P.S.

R ENGINEERING COLLEGE, SIVAKASI

(An Autonomous Institution)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

12ME47– MATERIAL TESTING & METALLURGICAL

LABORATORY

ACADEMIC YEAR 2016-2017

LABORATORY MANUAL/OBSERVATION

STAFF IN CHARGE HOD/MECH

Mr. K.GANESAN AP/MECH
MR Y.KUMARASAMY AP/MECH Dr. P. PITCHIPOO
Mr. M.RAMAR AP/MECH
Mr. M.V.MAHESHWARAN AP/MECH
 LIST OF BASIC SAFETY RULES
1. When you handle chemicals wear eye protection (chemical splash goggles or full face shield).

2. When you work with furnaces for heat treatment process you should use special gloves to
protect your hands.

3. Students should wear durable clothing that covers the arms, legs, and feet.

4. In case of injury (cut, burn, fire etc.) notify the instructor immediately.

5. In case of a fire or imminently dangerous situation, notify everyone who may be affected
immediately; be sure the lab instructor is also notified.

6. If chemicals splash into someone's eyes act quickly and get them into the eyewash station, do
not wait for the instructor.

7. In case of a serious cut, stop blood flow using direct pressure using a clean towel, notify the lab
instructor immediately.

8.Never work in the laboratory without proper supervision by an instructor.

9.Never carryout unauthorized experiments. Come to the laboratory prepared. If you are unsure
about what to do, please ask the instructor.

10.Always remember that HOT metal or ceramic pieces look exactly the same as COLD
pieces are careful what you touch.

11.Know the location and operation of:

a. Fire Alarm Boxes

b. Exit Doors

c. Telephones
 P.S.R. Engineering College
Vision & Mission Statement

Vision

To contribute to the society through excellence in technical education with

societal values and thus a valuable resource for industry and the humanity
Mission

 To create an ambience for quality learning experience by providing

sustained care and facilities
 To offer higher level training encompassing both theory and practices with
human and social values

 To provide knowledge based services and professional skills to adapt

tomorrow’s technology and embedded global changes

Programme Outcomes of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

a. Apply knowledge of mathematics, physical sciences and Mechanical Engineering
Vision & Mission Statement
fundamentals
b. Able to identify, formulate, analyze and solve mechanical engineering problems

c. Able to design and realize mechanical engineering components and systems to

Vision
meet desired needs within practical constraints such as economical,
environmental,
 Programme social, political,
educationethical, health in
andmechanical
safety, manufacturability
engineering andand
To Educational
provide broad-based and Objectives
training of Mechanical its
sustainability
applications to enable the graduates to meet the demands in a rapidly changing needs in
industry, academia and society Engineering
d. Able to investigate and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret
data
Mission
PEO 1-Graduates will be successful in professional career by gaining knowledge in
e. Usethe of techniques,
Mechanical skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for
Engineering
 To impart high
engineering quality technical education and training that encompasses both theory
practice
PEOand practices with
2-Graduates willhuman
be ableandtosocial values
analyze real world problems and design the socially
f.Contextual
 Toaccepted knowledge
equip the students toto assess
face societal,
tomorrows health,embedded
technology
and economically feasible mechanical safety, legal
products andand
global cultural issues
changes
systems
related to Engineering
PEOTo3-Graduates
 create, explore, and
will developininnovations
engage in mechanical
lifelong learning engineering research
and professional development by
g. Realize the impact of mechanical
pursuing higher studies and research engineering solutions in a global, economic
and environmental context
PEO 4-Graduates will be able to lead a team with good leadership traits and good
h. Apply ethical relationship
interpersonal principles withandthecommitment to engineering
members in other professionalteams
ethics and
responsibility
 INDEX

S. No Date Name of the Experiment Mark Staff Signature

10

11

12

13

Completed date:

Average Mark: Staff -in-charge

 Fig. Tensile testing machine

Fig. Mild steel specimens

Fig. Stress-strain curve.

