10 FT2212XEN06GLC0 App DWDM Basics Doc

Appendix - DWDM Basics
Contents
1 WDM Basics - Getting Started 3
1.1 WDM Basics 4
1.2 Physical Effects 21
1.3 WDM Topologies 31
1.4 Transparent Optical Networks 34
1.5 Applications 39
1.6 Glossary 46
2 Optical Basics 49
2.1 The Optical Media 50
2.2 Linear Effects causing problems in DWDM 52
2.3 Nonlinear Effects causing problems in DWDM 62
3 Components 71
3.1 Filters and Gratings 72
3.2 Optical Multiplexer and Demultiplexer 78
3.3 Optical Fibers 84
3.4 Dispersion Compensation Elements 90
3.5 Optical Connectors, Circulators and Isolators 94
3.6 Optical Amplifiers 98
3.7 Lasers and Modulators 104
3.8 Optical Modulators 106
3.9 Photodectectors 108
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1 WDM Basics - Getting Started
WDM Basics
- Getting Started
Fig. 1 Agenda
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1.1 WDM Basics
WDM Basics
Physical Effects
WDM Topologies
Transparent Optical Networks
Applications
Glossary
Fig. 2 WDM Basics
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1.1.1 What is WDM?
What is WDM?
WDM means Wavelength Division Multiplexing
It is Frequency Domain Multiplexing at optical frequencies (~200 THz)
It can be divided into

• Dense WDM (DWDM), channel spacing ~10  channel bandwidth (e.g. 200,
100, 50 GHz grid)
• Coarse WDM (CWDM), channel spacing >> channel bandwidth (e.g. channels at
1310 nm, 1480 nm, 1550 nm, 1625 nm)
Copyright © Coriant 2013. All rights reserved.
Fig. 3 WDM
1.1.2 How Does it Work? School Physics Lesson ...
How Does it Work? School Physics Lesson ...
White Light
Spectrum
Glass Prism
Fig. 4 Working Principle
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1.1.3 WDM - Wavelength Division Multiplexing
WDM - Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Spectrum
White Light
Glass Prism Glass Prism
• Each “coloured” wavelength represents one WDM channel

• Multiplexing of separate signals on same fibre
Fig. 5 Wavelength Division Multiplexing
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1.1.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Visible light
Cosmic radiation X ray radiation UV radiation IR radiation Communications radiation
Microwave, TV VHF SW
radar 10
Frequency (Hz) 1020 1018 1016 1014 1012 10 108 106
(1 THz) (1 GHz) (1 MHz)

(1 pm) (1 nm) (1 mm) (1 m) (100 m)
-12 -9 -6 -3 0 2
Wavelength (m) 10 10 10 10 10 10
C0 = 300 000 km/s l = wavelength

C = lxf f = frequency
Visible fibre transmission

light wavelength range
1600 nm
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 mm
850 1310 1410 1500 1550 1650 nm

O E S C L U Band
Fig. 6 Electromagnetic Spectrum
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1.1.5 Optical fiber Attenuation
Optical fibre Attenuation
2.5
Attenuation (dB/km)
Water drop
L - band
C - band
2.0 absorption
1530 1560 1620nm

1.5
1.0
Dense WDM (DWDM) Region
0.5
0 Wavelength (nm)
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600
Coarse WDM (CWDM) Region
0.2 dB/km in case of water would make it possible to watch the ground of the Pacific Ocean from the
surface
Fig. 7 Optical fiber Attenuation
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1.1.6 DWDM Blue & Red Band
DWDM Blue & Red Band

Individual
„Red Band“ „Blue Band“
0.8 nm DWDM Channels
100 GHz Grid
C10 C09 C08 C07 C06 C05 C04 C03 C02 C01 Subband
OSC
192.1
1560.61 193.0 194.0 195.0 196.0
1529.55 1510.0 nm
192.1 196.0 198.6 THz
C – Band
• Blue band – higher frequencies, red band – lower frequencies

 just like the rainbow
• 40 channels – 100 GHz grid; 80 channels – 50 GHz grid in C-Band
• OSC: Optical Supervisory Channel in 1510nm (higher attenuation)
Fig. 8 DWDM Blue & Red Band
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1.1.7 Performance Limiting Nonlinear fiber Effects

in DWDM Systems (10 Gbit/s channel data rate)
Performance Limiting Nonlinear fibre Effects

in DWDM Systems (10 Gbit/s channel data rate)
25
S- Band C- Band L- Band
(in the lab) (used today) (used today)
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15 Self Phase Modulation (SPM)

Dispersion [ps/ nm km]
10
Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)

5
Dispersion Shifted fibre G.653
Four Wave Mixing (FWM)
0
-5
* Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted fibre
ITU-T G.655
-10
1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650
Wavelength [nm]
Fig. 9 Performance Limiting Nonlinear fiber Effects
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1.1.8 Long Distance Transport W/O WDM
Long Distance Transport W/O WDM
SDH/Sonet Mux SDH/Sonet repeater SDH/Sonet Mux
IP router
SDH/Sonet
GbE
Electrical repeaters and one fibre pair for every channel drive up cost
Fig. 10 Long Distance Transport W/O WDM
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1.1.9 WDM - Passive Single Span Systems
WDM - Passive Single Span Systems
SDH/Sonet Mux SDH/Sonet Mux
WDM Mux WDM Mux

λ1 (passive) (passive)
λ2
λ3
IP router Coloured interfaces

λ4
Multiple channels use same fibre pair

Application: e.g.CWDM, up to 80km @ 2.5G
Fig. 11 WDM - Passive Single Span Systems
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1.1.10 Active Single Span Systems
Active Single Span Systems
SDH/Sonet Mux SDH/Sonet Mux
DWDM DWDM
λ1 Mux Amplifier Amplifier Mux
λ2
λ3
IP router Coloured interfaces

λ4
Multiple channels use same fibre pair

Application: unrepeatered submarine systems, up to 400km @ 10G
Fig. 12 Active Single Span Systems
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1.1.11 Active Multiple Span Systems
Active Multiple Span Systems
Amplifier Inline amplifiers
IP router
Coloured interfaces Amplifier
All channels use the same amplifiers

up to 80 channels, up to 3000km @ 10G
Fig. 13 Active Multiple Span Systems
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1.1.12 Active Multiple Span Systems
Active Multiple Span Systems
3R regenerator
IP router OEO conversion
OEO – Optical/Electrical/Optical conversion
Extremely long links or 40G applications may require 3R regeneration

Re-Amplification / Re-Shaping / Re-Timing
Fig. 14 Active Multiple Span Systems
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1.1.13 Meshed Optical Network
Meshed Optical Network
(R)OADM
(R)OADM/PXC
(R)OADM – (Remote configurable) Optical add/drop

multiplexer
PXC – Photonic Cross Connect
Various optical paths use common infrastructure

Arbitrary topology – up to full optical mesh
Fig. 15 Meshed Optical Network
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1.1.14 Basic Definitions of a DWDM Link
Basic Definitions of a DWDM Link
OTT OLR (R)-OADM OTT

Optical optical line (remotely) configurable Optical
Transmission repeater optical add-drop Transmission
Terminal (amplifier) multiplexer Terminal
nx nx nx
Client Services span span span Client Services
- Sonet/SDH - Sonet/SDH
- Ethernet/IP spur link - Ethernet/IP
- multirate services - multirate services
- Storage Area multi-degree - Storage Area
Network OTT Network
node
Optical
Transmission
Terminal
DWDM link
Fig. 16 Basic Definitions of a DWDM Link
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1.1.15 Schematic of Basic Transmission Setup ...
Schematic of Basic Transmission Setup ...
OADM (local add/drop)

transmission lines Cross connections Transponder
Transponder
OTT OLR OADM OTT

TX Add/Drop Module Pre-Amp TX
TX Booster TX
TX ... TX
...
TX TX
TX In-line TX
TX amplifier TX
TX ... ... TX
TX TX
TX TX
TX demux optional mux TX
Raman
Multiplexer Demultiplexer
Amplifier
with optional pumps / Raman pumps
Fig. 17 Schematic of Basic Transmission Setup ...
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FT2212XEN06GLC0
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1.1.16 ... and How it Looks Like in Reality
... and How it Looks Like in Reality
Fig. 18 Reality
1.1.17 Optical Channel Transport Unit OTU
Optical Channel Transport Unit OTU

