details to allow the reader to imagine the generalization better using
the familiar to explain the unfamiliar discussing a subject step by step Examples and anecdotes are
meant to help a reader understand a generalzation by showing how it operates in a specific instance.
Understanding a specific instance makes the abstract notion easier to understand. Think of the classes
you are taking. i Students often ask professors for examples in order to make con.i cepts clearer. i But it
is not enough for writing to be clear. Perhaps more im portant, a writer must convince the reader of the
validity of his or her assertions by giving evidence to support those statements. Typically, writers
support their generalizations with data: facts or statistics that bring objective evidence to prove a
personal experiences, representative cases, observations, or anecdotes meant to prove that a
generalization is true be cause it is based on a specific, real incident references to recognized authority
or experts in the subject These types of support—facts, statistics, real incidents, or refer ences to
authority—are objective pieces of evidence used to sup port and prove a generalization.

Arranging supporting material

Once you have enough pertinent, specific material to support your point, you must decide how to
arrange it. By dividing your composition into sections, i using transitions to mark where each section
begins, and stating what each section covers, you are helping your reader to grasp more easily what you
are trying to communicate in your writing. i The more complex your subject, the more helpful these aids
arei to the reader. Once you have selected and grouped your material, you still must decide in what
order to present the material. English-i speaking readers are accustomed to seeing the following types
of arrangements: Least to Most: Begin with the least significant or powerful information, and then move
to the more convincing or im portant ideas.

Most to Least: To get your reader's attention quickly (in an essay exam, business report, or newspaper
article), begin with the most striking information and move toward less important points or facts. Known
to Unknown (or Accepted to Controversial): Begin by establishing common ground with the reader, and
then move to the new material you are trying to explain or prove. Step-by-Step: Use chronological order
(what happens first, second, and so on) or spatial order (describe one part at a time). •By Categories or
Divisions: Divide your subject into parts or separate your supporting material into categories, and de
scribe one part or category at a time. For Comparisons: Discuss all the features of one item first, then all
the corresponding features of the other item. Or discuss one feature of each item, then the next feature
of each item. In any piece of writing, keeping in mind the audience and purpose of the text, the author
must decide on an overall organl zational plan and on some arrangement for the ideas in each
paragraph. Most texts include some combination of the methods described here. For more detailed
discussion of certain patterns of organization (division/classification, cause/effect, definition, and
comparison), see Chapter 16, Practicing Taking Essay Bxams. Finally, keep in mind that English-speaking
readers expect to be led systematically from one point to the next. They expect a writer to present all
the evidence and the conclusions drawn from that evidence. They do not expect to have to draw their
own conclusions about the material or to accept unsupported generalizations. In the next assignment,
you will practice: using specific supporting material; relating that material to the main idea; and
arranging that material appropriately.

Audience and Purpose

Read through all the invention writing you did as you gathered material for a paper on nonverbal
communication. Now consider your audience and purpose for this assignment. To whom do you want to
communicate the information you have discovered through your invention writing? To people from your
country? To Americans who have not spent much time with people from other countries and are not
aware of differences in body language? To your classmates from all parts of the world? To anyone who
knows little about your country but perhaps plans to travel there? To some other audience? You also
have several options in deciding your purpose for writing. Will you inform your audience of customs in
your country to help them understand the meaning of gestures used in your country that might seem
strange to them? Do you want to help your audience avoid the embarrassment of using inappropriate
gestures in your country? Do you simply want to educate others you assume do not i know about the
existence and meanings of body language? Will you compare gestures in two or more countries to show
how surprisingly different people's communication patterns are? •If you uncover some particularly
amusing or strange infor mation about body language, you may set as part of your pur pose to entertain
while informing your audience. Whatever ap proach you take, ask yourself what you are trying to
accomplish by sharing this information with your audience. The information you decide to select will
depend on the following: 1. the audience for which you are writing 2. the purpose you have set for your
writing 3. how you express your main idea Once you have searched your own mind, questioned others,
thought about your findings, and have some idea of your audi-ence and purpose, review the information
in the previous sectinn i on possible ways to arrange your supporting material. You should now be ready
to begin your first draft, Write thie i draft quickly. If you spend too much time, you will be reluctant i to
alter anything you worked so long to produce. Also, consider writing more than you think you will
eventually need. You mav find, like some writers, that it is easier to remove material tha i to add it. Main
Idea When you have finished writing your first draft, reread it andi ask yourself what the main idea
seems to be. Write that main idea near the beginning of the paper; word it so that it is general enough
to cover the entire paper and specific enough to convey the content of your paper. Supporting Material
Next, consider the specific support material in your discussion. Read each sentence and ask yourself: Is
this sentence clearly and directly related to the main idea? Do I make any statements that must be
interpreted in order for my reader to make the connection between that state ment and the main idea?
The following questions will help you explore your options for explaining your ideas more specifically
and completely. Keeping in mind the audience for which you are writing and what you want to
accomplish by communicating this informa tion, ask yourself: Are there any examples/facts/statistics I
could add to my discussion to make it clearer or more forceful for my audience? Have I had any personal
experience I could mention that might help to explain my point? What are the causes of the situation I
am describing? What are the reasons for the behavior I am describing? Are there any significant effects
of this situation or behavior? Can I make my explanation clearer by describing how some thing
works/looks/feels?

Could I compare my subject to something my readers arei likely to recognize that would help them
understand bet ter what I am saying? (Por example, a gesture unfamiliar to your readers may resemble
another one more familiar to them.) Is there anything I need to define more completely in order In a
different color ink from that in the original draft, put an asterisk at any places in your draft where you
know you can add more specific information. Then write at least one of those exam ples or explanations
on another sheet of paper. Reread the com position with your additional, more specific information. Did
your addition improve your original? Arrangement Ask yourself the following questions about the
arrangement of the material in your draft: How did I arrange this information? Is there any other way to
arrange the information, consider ing my audience and purpose? Would another arrangement be better
or worse for my particular audience and purpose? When you have finished writing, rereading, and
ahalyzing your draft, answer the following questions. Self-Analysis 1. What is the main idea of the paper
(thesis)? 2. Where is that main idea expressed? 3. What is the main idea of each paragraph? 4. What
kinds of things does your reader probably already know about your main idea? 5. What did you assume
your reader did not know or might want to know about your topic? 6. What kinds of specihies did you
use to develop and sup port your main idea? 7. In general, are you satisfied with what you have written?
8. What would you change if you wrote this paper again?

Now give your draft to at least one classmate to read and com ment on. Peer Response 1. Who do you
think was the audience for this paper? 2. What do you think the writer's purpose was in writine i this
paper? That is, what do you think the writer ex.i pected the audience to learn from reading the paper?
3. What ideas or examples in this paper struck you as thei most interesting? 4. Is there any part of this
paper where you felt a need for additional or clearer information? 5. How would you describe the way
the writer organized the material? 6. What suggestions can you offer that might improve the paper?
Revision Revise your paper, incorporating any suggestions from classmates that you found useful. your