Ex. No : TENSILE TEST ON A MILD STEEL ROD

Date :
Aim:
To conduct a tensile test on a mild steel specimen and determine the following
(i) Yield strength (ii) Ultimate strength
(iii) Nominal Breaking strength (iv) Actual Breaking strength
(v) Percentage elongation (vi) Percentage reduction in area

Material and Equipment:

i) Universal Testing machine
ii) Mild steel specimens
iii) Steel rule
iv) Vernier caliper
v) Dot punch
vi) Hammer
Theory:
The tensile test is most applied one, of all mechanical tests. In this test ends of a test piece
are fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuring device. If the applied
load is small enough the deformation of any solid body is entirely elastic. An elastically deformed
solid will return to its original form as soon as load is removed. However, if the load is too large,
the material can be deformed permanently. The initial part of the tension curve , which is
recoverable immediately after unloading, is termed as elastic and the rest of the curve, which
represents the manner in which solid undergoes plastic deformation is termed plastic. The stress
below which the deformation is essentially entirely elastic is known as yield strength of material.
In some materials (like mild steel) the onset of plastic deformation is denoted by a sudden drop in
load indicating both and upper and a lower yield point. However, some materials do not exhibit a
sharp yield point. During plastic deformation, at larger extensions strain hardening cannot
compensate for the decrease in section and thus the load passes through a maximum and then
begins to decrease. As this stage the “ultimate strength”, which is defined as the ratio of the load
on the specimen to original cross-sectional area, reaches a maximum value. Further loading will
eventually cause ‘neck’ formation and rupture. Usually a tension test is conducted at room
temperature and the tensile load is applied slowly. During this test either round or flat specimens
may be used. The round specimens may have smooth shouldered or threaded ends. The load on
the specimen is applied mechanically or hydraulically depending on the type of testing machine.
Formula used:

1. Yield Stress, =

2.Ultimate Stress, =

3. Nominal Breaking Stress, =

4. Actual Breaking Stress, =

5. % Elongation in length =

6. % Reduction in Area =

Where, ,

Result
Tension test for the given specimen was conducted and the results are as follows;
i) Yield strength =
ii) Ultimate strength =
iii) Nominal Breaking strength =
iv) Actual Breaking strength =
v) Percentage elongation =
vi) Percentage reduction in area =
Observations:
Diameter of the pin, d= ……………… mm

Cross-sectional area of the pin (in double shear) =2

Load taken by the specimen at the time of failure, W =………. (N)

Strength of pin against shearing = 2 ,

where is the shear stress/strength

W = 2

Or

= =…………… N/mm2.
Ex. No : SHEAR TEST
Date :
Aim:
To conduct shear test on given specimen under double shear.
Equipments and Specimen required:
i) Universal testing machine
ii) Specimen.
iii) Shear test attachment.
iv) Vernier Caliper / Screw gauge

Result:

The maximum shear strength of the given specimen = ………….. N/mm2

Observations:

Diameter of the spring wire d =

Least count of Vernier calliper =
Diameter of the spring coil, D =
Mean coil diameter Dm = D-d =
Number of turns n =
Scale Stiffness k=
Applied Load W readings in
mm Modulus of
Sl. Deflection
Rigidity (N)
No
N/mm2
kg N
(N/mm)

Mean

To determine the wire diameter, and coil diameter of spring (each 3readings) Least count of
Vernier

Main Scale Total reading=

Vernier scale VSR x LC in
S.No Reading (MSR) in MSR+(VSR X LC)
reading(VSR) mm
mm in mm
Ex. No : COMPRESSION TEST ON HELICAL SPRING
Date :
Aim:
To determine the Modulus of rigidity and stiffness of the given helical spring by
conducting compression test.
Equipments and Specimen required:
a. Spring testing machine
b. A spring
c. Vernier caliper
Formula Used:

Modulus of Rigidity C =

Where, W =Load in N
Mean coil diameter Dm = D-d
D = Diameter of the spring coil in mm
d = Diameter of the spring wire in mm
n = Number of turns/coils in the spring.