Column
Row 1 14 15 16 17 3824
1 OTU Overhead
OPU Overhead
2
OD
OPU payload FEC/EFEC

U
(4 x 3808 bytes)
Ov
3
OTU
er
he
4
ad
 similar to SDH frame structure

 OTU provides Forward Error Correction (FEC) processing
 OTU-1: 2,67G
 OTU-2: 10,7G
 OTU-3: 43G
 Multi-vendor interworking
 Carrier grade performance management
 Mapping example (fully transparent, important for router interconnection):
10GE: ETH -> GFP-T -> OPU2 -> ODU2-> OTU2 -> OCh
Fig. 19 Optical Channel Transport Unit OTU
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19
1.1.18 The Theory Behind: ITU-T Recommendations on

Optical Transport Network -
Network Node Interface OTN NNI (G.709)
The Theory Behind: ITU-T Recommendations on
Optical Transport Network -
Network Node Interface OTN NNI (G.709)
OTN
Domain A
Client IF IrDI Domain B Client IF
1R 1R 3R 3R 1R
3R 1R 3R 3R 3R
IaDI IaDI
OTU
OTU OTU OTU OTU
ODU Tandem Connection (TC) ODU TC
ODU Path (end-to-end)
ODU/OTU for IntraDomain/InterDomain Interface (IaDI/IrDI)

Optical Channel Data Unit ODU:
end-to-end network entity of the OTN; multiple TCM levels
IrDI with ReedSolomon(255,239) FEC acc. G.709 between optical domains;
IaDI with FEC/EFEC code as discussed in G.709 in one optical domain
OTN Tutorial to be found on http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/studygroups/com15/otn/OTNtutorial.pdf
Fig. 20 The Theory Behind
Mapping / demapping of client signal to / from G.709 frame (Digital Wrapper)

G.709 OH processing : termination / generation of entire OTU/ODU OH
FEC/EFEC processing delivers OSNR net coding gain
Non-intrusive monitoring (J0/B1) of client signal
Support of IaDI and IrDI application
Section monitoring supported by OTU OH
End-to-end path monitoring and TCM by ODU OH
ODU multiplexing allows virtual
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1.2 Physical Effects
WDM Basics
Physical Effects
WDM Topologies
Applications
Glossary
Fig. 21 Physical Effects
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1.2.1 Signal Quality Degradation in Optical Systems
Signal Quality Degradation in Optical Systems
Attenuation Noise Dispersion Non-linear effects
DEMUX
MUX
Signal degradation
Improvements in DWDM systems
• Bit rates increase  Higher sensitivity

• Channel counts increase  Smaller channel spacing
• Channel and total optical power increase  Higher crosstalk
• System reach increases  Stronger nonlinear effects
Fig. 22 Signal Quality Degradation in Optical Systems
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1.2.2 Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic Dispersion
Wavelength depending propagation speed of light.

c fiber  1
n( ) c0
Modulation of the optical carrier frequency broadens the optical spectrum.
l ~ 1 / modulation frequency
 Different spectral components of a pulse propagate at different velocities.
 Bits overlap and interfere.
0 km
Intensity
200 km
Intensity
time
time
Fig. 23 Chromatic Dispersion
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1.2.3 Dispersion Aspects
Dispersion Aspects
pulse propagation
Chromatic dispersion: Wavelength dependent propagation

Optical fibre
Tx Rx
All wavelengths Dispersion causes Different wavelengths
transmitted at the same some wavelengths to arrive at different times
time delay
Polarisation Mode Dispersion (PMD): Phase dependent propagation
Fig. 24 Dispersion Aspects
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1.2.4 Compensating chromatic dispersion with DCFs
Compensating chromatic dispersion with DCFs
• Dispersion Compensation Modules (DCMs) as purely passive card

• DCF – Dispersion Compensated fibre is fibre with negative dispersion
• Drawback: Insertion loss and time delay
• Tunable dispersion compensator for 40G (small range)
DCF fibre spool
FBG
DCF is just additional inserted fibre with negative dispersion
Fig. 25 Compensating chromatic dispersion with DCFs
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1.2.5 Compensating chromatic dispersion with FBGs
Compensating chromatic dispersion with FBGs
• DCMs as purely passive card (Circulator, FBG, EPROM for card label data)
• Low insertion loss reduces overall amplifier loss
• Low time delay allows easier design for transient performance
FBG – fibre Bragg Grating FBG
Inherently low loss and time delay allow

to reduce amplifier power, thus cost; drawback: limitations for 40G
Fig. 26 Compensating chromatic dispersion with FBGs
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1.2.6 Compensating Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
Compensating Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
• PMD is especially critical for high bit rates such as 40G/100G

• Electrical PMD Compensator is able to compensate up to 8 ps (incl. 40G transponder
card)
PMD
Compensator
FBG
DCF is just additional inserted fibre with negative dispersion
Fig. 27 Compensating Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)
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1.2.7 Non-Linear Effects – Four Wave Mixing
Non-Linear Effects – Four Wave Mixing
Main effect: Four Wave Mixing (FWM):

Before Transmission: After Transmission:
Non linearities appear especially

when
• high amplifier output power is used

• wavelength travelling with same
Fig. 28 Non-Linear Effects – Four Wave Mixing
1.2.8 Other Non-Linear Effects
Other Non-Linear Effects
Self-Phase Modulation (SPM):

Parts of the light impulse travel slower
than others.
Main effect signal distortion.
Cross-Phase Modulation (CPM):

The refraction index is influenced by the overall power of all the channels. Hence, the signal of a
channel will be slowed down or speeded up when another channel is transmitting simultaneously.
Main effect is channel/wavelength crosstalk
Many other non linear effects, e.g. scattering etc.
Fig. 29 Other Non-Linear Effects
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1.2.9 Optical Fiber Types
Optical Fibre Types
Light Intensity
Distribution Amplitude
Core
Cladding
Coating
Radius
Core
MFD Mode Field Diameter
ITU-T G.652: Standard single-mode fibre (SSMF)

ITU-T G.653: Dispersion-shifted single-mode fibre (DSF)
ITU-T G.655: Non-zero-dispersion-shifted single-mode fibre (NZ-DSF)
Fig. 30 Copyright
Optical Fiber
© Coriant 2013.Types
All rights reserved.
1.2.10 Optical Fiber Types for DWDM
Optical Fibre Types for DWDM

Waveguide due to total reflection
Typical values:
Standard Single Mode fibre (SSMF) G652 (preferred):
Loss: 0,21 dB/km Dispersion (CD):16,8 ps/nm/km PMD: 0,1 ps/sqrt(km)
Dispersion Shifted fibre (DSF) G.653:
Loss: 0,23 dB/km Dispersion (CD): 0 ps/nm/km PMD: 0,2 ps/sqrt(km)
Non Zero Dispersion Shifted fibre (NZDSF+) G.655:
Loss: 0,225 dB/km Dispersion (CD):4,2 ps/nm/km PMD: 0,1 ps/sqrt(km)
Especially old fibre shows high loss and PMD
Fig. 31 Optical Fiber Types for DWDM

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1.2.11 Essentials for Designing a DWDM-Network
Essentials for Designing a DWDM-Network
Topology, fibre data

• fibre type, distance, attenuation, dispersion, PMD, aging margin ...
• Measured data is best. Exaggerated attenuation values are counterproductive
• Between any two points which need to connected
• Possible amplification sites
Traffic requirements
• What sites are to be connected with what signals?
• What kind of protection?
Upgrade requirements
• Topology (further links? Drop channels at repeater station?)
• Channel count for end of life scenario
• Channel speed
Fig. 32 Essentials for Designing a DWDM-Network
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1.3 WDM Topologies
WDM Basics
Physical Effects
WDM Topologies
Applications
Glossary
Fig. 33 WDM Topologies
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1.3.1 WDM Networks Come in Different Topologies
WDM Networks Come in Different Topologies
Point-to-Point, protected (OMSP)