=Deflection of the spring in mm

Stiffness k = (N/mm)

Result:

From Calculation:
 1. The Modulus of Rigidity of the given Spring N =_______ N/mm2
2. The Stiffness of the given spring S =________N/mm2

From Graph

1. The Modulus of Rigidity of the given Spring N =________N/mm2

2. The Stiffness of the given Spring S =________N/mm2

Fig. Izod test

Observation:
1. Material of the specimen =
2. Type of notch (i.e. groove) =
3. Length of the specimen, l =
4. Breadth of the specimen, b =
5. Depth of the specimen, d =
6. Position of groove from one end, (lg) =
7. Depth of groove (dg) =
8. Width of groove (wg) =
 9. Initial Charpy scale reading =
10. Final Charpy scale reading =

Ex. No : IMPACT STRENGTH OF STEEL

Date :
Aim:
To determine the impact strength of steel by Izod test;
Material and equipment:
1. Impact testing machine
2. A steel specimen 75 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm (Izod test).
Theory:
An impact test signifies toughness of material that is ability to absorb energy during
plastic deformation. Static tension tests of un-notched specimens do not always reveal the
susceptibility of a metal to brittle fracture. This important factor is determined by impact test.
Toughness takes into account both the strength and ductility of the material. Several engineering
materials have to withstand impact or suddenly applied loads while in service. Impact strengths
are generally lower as compared to strengths achieved under slowly applied loads of all types of
impact tests, the notched bar tests are most extensively used. Therefore, the impact test measures
the energy necessary to fracture a standard notch bar by applying an impulse load. The test
measures the notch toughness of material under shock loading values obtained from these tests are
not of much utility to design problems directly and are highly arbitrary. Still it is important to note
that it provides a good way of comparing toughness of various materials or toughness of the same
material under different conditions. This test can also be used to assess the ductile brittle
transition temperature of the material occurring due to lowering of temperature.

Result:
Izod test
The impact strength of the given specimen is ___________________ N.m
Observation:
1. Material of the specimen =
2. Type of notch (i.e. groove) =
3. Length of the specimen, l =
4. Breadth of the specimen, b =
5. Depth of the specimen, d =
6. Position of groove from one end, (lg) =
7. Depth of groove (dg) =
8. Width of groove (wg) =
9. Initial Charpy scale reading =
10. Final Charpy scale reading =

Ex. No : IMPACT STRENGTH OF STEEL – CHARPY TEST

Date :
Aim:
To determine the impact strength of steel by Charpy test.
Material and equipment:

1. Impact testing machine

2. A steel specimen 55 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm (Charpy test).

Theory:
An impact test signifies toughness of material that is ability to absorb energy during
plastic deformation. Static tension tests of un-notched specimens do not always reveal the
susceptibility of a metal to brittle fracture. This important factor is determined by impact test.
Toughness takes into account both the strength and ductility of the material. Several engineering
materials have to withstand impact or suddenly applied loads while in service. Impact strengths
are generally lower as compared to strengths achieved under slowly applied loads of all types of
impact tests, the notched bar tests are most extensively used. Therefore, the impact test measures
the energy necessary to fracture a standard notch bar by applying an impulse load. The test
measures the notch toughness of material under shock loading values obtained from these tests are
not of much utility to design problems directly and are highly arbitrary. Still it is important to note
that it provides a good way of comparing toughness of various materials or toughness of the same
material under different conditions. This test can also be used to assess the ductile brittle
transition temperature of the material occurring due to lowering of temperature.
Procedure:

Result:
 The impact strength of the given specimen is ___________________ N.m

Fig. Rockwell hardness tester.

Observations:

Reading Specimens

No. Mild steel Brass Aluminium High carbon steel

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean with
Scale
Ex. No : ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
Date :

Aim:
To determine the Rockwell hardness number for the given specimen.
Material and equipment/apparatus:
1. Rockwell harness testing machine
2. Indenter
3. Test specimen
4. Stop watch
Theory:
The hardness of a material is its resistance to penetration under a localised pressure or
resistance to abrasion. Harness tests provide an accurate, rapid, and economical way of
determining the resistance of materials to deformation. There are three general types of hardness
measurements depending upon the manner in which the test is conducted: (i) Scratch hardness
measurement, (ii) Rebound harness measurement and (iii) Indentation hardness measurement. In
scratch hardness method the materials are rated on their ability to scratch one another and it is
usually used by mineralogists only. In rebound hardness measurement, a standard body is usually
dropped on to the material surface and the hardness is measured in terms of the height of its
rebound. The general means of judging the hardness is measuring the resistance of a material to
indentation. The indenter is usually a ball, cone or pyramid of a material much harder than that
being used. Hardened steel, sintered tungsten carbide or diamond indenters are generally used. In
indentation tests a load is applied by pressing the indenter at right angles to the surface being
tested. The hardness of the material depends on the resistance which it exerts during a small
amount of yielding or plastic straining. The resistance depends on friction, elasticity, viscosity and
the intensity and distribution of plastic strain produced by a given tool during indentation.
Description:
The test consists in forcing an indenter of standard cone or ball into the surface of a test
piece in two operations and measuring the permanent increase of depth indentation of this
indenter under specified condition. From it Rockwell hardness is deduced. The ball (B) is used for
soft materials (e.g., mild steel, cast iron, aluminium, brass etc.,) and the cone (C) for hard ones
(High carbon steel, High speed steel, etc.)
Test blocks:
i. Standardized metal block shall be of a thickness not less than 6 mm. Block, if
made of steel be demagnetised.
ii. The upper and lower surfaces of the blocks shall be flat with 0.005 mm and
parallel in thickness such that it should not vary more than 0.010 mm per 50 mm.
iii. The surface should be ground and polished.
Test requirements:
i. The test should be carried out at an ambient temperature of 20±20C in temperate
climate and 270±20C in tropical climates.
ii. The testing machine shall be protected throughout the test from shock and
vibration.

iii. he test piece shall be placed on a rigid support. The contact surfaces shall be clean
and free from foreign matter (such as scale, oil and dust).
iv. The thickness of the test piece shall be at least 8 times the permanent indentation
of depth. No deformation shall be visible at the back of the test piece after the test.
 v. The distance between the centres of the two adjacent indentations hall be at least 4
times the diameter of the indentation and the distance from the centre of any
indentation to the edge of test piece shall be at least 2.5 times the diameter of the
indentation unless agreed otherwise.

Sl. No Rockwell ‘B’ Rockwell ‘C’

1. Diameter of ball = 1.5875 mm (1/16”) Angle of tip of the diamond cone = 1200
(Hardened and tempered steel 65.5 HRC) Radius of curvature at the tip of the cone =
0.20 mm

2. Preliminary load = 100N ± 2N Preliminary load = 100N ± 2N

3. Additional load = 900N Additional load = 1400N
4. Total load = 1000N ± 6.5 N Total load = 1500N ± 9 N
HRB means Rockwell hardness measured on B scale

Result:
The Rockwell hardness number for the given specimen = RHC________
or
RHB_________

Fig. Brinell hardness tester

Observations:
Test load, P =
Diameter of the ball, D =
 Brinell hardness
Diameter of number
Reading
Material Indentation
No.
(d) in mm (BHN)=

Mean

Ex. No : BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

Date :
Aim:
To determine the Brinell hardness number for the given specimen.
Material and equipment/apparatus:
1. Brinell harness testing machine
2. Indenter
3. Test specimen
4. Stop watch
Theory:
The hardness of a material is its resistance to penetration under a localised pressure or
resistance to abrasion. Harness tests provide an accurate, rapid, and economical way of
determining the resistance of materials to deformation. There are three general types of hardness
measurements depending upon the manner in which the test is conducted: (i) Scratch hardness
measurement, (ii) Rebound harness measurement and (iii) Indentation hardness measurement. In
scratch hardness method the materials are rated on their ability to scratch one another and it is
usually used by mineralogists only. In rebound hardness measurement, a standard body is usually
dropped on to the material surface and the hardness is measured in terms of the height of its
rebound. The general means of judging the hardness is measuring the resistance of a material to
indentation. The indenter is usually a ball, cone or pyramid of a material much harder than that
being used. Hardened steel, sintered tungsten carbide or diamond indenters are generally used. In
indentation tests a load is applied by pressing the indenter at right angles to the surface being
tested. The hardness of the material depends on the resistance which it exerts during a small
amount of yielding or plastic straining. The resistance depends on friction, elasticity, viscosity and
the intensity and distribution of plastic strain produced by a given tool during indentation.
Description:
Refer to Fig. Brinell hardness test consists in forcing a steel ball of diameter D under a
load ‘P’ into the test piece and measuring the mean diameter ‘d’ of the indentation left in the
surface after removal of the load. The Brinell hardness is obtained by dividing the test load P by
curved surface area of indentation. This curved surface is assumed to be portion of the sphere of
diameter D.