Point-to-Point
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
DWDM Ring
...
Meshed Optical Cross Connects
...
Fig. 34 WDM Networks Come in Different Topologies
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FT2212XEN06GLC0
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1.3.2 Logical and Physical Topology may be Different (1/2)
Logical and Physical Topology may be Different (1/2)
l2
l1 l3
West East
Trans-
East Trans-
ponder West ponder
l1 l3
Traffic relation = star
West East
East West
l2
Trans-
ponder
Fig. 35 Logical and

Copyright Physical
© Coriant Topology
2013. All rights reserved. may be Different (1/2)
1.3.3 Logical and Physical Topology may be Different (2/2)
Logical and Physical Topology may be Different (2/2)
l2 l4
l1 l3 l6 l3
East West
West East
Traffic relation=
meshed
West
East
West East
l1 l5 l6 l5
l4 l2
Fig. 36 Logical and Physical Topology may be Different (2/2)

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1.4 Transparent Optical Networks
WDM Basics
Physical Effects
WDM Topologies
Applications
Glossary
Fig. 37 Transparent Optical Networks
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1.4.1 Legacy Network
Legacy Network
3R/OEO for
• Regeneration
• lambda-switching
• Grooming
• Termination
High number of OEO conversions due to

• Low reach requiring regeneration
• Wavelength switching applications always involve OEO of all channels
Channel upgrade requires new equipment at all nodes
Fig. 38 Legacy Network
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1.4.2 Transparent Optical Networks …
Transparent Optical Networks …
... or in terms of car traffic:

Why would you take each exit out/in on the highway?
Instead take the express lane!
London Manchester
Fig. 39 Transparent Optical Networks
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1.4.3 The Concept of Transparent Optical Networking
The Concept of Transparent Optical Networking
Photonic
Switch core
Add/Drop for
- Service termination
 - Grooming
- 3R / λ-conversion
Photonic switch core: Bypass „through“ traffic

• Avoid OEO conversion that does not generate revenue
• Allow for rapid provisioning of new wavelengths in minutes.
New Hardware only at end points
Collapsing of layers: one optical layer for regional, LH and ULH
Fig. 40 The Concept of Transparent Optical Networking
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1.4.4 Transparent Optical Networking ...
Transparent Optical Networking ...
• Interconnection nodes / PXC enable a ... results into …

true optical (transparent) mesh network
• (R)OADMs to flexibly add/drop traffic at • Reduced OEO conversion
interim stations
• Minimum CapEx for initial build
• Flexible multi-haul platform to address due to future-proof and scalable network
different distance/bandwidth design
requirements
• Minimum human effort for service
  – routing capable planning tool provisioning and operation
• G.709 OTH support for end-to-end
management and performance
monitoring for all services
... drastically reduces CapEx and OpEx
Fig. 41 Transparent Optical Networking
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1.5 Applications
WDM Basics
Physical Effects
WDM Topologies
Applications
Glossary
Fig. 42 Applications
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1.5.1 WDM Networks Come in Different Flavors
WDM Networks Come in Different Flavors
80 Wavelengths
40
Distance
100-200km 100-1000km 600-3000km
Fig. 43 WDM Networks in Different Flavors
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1.5.2 WDM Networks Come in Different Flavors
WDM Networks Come in Different Flavors
80 Wavelengths
40
Distance
100-200km 100-1000km 600-3000km
Fig. 44 WDM Networks Come in Different Flavors
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1.5.3 BCS - Providing all Building Blocks to Implement NGN

Network Connectivity
BCS - Providing all Building Blocks to Implement NGN Network

Connectivity
Service Core / Applications

2G/2.5G fixed mobile
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3G *
WIMAX
wireless access
LTE
SDH/PDH
DSL
Eth
PON
2G/3G/.. fixed access
Core Network
Microwave Radio PDH, SDH multi-reach DWDM

IP Core and Edge Routers,
NG Metro (NG SDH, MSPP) Multi-Service Routers for RAN *
Fig. 45 BCS - Providing all Building Blocks to Implement NGN Network Connectivity
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1.5.4 Application I - Fiber & Capacity Shortage
Application I
Fibre & Capacity Shortage
Router or SDH Mux Router or SDH Mux Router or SDH Mux Router or SDH Mux
1 10G WDM System 10G
10G 10G
1 1 - 3
10G 10G 10G 10G
1
2.5G 2.5G 2.5G 1 fibre pair 2.5G
3 fibre pairs 22.5G total capacity
22.5G total capacity
coloured lasers, 1530-1564 nm
standard lasers, 1550 nm/grey or standard grey lasers with transponder
• Saving optical fibres while keeping overall transmission capacity
• Saving of electrical regeneration point on long distances, up to 3000km
• Creating "virtual fibres" on one physical fibre pair by using different wavelengths ()
• Virtually unlimited transmission capacity (up to 40G per , 80  per fibre, 3.2 TBit/s)
• Carriers' carrier business model - separating customers by wavelength
• Security QoS feature - service separation by wavelength
• Network convergence - service/protocol transparency of DWDM

Fig. 46 Fiber & Capacity Shortage
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1.5.5 Application II - Router Interconnection, e.g. IP/MPLS

Backbone
Application II
Router Interconnection, e.g. IP/MPLS Backbone
IP/MPLS backbone IP/MPLS backbone with WDM
Site 3 Site 3
Site 2 Site 4 Site 2 Site 4
Site 1 Site 5 Site 1 Site 5
Site 6 Site 6
DWDM network with 2.5G/10G/40G per 
• Fully service/protocol transparent – no change of payload or overhead information

• Reach extension using Forward Error Correction
• QoS feature - performance management for multi carrier networks
• Application e.g. for mobile backbone networks
• Carriers' carrier business model - separating customers by wavelength
Fig. 47 Router Interconnection
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1.5.6 Benefits of DWDM Transport
Benefits of DWDM Transport
Capacity and distance

• Technology offering information transport for lowest price per bit/km
• Enormous reach (beyond 3000km) and capacity (3.2 Tbit/s)
Transparent transport on independent parallel channels
• Mixture of different interface speeds (50M, 2.5G, 10G, 40G) or signal protocols (Ethernet,
Sonet/SDH, SAN, ...) per channel
 converged multi-service transport platform
• Physical separation of parallel signals  high security
• Easy to support additional channels on already existing link
 incremental growth as needed
Information transport by light in a dielectric
• No interaction with environment (electrical, magnetic, optical)
 eavesdropping difficult, less noise
• No metal in cables  high lifetime, no corrosion, not effected by lightning
• Channel capacities are not limited by electronics
Fig. 48 Benefits of DWDM Transport
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1.6 Glossary
WDM Basics
Physical Effects
WDM Topologies
Applications
Glossary
Fig. 49 Glossary
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1.6.1 Glossary
Glossary
• ASON Automated Switched Optical Network • GMPLS Generalized Multi-Protocol Label

• AWG Arrayed Waveguide Grating Switching
• BOL Begin Of Life • HSPA High Speed Packet Access
• CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate • ISP Internet Service Provider
• CapEx Capital Expenditure • LH Long Haul (up to 1200km)
• CD Chromatic Dispersion • MEMS Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
• CWDM Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing • MSPP Multi Service Provisioning Platform
• DCN Data Communication Network • NDA Non Disclosure Agreement
• DPSK Differential Phase Shift Keying • NE Network Element
• DQPSK Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying • NG Next Generation
• DSF Dispersion Shifted fibre • NZDSF Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted fibre
• DSLAM Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer • OADM Optical Add Drop Multiplexer
• DWDM Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing • OC Optical Carrier
• EOW Engineering Order Wire • OCh Optical Channel
• FWM Four Wave Mixing • ODU Optical Data Unit
• GFP-T Generic Framing Procedure – Transparent • OEO Optical/Electrical/Optical conversion
• OLR Optical Line Repeater
• OP Orientation Price
• OpEx Operational Expenditure
Fig. 50 Glossary
Glossary
• OPU Optical Payload Unit • SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol

• OSC Optical Supervisory Channel • SSMF Standard Single Mode fibre
• OTH Optical TransportHierarchy • STM Synchronous Transfer Mode
• OTT Optical Transmission Terminal • TCM Tandem Connection Monitoring
• OTU Optical Transport Unit • TMF Tele Management Forum
• PDH Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy • TIF Telemetry Interface
• QoS Quality of Service • ULH Ultra Long Haul (up to 3000km)
• PLC Planar Lightwave Circuit • VOA Variable Optical Attanuator
• PMD Polarization Mode Dispersion • VoIP Voice over IP
• PXC Photonic Cross Connect • WSS Wavelength Selective Switch
• ROADM Remotely Reconfigurable Optical • XML Extended Markup Language
Add Drop Multiplexer • 3R Re-Amplification /
• ROI Return On Invest Re-Shaping / Re-Timing
• RPR Resilient Packet Ring
• SAN Storage Area Network
• SDH Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
• Super-FEC Super Forward Error Correction acc.G.975.1
• SLA Service Level Agreement
• SONET Synchronous Optical Network
Fig. 51 Glossary
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2 Optical Basics
Optical Basics
Fig. 52Agenda
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2.1 The Optical Media

The main job of optical fibers is to guide lightwaves with a minimum of attenuation
(loss of signal). Optical fibers are composed of fine threads of glass in layers, called
the core and cladding that can transmit light at about two-thirds the speed of light in a
vacuum. Though admittedly an oversimplification, the transmission of light in optical
fiber is commonly explained using the principle of total internal reflection. With this
phenomenon, 100 percent of light that strikes a surface is reflected.
Tip
By contrast, a mirror reflects about 90 percent of the light that strikes it.
Light is either reflected (it bounces back) or refracted (its angle is altered while
passing through a different medium) depending upon the angle of incidence (the
angle at which light strikes the interface between an optically denser and optically
thinner material).
Total internal reflection happens when the following conditions are met:
 Beams pass from a more dense to a less dense material. The difference between
the optical density of a given material and a vacuum is the material’s refractive
index.
 The incident angle is less than the critical angle. The critical angle is the angle of
incidence at which light stops being refracted and is instead totally reflected.
The core has a higher refractive index than the cladding, allowing the beam that
strikes that surface at less than the critical angle to be reflected. The second beam
does not meet the critical angle requirement and is refracted.
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Waveguide due to total reflection
Fig. 53 Optical Media
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2.2 Linear Effects causing problems in DWDM

When considering WDM technology one must be aware of the main parameters
taken into account at the optical level. Some of these are common to conventional
optical systems (e.g. SDH) but more refined, and others are new and still under
investigation.
The parameters concerning signal distortion are:

 Attenuation;
 Dispersion;
 Polarization Mode Dispersion;
 Self Phase Modulation;
 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering;
 Stimulated Raman Scattering.
All of these effects exist also in conventional systems but now they must be
considered with a much higher degree of precision.
The extended use of optical amplifiers in WDM systems leads to:

 Amplified Spontaneous Emission Noise;
 Stronger Non-linear effects.
Finally, existing only in WDM systems, the effects concerning channel crosstalk are:
 Four Wave Mixing;
 Cross-Phase Modulation.
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Signal Distortion
Dispersion PMD
Attenuation SBS
SRS SPM
Consequences of Optical Amplifiers
ASE Strong Non-Linearities
Channel Crosstalk
FWM XPM
Fig. 54 Effects causing problems in DWDM
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2.2.1 Attenuation
As we have seen already in the first chapter, due to impurities, microcracks, etc light
cannot pass through a fiber without loss. Two major mechanisms are responsible for
those losses:
Absorption:
Light is absorbed by the material. Also the glass used for optical fibers has an
extremely low absorption coefficient; a little light is still lost to this effect.
Scattering:
Light is deviated and consequently lost. The most important factor there is the so
called Rayleigh scattering, which leads e.g. to power being back-scattered towards
the transmitter. The effect is well known: It's also responsible for giving us the blue
sky by scattering sunlight!
Another - hopefully negligible - factor is
Bending Losses:
Each fiber, if a certain minimum bending radius is exceeded, loses the property of
complete reflection within the core. As this is usually not done in fiber networks it
should not be of great importance.
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Fig. 55 Absorption
Fig. 56 Scattering
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2.2.2 Dispersion
Dispersion is based primarily on the fact that the refractive index of glass n (the
optical "density") depends on the wavelength of light, which in turn causes these
different wavelengths to travel at different speeds in the same medium (chromatic
dispersion).
In transmission technology, dispersion therefore is the tendency of optical pulses to
spread as they travel through the optical fiber. As a consequence it becomes more
difficult to distinguish if a received bit is '1' or '0'. This effect is called Inter-Symbol-
Interference (ISI). The problem of dispersion becomes critical on long fibers carrying
high bandwidth signals.
Total dispersion is measured in units of ps/nm and the dispersion coefficient of a fiber
is in units of ps/nm-km, or pico-seconds per nanometer per km of fiber length.
Mathematically speaking the dispersion is the differential of the Index of Refraction n
to the wavelength λ.
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Optical fiber
Tx Rx
All wavelengths transmitted at Dispersion causes some Different wavelengths arrive
the same time wavelengths to delay at different times
Fig. 57 Dispersion and speed of different wavelengths
te
rdina
r c o -o
Fibe
Initial signal End signal
Fig. 58 Example of the effects of chromatic dispersion
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In fact, the phenomenon "Dispersion" is composed of several factors:
Mode-Dispersion:
Different modes in a multimode fiber have different paths and therefore different
traveling times (not relevant in single mode fibers).
Profile Dispersion:
For graded index fibers impurities or imperfections in the grading profile cause
additional dispersion.
Chromatic Dispersion:
In the monomode fiber the chromatic dispersion is the dominant factor. It is
composed from:
 Material Dispersion:
This is a pure physical property and describes the different speed of different
wavelengths in the glass used. It can be changed only very little by the doping of the
fiber.
 Waveguide Dispersion:
This type of dispersion is highly dependant on the profile of the graded index. Thus it
is possible to influence the total dispersion of the fiber.
Fiber-Cladding
Fiber Core
Fig. 59 Reason for mode dispersion
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Fiber-Cladding
Fiber Core
Fig. 60 Reason for waveguide dispersion
+50
Dispersion in ps/(nm+km)
Dmat
Dchrom
600 1000 1400 1800
Dwav Wavelength
in nm
-50
Fig. 61 Chromatic dispersion
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2.2.3 Polarization Mode Dispersion

The base mode in monomode fibers consists of two orthogonally polarized parts or
polarization modes. Due to environmental conditions (stretching, bending, torsion,...)
the radial symmetry of the index profile is disturbed. Consequently, those two parts
have different speeds, leading to a temporal broadening of the pulse. The result of
PMD is additional ISI.
Due to a coupling of those polarization modes, the total delay and pulse broadening
is only dependant on the square root of the fiber length:
=L-0.5 * coeff
Where coeff in ps/km-0.5 is the PMD delay coefficient.
The latter is a fiber property, which is of course depending on a lot of environmental

conditions and which is usually specified as an average value by the producer.
Contributing factors are e.g.
 Fiber core ellipticity;
 Transverse stress;
 Bending;
 Twisting;
 Isolators in EDFAs;
 Aging.
In usual systems the PMD is of no practical relevance. In DWDM systems though,

which are dispersion-managed and use extremely narrow bandwidths, the PMD
becomes a very considerable factor limiting especially high-bitrate transmission.
One of the biggest problems of PMD is, that it might be highly time dependent. This
becomes clear, when we imagine e.g. a truck or a train passing by a fiber line,
causing vibrations which in turn might cause fiber deformations.
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PMD Delay
Fig. 62 Polarization mode dispersion
Input signal Output signal
Fig. 63 Bit shape before and after traveling through the fiber
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2.3 Nonlinear Effects causing problems in DWDM