Brinell hardness number, BHN =

Where, P=Major load in N.

D=Diameter of indenter in mm.
d=Diameter of indentation in mm
Test requirements/Procedure:
1. Identify the material of the given test specimen.
2. Ball. Usually ball size 10 mm ± 0.0045 mm. It shall be of hardened and tempered steel
with a hardness of at least 850 VPN (Vickers’s pyramid number). It shall be polished
and free from surface defects.
For soft metal, load = 5000 N & For hard metal, load = 30000 N

The load shall be applied for a standard time, usually 30 seconds.

3. Test piece. Smooth and free from oxide film. Thickness of the piece to be tested shall
not be less than 8 times the depth of the indentation.
4. Diameter of indentation will be measured in two directions normal to each other with
an accuracy of ± 0.25% of diameter of ball under microscope provided with cross-
tables and calibrated measuring screws.
5. BHN may then be determined from tables

Sl. Diameter of steel ball

Material Type
No (D) indenter in mm
1. Steel, cast iron & brass 2.5
Copper alloys and
2. 2.5
Aluminium alloys
3. Aluminium & Copper 2.5
4. Lead, Tin and their alloys 2.5

Result:
The Brinell hardness number for the given specimen BHN = ________
Observations:

Width of the beam b = _________ mm

Depth of the beam d = _________mm

Moment of inertia for rectangular section = = ________ mm4

Initial reading of the Vernier = ______mm

(It should be subtracted from the reading taken after pulling the load)

Bending Bending Young’s modulus of

Load moment M= Stress = Deflection, elasticity,
Sl. W
No (mm)
(N) (Nmm) E= (N/mm2)
(N/mm ) 2
Ex. No : DEFLECTION TEST ON BEAM
Date :
Aim:
To find the values of bending stresses and Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of
a beam (say wooden or steel) simply supported at the ends and carrying a concentrated load at the
centre
Material and Equipment:
1. Deflection of beam apparatus
2. Pan
3. Weight
4. Beam of different cross sections and materials (say wooden and steel beams).
Theory: Young’s modulus of elasticity:
If a beam is simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at its centre, the
beam bends concave upwards. The distance between the original position of the beam and its
position after bending is different at different points along the length of the beam, being
maximum at the centre in this case. The difference is known is ‘deflection.
In this particular type of loading the maximum amount of deflection ( ) is given by the
relation,

= (or) E=

Where W= load acting at the centre, N.

L= length of the beam between the supports, mm
E=Young’s modulus of material of the beam, N/mm2
I=second moment of area of the cross section (i.e. moment of inertia) of the beam, about the
neutral axis, mm4.
Bending stress:
 As per bending equation,

Where M=bending moment, N.mm

I = moment of inertia, mm4
Bending stress, N/mm2
y= distance of the top fibre of the beam from the neutral axis.

Result
The young’s modulus of the given material _______________

Fig. Torsion testing machine

Observations:

Gauge length of the specimen, L = ………………

Diameter of the specimen, d = ………………

Polar moment of inertia, J = = ………….