When light enters matter, the light and the particles start to interact; even worse, this
might even lead to interaction of different photons.
Most of those effects are heavily power dependent and only start at a certain
threshold power. Physically speaking, we have to deal with two principal classes:
Scattering phenomenons:
 Raman Scattering;
 Brillouin Scattering.
Kerr non-linearities:
Four-wave mixing
Self-phase modulation
Cross-phase modulation
As the name suggests, the first class includes scattering mechanisms, the second is
due to the fact that light changes matter and is changed by matter, thus influencing
itself.
Scattering Phenomenon's
Stimulated Raman Scattering SRS
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering SBS
Kerr Non-Linearity's
Four Wave Mixing FWM
Self Phase Modulation SPM
Cross Phase Modulation XPM
Fig. 64 Summary of nonlinear effects
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2.3.1 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering

An effect similar to Raman Scattering is Brillouin Scattering, the difference mainly
being that another type of phonon (so-called acoustic phonons) is responsible for the
scattering. It also is a source of crosstalk, though the peaks are influenced in a
different way to Raman Scattering, the scattered light being downshifted by
approximately 11GHz at 1550nm. As SBS acts in backward direction, it is especially
important when there is bi-directional. What happens is that a channel interferes with
itself causing significant distortion and loss in forward direction.
Like the other non-linear effects, SBS occurs only significantly when crossing a
certain power threshold.
One method of reducing the influence of SBS is to modulate the transmission laser
with a very low frequency which is sometimes also called "pilot tone", as SBS gets
lower with rising line width.
Brillouin Scattering
0,00
1547,00 1547,50 1548,00 1548,50 1549,00 1549,50 1550,00 1550,50 1551,00
-10,00
-20,00
SBS
SBSPeak
-30,00
Peak
Power in dBm
-40,00
-50,00
-60,00
-70,00
-80,00
-90,00
Wavelength in nm
Fig. 65 Rayleigh and SBS peak
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2.3.2 Stimulated Raman Scattering

A special form of scattering is the interaction of Photons and optical Phonons. The
latter are the particles, which can be assigned to vibrations of the array of atoms and
electrons. Like in playing Billiard, a Photon might hit a Phonon and glance of, loosing
a bit of its energy. Alternatively, a Phonon might hit a Photon, adding a bit to its
energy. The result is that an initial peak after scattering has two peaks on the sides at
higher and lower wavelengths. The one at the higher energetic side usually can be
neglected though, as there are not so many Phonons around that are able to
increase the Photons energy.
If the Raman Scattering takes place under the influence of bypassing light of a fitting
frequency, the scattering produces a photon of exactly the same frequency. The rest
of the energy is emitted as a phonon, effectively as vibrations of the atomic structure.
This is then called "Stimulated Raman Scattering"
In DWDM systems the higher frequency channels lose energy to channels with lower
frequencies (Raman-Tilt) resulting in channel crosstalk and reinforcing other non-
linear effects like Cross-Phase modulation. Using pre-emphasis can compensate this
effect.
Loss of energy Gain of energy
Fig. 66 Raman scattering from particle view
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Amplitude Amplitude
Raman Scattering
Initial Signal Initial Signal
Wavelength Wavelength
Fig. 67 Raman scattering
A A
Sent Spectrum Received Spectrum
Fig. 68 Raman tilt
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2.3.3 Four-wave-mixing
Four-wave-mixing is the first of the Kerr-non-linear effects. It is due to the fact that the
index of refraction has a power-dependent component: n=n()+nKerr*P.
It is the dipole nature of the atoms that leads to interaction with light and to
oscillations of the electrons. In that way light changes matter and in turn is changed
by the same matter, thus influencing itself. That causes - among other effects - the
dependency of the speed of light on the power of an impulse!
FWM is an effect of great importance in multi-channel systems. Let's imagine 3
signals at different wavelengths entering a fiber. The phenomenon FWM is an
interaction between 4 photons or waves and causes signals to be produced at
frequencies
fFWM=fx+fy-fz for all possible combinations of fx,fy,fz.
The frequency f123 is therefore obtained by the equation f123=f1+f2-f3.

The total number of these "ghost"-wavelengths is given by: Number of Ghosts =
0.5N²(N-1) where N is the number of channels. For a 16-channel system that means
we have 1920 ghosts!
This of course once more means crosstalk, especially in systems with an equally
spaced wavelength grid like we have in DWDM systems.
1 2 3
123 321
and 213 231
and
312
u. 132
113 112 223 221 332 331
Fig. 69 Four wave mixing
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Before Transmission: After Transmission:
Fig. 70 FWM measurement
Optical fiber
Tx Rx
All wavelengths travel together:
Strong interaction
Optical fiber
Tx Rx
The wavelengths travel separately:
Weak interaction
Fig. 71 19 FWM without and with dispersion
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2.3.4 Self Phase Modulation

SPM is a direct consequence of the refraction index dependence with power,
because the speed at which light travels depends on the refraction index. What
happens is that some parts of an impulse travel slower than others resulting in a
broadening or compression of the impulse.
The result is a bit similar to dispersion: the pulse width gets wider.
The net result of SPM and dispersion depends on the dispersion regime: Below the
zero-dispersion point the pulse gets wider because dispersion and SPM act „in the
same direction“. Above that point dispersion and SPM compensate for each other,
reducing broadening.
Pulse broadening Pulse

compression
Impulse shape Impulse shape
Relative speed Relative speed
Fig. 72 Effects of SPM above and below zero dispersion point
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2.3.5 Cross Phase Modulation

The last of the nonlinear effects we are going to mention is the Cross Phase
Modulation (XPM).
XPM is basically the same as SPM. The difference is that the refraction index is now
influenced by the power of all the channels in the WDM signal.
Combined with dispersion XPM is the dominant non-linear effect in SMF, resulting in
high crosstalk between channels.
XPM
Crosstalk
Fig. 73 XPM
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3 Components
Components
Fig. 74 Agenda
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3.1 Filters and Gratings

3.1.1 Fabry-Perot Interferometer
Light can be imagined as a wave. The interesting question now is what happens if
two of those waves meet?
The answer is interference. If the two waves have the same phase (that means
„mountain to mountain and valley to valley“, the two waves add up and create a joint
wave of higher amplitude. If the two waves have opposite phase though, they cancel
each other, the result is „nothing“.
The easiest form of interferometer is the Fabry-Perot type. It consists of two parallel
plates that reflect light back and forth. By constructive and destructive interference
only a few wavelengths are able to pass, the others are reflected.
The criterion for constructive interference is that the differences in path length of the
multiple-reflected beams is equal to an integer multiple of the wavelength. Thus, by
varying the distance between the plates, certain wavelengths can be selected.
For the other wavelengths the criterion is not fulfilled, therefore they are reflected.
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Interference
Fig. 75 Interference
a b c d
a ½
Fig. 76 Fabry-Perot interferometer
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3.1.2 Dielectric Thin Film Filters

DTF Filters consist of alternate layers of high refractive index and low refractive
index, each layer being /4 thick.
Light reflected within layers of high refractive index does not shift its phase, while
light reflected in layers of low refractive index is shifted by 180. The condition for
constructive interference once more causes one wavelength to pass and the others
to be reflected.
That means its function is similar to a Fabry Perot Filter but it is much more
"accurate", with narrow line width etc.
Some features are:

 Low pass band loss: less than 0.3dB;
 Good channel spacing: better than 0.8nm;
 Low interchannel crosstalk: better than –28dB.
Reflected Beam
High index
Low index
Transmitted Beam
Fig. 77 Dielectric thin film filter
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3.1.3 Mach-Zender Filter

This method once more relies on interference.
A mix of two wavelengths arrives at the first coupler which distributes the power
equally on both lines. One of the lines is longer, thus introducing a different optical
path length and a phase shift.
Selecting that phase difference cleverly can mean that the first wavelength has its
interference maximum at the place of fiber one and the second wavelength at fiber
two, thus separating the two signals.
By introducing a heating device to regulate the difference in length, and thus the
phase shift, it is possible to tune a Mach-Zender filter.
Heater
 and 2 L+L

L 
Coupler Coupler
Fig. 78 Mach Zender filter
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3.1.4 Bragg Grating

A Bragg grating (or Bragg Reflector) consists of a number of parallel semireflecting
plates. Once more by using constructive and destructive interference just one specific
wavelength is completely reflected, if it satisfies the condition
d = n*B/2
Where n is 1, 3, 5,...
Bragg reflectors have a very high reflectivity and are therefore employed as mirrors
for high power lasers.
A variation of Bragg gratings is the so called fiber Bragg grating: By varying the index
of refraction of a fiber core it is possible to achieve a kind of Bragg grating, such that
one wavelength is reflected, while the others pass through.
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d d d
Fig. 79 Bragg grating
1,2,3,4 1,2,4
3
Fig. 80 Fiber Bragg grating
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3.2 Optical Multiplexer and Demultiplexer

An optical demultiplexer can be built as an association of optical filters or as a single-
stand device. The purpose is to extract the original channels from a DWDM signal.
The requested properties of this device are the same as for the optical filter: isolation
and signal distortion. However channel number and spacing must be considered now
because demultiplexers can impose limitations on the number of channels or the total
available bandwidth. Most demultiplexers are symmetrical devices and can also be
used as multiplexers.
3.2.1 Prism
The easiest and best-known optical demultiplexer is the prism.
Using the effect of dispersion (different speed of light for different wavelengths), light
is split into its spectral components.
3.2.2 Diffraction Grating

The function of a diffraction grating is very similar to that of a prism, only here
interference is the important factor. A mixture of light is also split into its contributing
wavelengths.
With such a grating, sometimes also called a bulk grating, channel spacing of down
to 50GHz can be achieved.
White Light
Spectrum
Glass Prism
Fig. 81 Effect of a prism
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Fig. 82 Optical Multiplexer and Demultiplexer
Spectrum
White Light
Fig. 83 Effect of a grating
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3.2.3 Dielectric Thin Film Filters

DTF filters are well suited to multiplex or demultiplex a small number of channels.
They are simply connected in sequence, each filter dropping one specific
wavelength.
Although this method is comparatively easy it has one drawback; each reflection
causes attenuation of approximately 0.1dB. That means the channel demultiplexed
last is attenuated to a much higher degree then the first one, especially if we are
talking about a higher number of channels. This property restricts the use of DTFs
quite severely, limiting the number of channels to about 16.
The minimum spacing reachable with these devices is about 100GHz.
Fig. 84 Demultiplexing using narrowband DTF filters
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3.2.4 Arrayed Waveguide Gratings

Another technique also relying on interference is AWGs. Here, by introducing optical
length differences it is ensured that each wavelength has a maximum at one of the
output fibers.
The basic idea is very simple. For example, to execute the demultiplexing of a WDM
signal, the input signal is coupled into an array of planar waveguides after passing
through a coupling section. During its propagation the signal in each waveguide
experiences a different phase shift because of different lengths of waveguide.
Moreover, the phase shifts are wavelength dependent which has once more to do
with dispersion. As a result, different channels focus to different spatial spots or to the
inputs of different waveguides.
This method is better suited for a higher number of channels, as all channels suffer a
more or less equal loss.
The arrayed waveguide gratings can manage channel spacing of minimum 50GHz.
Array of waveguides
1
1...n
n
Fig. 85 Functionality of an arrayed waveguide grating
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3.2.5 Mach Zender Interferometer

Using a cascaded set of Mach Zender filters it is possible to demultiplex (or multiplex)
a number of channels with different wavelength.
Those Mach Zender interferometers can be integrated on Silica substrates, using
conventional technology.
1 to 4 1
M-Z filter
2
M-Z filter
3
M-Z filter
4
Fig. 86 Mach Zender interferometer as a demultiplexer
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3.2.6 Fiber Bragg Gratings

To demultiplex a multiwavelength signal wavelength by wavelength it is possible to
use a combination of an optical circulator and a Fiber-Bragg grating (FBG).
This method is particularly interesting for optical add-drop multiplexers as single
wavelengths can be easily dropped. Even more interesting is the possibility to tune
that device by changing the length constant of the Fiber-Bragg grating using piezo
technology.
One advantage is the comparatively low insertion loss of only 0.2dB per FBG. A
second one is the reachable channel spacing of only 25GHz.
Optical Fiber-Bragg Grating

Circulator
 


Fig. 87 Fiber grating as demultiplexer
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3.3 Optical Fibers

Classification and Applications
There are three major classifications of single-mode optical fiber in use in today's
telecommunication networks. They are specified by the ITU-T as:
 ITU-T G.652: Standard single-mode optical fiber (SSMF)
 ITU-T G.653: Dispersion-shifted single-mode optical fiber (DSF)
 ITU-T G.655: Non-zero-dispersion-shifted single-mode optical fiber (NZ-DSF)
There are various differences among the three types of single mode fibers, but the
main parameter distinguishing them is the Chromatic Dispersion (CD) characteristics.
Each G-65x fiber is optimized for certain applications. To differentiate among G.65x
fibers it is sufficient to introduce the following four applications:
 SSMF -> G.652 was designed to operate at 1310 nm with zero dispersion for
Intermediate Reach applications;
 DSF -> G.653 was designed to operate at 1550 nm with zero dispersion for Long
Reach single channel (e.g. TDM or 10GbE) applications;
 NZ-DSF -> G.655 was designed to operate across a window of wavelengths near
1550 nm with a small amount of dispersion.1550nm mainly for Dense Wavelength
Division Multiplexing (DWDM) applications .
Chromatic dispersion is the linear phenomenon that causes different wavelengths of
light to travel at slightly different speeds, leading to a broadening of the pulse.
Dispersion can limit transmission speeds and distance, but a small amount of
dispersion is required to reduce some detrimental non-linear effects such as four-
wave mixing and cross-phase modulation.
WARNING
A DSF looks like an ideal means to maximize the reach of optical
communication systems in the 1550 window. A DSF is indeed suitable for TDM
or single-channel applications, however it turns out that having zero-
dispersion at 1550nm is a negative condition for DWDM applications: the
“absence” of chromatic dispersion enhances nonlinear impairments like Four
Wave Mixing (FWM) and Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM) basically limiting the
ultimate system performance.
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Types of Single-Mode Fiber

 ITU-T G.652: Standard single-mode fiber (SSMF)
 ITU-T G.653: Dispersion-shifted single-mode fiber (DSF)
 ITU-T G.655: Non-zero-dispersion-shifted single-mode fiber (NZ-DSF)
Fig. 88 Types of Single-Mode Fiber
The Effects of Chromatic Dispersion

Optical fiber
Tx Rx
All wavelengths Dispersion causes Different wavelengths

transmitted at the same some wavelengths to arrive at different times
time delay
Tx Signal Rx Signal
Fig. 89 The Effects of Chromatic Dispersion
Dispersion of SMF Fiber

Fiber Dispersion
(ps/nm*km)
30
DSF
20
NZ-DSF
10
NZ-DSF
0
SSMF
-10
-20
-30
1000 1200  0=1310 1400 1600 1800
 0=1550 Wavelength (nm)
Fig. 90 Dispersion of SMF Fiber
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General Information
An optical fiber consists of:
 The information-carrying glass (the core);
 A slightly "better" glass (the cladding);
 A protective layer of plastic (the coating) is applied over the cladding.
This combination of core - cladding - coating is the fiber.
The core and cladding properties define the type of fiber. The principal property
considered is the refraction index of the different parts of the fiber.
In the monomode fiber the chromatic dispersion is the dominant factor. It is
composed from:
 Material Dispersion;
This is a pure physical property and describes the different speed of different
wavelengths in the glass used. It can be changed only very little by the doping of the
fiber.
 Waveguide Dispersion.
This type of dispersion is highly dependent on the profile of the graded index. Thus it
is possible to influence the total dispersion of the fiber. By changing the graded index
it is possible to change the chromatic dispersion and the importance of non-linear
effects.
Optical fibers used in transmission applications

have the following dimensions:
Diameter of the core approx.:8m, 50 m, 62,5 m

Diameter with cladding:125 m
Diameter with the coating:250 m
125
250
Fig. 91 Typical structure of an optical fiber with common dimensions
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+50
Dispersion in ps/(nm*km)
DMAT
DCROM
1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 Wavelength

in m
DWAV
-50
Fig. 92 Chromatic dispersion
Profiles of the graded index

Doping
Doping
0 Radius 0 Radius
Fig. 93 Examples of profiles of the graded index
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Mode Field Diameter (MFD)