Tabulation:

Torque Modulus of Shear

Angle of Twist in Rigidity Stress
S.NO
Twist Rod
Nm Nmm (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
Ex. No : TORSION TEST ON MILD STEEL SPECIMEN
Date :
Aim:
To conduct the torsion test on the given specimen for the following
1.Modulus of rigidity
2.Shear stress
Material and equipment/apparatus:

1. A torsion testing machine.

2. Standard specimen of mild steel or cast iron.
3. Twist meter for measuring angles of twist.
4. A steel rule and callipers or micro meter.
Theory:
A torsion test is quite instrumental in determining the value of modulus of rigidity (ratio of
shear stress to shear strain) of a metallic specimen. The value of modulus of rigidity can be found
out through observations made during the experiment by using the torsion equation:

= =

From the above equation we get, =

or C=

where T = Torque applied,

J = Polar moment of inertia,
C = Modulus of rigidity,
= Angle of twist (radians), and
L = Gauge
Description:
Refer to Fig. In the testing machine the ends of the specimen are held in suitable grips
through one of which the torque is applier; other is connected to the torque arm, by means of
which the torque on the specimen is measured. The torque arm is attached to the indicating unit
through intermediate levers housed in the cabinet. The levers are so arranged that the load
indicator move in clockwise direction, irrespective of the direction of torsion in the specimen. The
chart range is selected by means of a hand lever at the front of the cabinet, identical face plates,
provided with attachment holes and a Tenon slot are fitted to the straining spindle and torque arm
spindle. The angular movement of the straining spindle and holder is indicated on a large diameter
protractor and Vernier which record deflection down to 0.1 degrees.

Result:
Thus the torsion on given mild steel specimen is done and the values of modulus of
rigidity and shear stress are calculated
1. The ultimate torsional stress for the given specimen = ………………N/mm2
2. The modulus of rigidity of the given specimen is =…………....... N/mm2
TABULATION

LOAD
S.NO SPECIMEN MATERIAL (kgf) PENETRATOR SCALE RHN
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES COMPARISON OF UNTEMPERED AND TEMPERED
SPECIMEN
Ex. No :

Date :

Aim:
1. To perform the heat treatment (tempering) on the given material
2. To find the Rockwell Hardness Number
3. To compare the value with the value of un tempered material
APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Muffle furnace: tongs

2. Given material:C-40 steel

3. Quenching medium: water

RESULT:
Rockwell hardness number
Before tempering =

After tempering =
TABULATION

LOAD
S.NO SPECIMEN MATERIAL (kgf) PENETRATOR SCALE RHN
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES COMPARISON OF UNHARDENED AND HARDENED
SPECIMEN
Ex. No. :
Date :

AIM
To find hardness number an for unhardened and hardened specimen
MATERIALAND EQUIPMENT
Unhardened specimen, Mufflefurnace, Rockwell testing machine,

Etching
Composition Quantity Use
Reagent
In carbon steels to darken
1-5 gm
Nital Nitric acid Ethyl/Methyl alcohol pearlite and to reveal ferrite
100ml
boundaries
4 gm
Picral Picric acid Ethyl/Methyl alcohol For all grades of carbon steels
100 ml
RESULT:
Rockwell hardness number
Before Hardening =

After Hardening =

Ex. No : SPECIMEN PREPARATION FOR MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS

Date :
AIM:
To Study, how the specimen are prepared for microscopic analysis
MACHINES / APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Specimen cut off wheel, belt sander, mounting machine, emery papers, linisher
polishing machine, etchant and microscope.
PROCEDURE:
Microscopic study depends on the care taken in the preparation of the specimen. The ultimate
aim is to produce a flat, scratch-free, mirror like surface. The steps required to prepare a proper
metallographic specimen are given as below.
1) Sampling
The choice of a proper sample for microscopic study is essential. If a failure is to be investigated,
the sample should be chosen as close as possible to the area of failure and should be compared with one
taken from the normal section. If the material is soft, such as non-ferrous metals or alloys the section is
obtained by hack sawing and in other sense if the material is hard, it is obtained by using
2) Rough grinding
The soft or hard specimen is rough grounded on a continuous belt sander machine. The specimen is
kept cool by frequent drooping in water during the grinding operation. In all grinding and polishing
operations the specimen should be moved perpendicular to the existing scratches. The rough grinding is
continued until the surface is flat and free of nicks, burrs etc.
3) Mounting
Specimens that are small or awkwardly shaped should be mounted in thermosetting resin to
facilitate intermediate and final polishing. The most common thermosetting resin for mounting is
Bakelite. The specimen and correct amount of Bakelite powder are placed in the lower die cylinder of
the mounting press. The temperature is gradually raised to 100 0C, and a high moulding pressure has to
be applied simultaneously. After Bakelite is set and cured at prescribed temperature, the amount is
ejected from the moulding die while it is still hot.
4) Polishing
After mounting, the specimen is polished in a series of emery papers containing successively finer
abrasives. The first paper is 1/0 then 2/0, 3/0 and finally 4/0. The intermediate polishing operations
using emery papers are usually done dry.
5) Fine polishing
The time consumed and the success of fine polishing depends on the care taken during the previous
polishing steps. The final approximation to a wet rotating wheel covered with a velvet cloth that is
charged with carefully sized abrasive particles. A wide range of abrasive is available for final polishing.
The abrasives for fine polishing are form of Al2O3 for ferrous and copper based materials and cerium
oxide for Al, Mg and their alloys. Other final polishing abrasives are diamond paste, chromium oxide
and magnesium oxide. A properly polished sample will show only the non-metallic inclusions and will
be scratch-free.
6) Etching
The purpose of etching is to make visible the many structural characteristic of the metal/alloy. The
process must be such that the various parts of the microstructure are clearly differentiated. This is
accomplished by the use of an appropriate reagent, which subjects the polished surface to chemical
action. Because of the chemical attack by the etching reagent, the grain boundaries will appear as
valleys in the polished surface. Light from the microscope hitting the side of these valleys are reflected
out of the microscope, making the grain boundaries appear as dark lines. The selection of the
appropriate etching reagent is determined by the metal/alloy and the specific structure desired for
viewing.
Ex. No : MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF HEAT TREATED SPECIMENS
Date :
AIM
To Study about the microscopic examination of heat treated specimens
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Microscope, specimens, emery papers, etchant and linisher polishing machine.
PROCEDURE
The given heat treated, tested specimen is mounted using the procedure specified in the
experiment number 11. Then the mounted specimen is washed and dried, and then it is polished in
a series of emery papers containing successively finer abrasives. The first paper is 1/0 then 2/0,
3/0 and finally 4/0. The inetermediate polishing operations using emery papers are usually done
dry. The specimens are finally polished by using velvet cloth to obtain mirro like finish. In all
grinding and polishing operations the specimen should be moved perpendicular to the existing
scratches.
Now, the dried specimen is placed on a microscope specimen stage and is adjusted to get a
clear microstructure. The picture in the microscope is to be drawn neatly in observation book for
unetched condition by indicating the magnification. Then the polished specimen surface is etched
by using NItal for few seconds, allowed to dry, and once again view in the microscope for etched
condition.
a) Unhardened specimen
It is a medium carbon steel (En40), and hence it reveals equal amount of ferrite and pearlite after
the etching. The sample microstructure is as below.
b) Hardened specimen
If a En 40 steel is heated to 8500C, austenising is permitted by soaking at that temperature and
then cooled suddenly (quenched), the breakdown of austenite is suppressed. The new phase that
forms is martensite in which all the dissolved carbon is held in form of body cantered tetragonal
structure. Martensite is only metastable phase and may be regarded as intermediate transition
product since its structure is broken down by tempering. It is extremely hard and brittle and has a
characteristic acicular appearance when examined under microscope under high magnification
(400X). The sample microstructure is as below:

The hardness of martensite is dependent upon the percentage of carbon present in structure. It can
be seen that hardness of plain carbon steels increases rapidly until the eutectoid composition is
reached. After this composition the hardness increases very nominally. The fact is that hardest
martesite is formed at eutectoid composition while hardness remains at this level in
hypereutectoid steels. The slight increase in hardness of hypereutectoid steel is due to formation
of carbide particles which are hard and brittle.
c) Hardened & tempered specimen
The process of tempering consists of reheating the hardened steel to some temperature below the
lower critical temperature, followed by any desired rate of cooling. The exact tempering
temperature depends upon the purpose for which the article or tool is to be used. When steel is
heated to low tempering temperature (200-2500C). The internal stresses are removed. Hence
ductility increases without changing the structure of steel from martensite to reduce its hardness.