The “Mode Field Diameter” is an important parameter:
 Indirectly determines the contribution to chromatic dispersion known as waveguide
dispersion;
 Influences the “Effective Core Area”, Aeff, which determines the nonlinear
behavior of the fiber optic cable;
 Single-mode fibers with small mode field diameters show higher coupling losses at
connections.
TIP
The mode field diameter should not be confused with the core diameter of the fiber.
In an optical signal, not all the light travels through the core of the fiber. The optical
power is distributed between the core and the cladding. The "Mode Field" represents
the distribution of light through the core and cladding of a particular fiber.
Effective Core Area (Aeff)

The strength of nonlinear effects is influenced by various transmission and fiber
parameters, among which the Effective Core Area, or Aeff, plays a significant role.
Aeff is loosely defined as the light-carrying region of the fiber.
When we study fiber optic transmission in terms of attenuation and dispersion we
assume to operate in linear regime. This means that the Intensity of the signal does
not alter the fiber chromatic dispersion and the attenuation characteristics.
Intensity is defined as a ratio between power and an area:
I = P/A [W/µm2]
The intensity and therefore the nonlinear behavior of the fiber are enhanced as the
area is reduced.
TIP
In fiber optic when the signal intensity grows above certain thresholds, both the
attenuation and chromatic dispersion coefficient exhibit deviations from their standard
characteristics. In these conditions fiber optics transmission operate in nonlinear
regime.
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Mode Field Diameter (MFD)

Light Intensity
Distribution Amplitude
Core
Cladding
Radius
Core
MFD
Fig. 94 Mode Field Diameter
Effective Area (Aeff)

G.652 Large Effective
Area Fiber
Small Aeff
Typical Value Typical Value Typical Value

Aeff = 85 µm2 Aeff = 72 µm2 Aeff = 52 µm2
Difference in coupling loss
LEAF Small Aeff

to G.652 to G.652
Fig. 95 Effective Area Aeff
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3.4 Dispersion Compensation Elements

3.4.1 Dispersion Compensation Fiber
A dispersion compensator is often a length of optical fiber made of a material that
displays anomalous chromatic dispersion at the wavelength of operation. Therefore,
its dispersion is negative, while that of the principal fiber medium is positive. The
magnitude of the dispersion per unit length in the compensator is usually much
greater than that in the fiber to be compensated, so a short length of dispersion
compensating fiber can compensate for the chromatic dispersion of a considerable
span of ordinary fiber.
A short length of fiber of a large dispersion coefficient opposite to the one of the usual
transmission fiber is introduced in the transmission path. This fiber is usually coiled
up and used as a module; the length of the compensation fiber depends on how
much normal fiber is being compensated for.
dispersion compensation
fibre with module with negative
positive dispersion dispersion
End End
System System
Fig. 96 Dispersion compensation using compensation fiber
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3.4.2 Chirped Fiber Bragg Grating

Dispersion compensation can also be achieved using discrete components such as
Bragg gratings." Chirped" means that the index variation has a linearly variable pitch.
As a result longer wavelengths are reflected earlier, shorter wavelengths later. This
can be used to compensate dispersion when combined with an optical circulator.
red blue
red blue
Fig. 97 Effect of chirped fiber Bragg grating
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3.4.3 Laser Chirping

In combination with fiber dispersion chirp (or carrier frequency shift, oscillations in the
transmitted wavelength) can be a positive or negative factor. Considering that due to
dispersion some wavelengths travel faster than other it is possible to transmit the
slower wavelengths before the faster wavelengths by correctly adjusting the chirp
parameters. By doing this, the transmitted signal is dispersion resistant up to a
certain length of fiber. External modulators induce less and more easy to control chirp
than directly modulated lasers.
Optical fiber
Tx Rx
All wavelengths transmitted Dispersion causes some Different wavelengths arrive
at the same time wavelengths to delay at different times
Initial impulse
-100 -50 0 50 100
Final impulse
Fig. 98 Example of transmission without chirp
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Optical fiber
Tx Rx
Different wavelengths are Dispersion induces more Different wavelengths arrive
transmitted with some delay differences in delay at different times
Initial impulse
-100 -50 0 50 100
Final
impulse
Fig. 99 Example of transmission with chirp induced degradation
Optical fiber
Tx Rx
Different wavelengths are Dispersion causes some In the end all the wavelengths
transmitted with some delay wavelengths to delay arrive at the same time
but opposite to dispersion
delay
Initial impulse
-100 -50 0 50 100
Final impulse
Fig. 100 Example of transmission with chirp induced dispersion compensation
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3.5 Optical Connectors, Circulators and Isolators

3.5.1 Optical Connectors
There are numerous types of plugs and sockets to connect optical fibers, using
threaded, bayonet, push-pull and snap-lock connections. The first fiber-optic
connector to be standardized was SMA, which was followed by the SC, ST and FC
types. Since most optical transmissions require two cables (one to transmit and the
other to receive), smaller form factors such as the snap-lock Fiber Jack are
increasingly being developed to make installations as simple as plugging in a
telephone.
Connectors have to be especially selected to guarantee low reflection. They can be
designed as:
 PC (Physical contact);
or
 APC (Angled physical contact).
Types like E2000 /PC or /APC, generally speaking, high-return-loss connectors are
therefore good choices.
Additionally, all connectors have to be cleaned very carefully to avoid breaks in the
physical contact and also to avoid power being absorbed in those impurities.
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Physical contact Angled physical

connector LAN contact connector WAN
WAN CATV
... / PC ... / APC
SIMPLEX
FC ST SC D4 Biconic DIN-LSA E2000 Mini-BNC F-SMA
... / PC ... / PC ... / PC ... / PC ... / PC ... / PC ... / PC ... / PC ... / PC
... / APC ... / APC ... / APC HRL-10 ... / APC
Fig. 101 Optical Connectors 1
Angled
air-gap WAN
CATV
connector
SIMPLEX DUPLEX
VFO EC/RACE HRL-11 Escon SC Duplex Duplex-MIC

FDDI
... / PC ... / PC ... / PC
.../APC
Fig. 102 Optical Connectors 1
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3.5.2 Isolators
The very-narrowband lasers used in DWDM are highly sensitive to reflected power.
Such external reflections act as additional resonators and the result might be
wavelength instabilities, mode jumps, noise, etc.
Isolators are, to put it simply, devices that let light pass in one direction without
attenuation and do not allow light to flow in the reverse direction. In that respect they
are a kind of "optical diodes".
Thus, reflected power is highly attenuated (by about 30dB).
Technically speaking, isolators can be constructed as a combination of polarization
rotators and linear polarization filters.
3.5.3 Circulators
A device of similar structure like the isolator is the circulator. It works as a kind of
multiport isolator, transmitting the input of port 1 to port 2, input of port 2 to port three
and so on.
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Fig. 103 Function of an optical isolator
Port 2
Port 1 Port 3
Circulator
Fig. 104 Function of Optical circulator
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3.6 Optical Amplifiers

3.6.1 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier
For optical amplification purposes very often so called EDFAs (Erbium doped fiber
amplifiers) are used, as well for pre-amplifying or boosting a signal.
Those systems basically consist of a pump laser, a coupler device to join signal and
pump light and an erbium-doped piece of fiber of several meters of length.
A pump laser at between 980 and 1480nm lifts electrons of the Erbium ions from the
energy E1 to a higher, excited energy level. In the next step the electrons fall down a
little to the energy level E2. In that way it is ensured that pump light and signal light
don't influence each other.
Finally, the phenomenon of „induced emission“ is used. A photon of our signal light
passes the electron; consequently that electron falls down to its former energy E1, at
the same time emitting another photon identical to the one which has just passed.
Thus we have amplified our signal.
To put it briefly, in the EDFA the pump light is converted to signal light, in that way
amplifying the signal. The gain is influenced by factors like erbium-ion concentration,
core radius, amplifier length, pump power and pump configuration. The EDFAs can
be used to amplify the whole third and fourth transmission windows.
Typical values for EDFAs are:
C-Band L-Band
Wavelength range 1530-1565nm 1570-1605nm
Total output power 14-25dBm 14-25dBm
Length of active fiber 10-60m 50-300m
Number of pump lasers 2-6 3-8
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Pump light
Pump laser at 980/1480nm
Isolator Coupler Isolator

weak erbium amplified
input doped fiber output
signal signal
Fig. 105 Layout of an EDFA
Erbium - Doped Fiber
E2
E1
980 nm Pump Laser
Fig. 106 Functionality of an EDFA
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Disadvantages
 The amplification is not linear over the range. In order to adjust all channels to a
comparable power level (compensate so called tilt) it might be necessary to use
variable optical attenuators (VOAs) to pre-emphasize each individual channel.
 A second problem is that (in the easiest implementation) the total output power is
kept constant, independent of the number of channels transmitted. That means,
the more channels, the less power per channel and the shorter the possible hop.
 Problem number three is the so called amplified spontaneous emission (ASE).
Some of the excited electrons fall down to ground level without being induced.
That radiation is also amplified and causes a good part of the noise background.
Advantages
 Simultaneous amplification of the whole 1550nm area.
 Total output power 1 to 1000mW possible.
 Large dynamic ranges.
 Suitable for long-haul applications.
EDFAs are often cascaded, giving two advantages:

 Noise reduction by e.g. cascading one amplifier pumped at 980nm and another at
1480nm.
 Bye adjusting the characteristics of the amplifiers with VOAs the tilt can be
compensated.
TIP
Like Erbium other rare-earth elements can be used for amplification in other
wavelength ranges. At the moment those amplifiers are not ready for use, though.
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Fig. 107 Generation of noise (ASE) in an EDFA
1,4
Ho3+ Pr3+ Nd3+ Tm3+ Er3+ Er3+ Tm3+
1,2 Holmium Praseodym Neodym Thulium Erbium Thulium
Attenuation [dB/km]
1,0
0,8 Window 2 5 3 4
0,6
0,3
0,2
0,0
1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Wavelength [nm]
Fig. 108 Materials used for fiber amplifiers
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3.6.2 Raman / Brillouin Amplifier

The Stimulated Raman and Brillouin Scattering can also be used for amplification. In
contrast to the fiber amplifiers these amplifiers are often pumped from the receive
side.
One major advantage is that these amps can be used over the entire range from
1300 to more than 1600nm, depending on the wavelength of the pump light, which is
by scattering transformed to signal light.
The achieved gain can be in the range of 10 to 14dB.
Excited Atoms
Pasing
photon
Incident
photon
Atoms in ground state
Fig. 109 Functionality of a Raman amplifier
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Receiver
Amplification Signal
Pump Light
Fig. 110 Layout of a contra-directionally pumped Raman amplifier

Power in dBm
Route Length in km
Fig. 111 Typical power graph along a contra-directionally Raman pumped line
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3.7 Lasers and Modulators

Lasers have the function of providing optical power in order to generate optical
signals. DWDM systems uses semiconductor lasers which are composed by a
combination of n and p-type doped layers derived by a current. The quality of the
generated light depends strongly on the laser structure and several types of devices
were developed according to the required application.
Fabry-Perot-Laser
The easiest form of a semiconductor laser is the Fabry-Perot-Structure:
Basically, these lasers are planar light emitting diodes consisting of an n-type and a
p-type doped layer. Between these two layers, we've got the active region where the
lasing takes place. To be able to select a lasing wavelength this region has to have
the form of an interferometer, which in this case can be done by cleaving. The length
of the lasing cavity determines the lasing wavelength. Like a Fabry-Perot
Interferometer, the FP Laser is not very "good": In addition to our desired wavelength
we also get "side-wavelengths" which effectively give us a larger line width. Therefore
the FP Laser is also called "Multi-Longitudinal-Mode" (MLM) Laser.
Distributed Feedback Lasers

DFB Lasers are commonly used for DWDM purposes. Here, we're applying basically
the same trick as in the Dielectric Thin Film filter: We don't use simply mirrors at the
end, but introduce a layer-structure in the lasing cavity, a bit like in a Bragg Grating.
This has a similar effect like a FP structure, just much better. While having a slightly
more complicated structure, DFB Lasers fit the requirements very well:
 Narrow peaks (about 0.0001nm);
 Wavelength range 1520 to 1565nm and above (third and fourth window);
 Stable.
TIP
For the pumping of EDFAs pump lasers are used, which usually put out rather high
powers, up to the watt range. The requirements are here more polarization properties
and power then line width.
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Optical
Terminal Output
p-type
n-type
Fig. 112 Fabry-Perot laser
Optical
Terminal Output
p-type
n-type
Fig. 113 DFB laser

Intensity
-15 to -25 dBm 0 to -10 dBm +5 to -10 dBm
FWHM FWHM FWHM

~100 nm ~ 3 nm «1 nm
 (nm)
LED FP laser diode DFB laser diode
(MLM laser) (SLM laser)
Fig. 114 Properties of different LED and laser types
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3.8 Optical Modulators

The modulation of lasers can be done by modulating the laser itself or using an
external modulator. Direct modulation brings the problem of „chirping“, i.e. frequency
oscillations of the laser. The reason for this is that the index of refraction of the active
region changes slightly with the applied current, therefore the effective length of that
region changes and also the emitted wavelength.
As this is a problem in DWDM systems external modulators are often used. They
solve the problem of chirping, but they cannot avoid a certain broadening of the line,
which is physically inevitable when modulating a signal.
MQW Modulator
One type of modulator is the semiconductor MQW (Multiple Quantum Well)
modulator. Its functionality is simple. When voltage is applied, light is absorbed. It has
the further advantage that it can be produced on the same substrate as the laser
itself.
Mach Zender Modulator

Its function is analogous to that of the Mach Zender filter. By varying the phase of
one arm of a M-Z filter the two parts of the signal either interfere constructively ("on")
or destructively ("off"). LiNbO3 can be used for this phase control.
Contact
p-type
MQW stack
n-type
n-type substrate
Fig. 115 Semiconductor MQW modulator
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Phase control
Fig. 116 Layout of a Mach Zender modulator
Central Wavelengths Channel Spacing
10Gbit/s
modulation
allowable totally used

modulation
wavelengths spectral
bandwidth
tolerance range
40Gbit/s
modulation
no totally used
modulation
wavelengths spectral
bandwidth
tolerance range
Fig. 117 Effect of modulation on the channel bandwidth
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3.9 Photodectectors
In the optical transmission systems, usually two types of photodetectors are used:
 PIN-Diodes;
 APD Diodes.
PIN Diode
The name comes from the structure of the diode: p-doped, intrinsic and n-doped
semiconductor material is used in a layer structure. The diodes are reversely biased.
Each incident photon causes an electron-hole pair to be produced, the electron and
the hole drift towards the electrodes, which in turn causes a measurable current. This
current is proportional to the number of incident photons. The intrinsic layer has been
inserted, in contrast to usual p-n diodes, mainly to reduce distortion.
APD Diode
In principle the APD (Avalanche Photo Diode) works the same way as the PIN diode.
The difference is that the electrons and holes, while being separated, gather enough
energy to cause more electron-hole pairs by impact ionization. Thus a whole
"avalanche" of charged particles flows and a higher current can be measured.
Therefore APDs are especially well suited for applications where a very high
sensitivity is needed. It should be mentioned though that the avalanche process is
rather "noisy", causing a fluctuation of the gain factor.
-
p-type
intrinsic
n-type
Fig. 118 Layout of a photodiode
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p-type p-type
+ -
+ +
- -
- +
PIN Diode APD Diode
n-type n-type
Fig. 119 Functionality of PIN and APD diode
Sensitivity
1.0 InGaAs
Si Ge (23°C)
0.5 Ge (0°C)
850 1300 1550  (nm)
Fig. 120 Spectral response of different detector materials
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Appendix - DWDM Basics

Appendix - DWDM Basics

1 WDM Basics - Getting Started

1.1 WDM Basics

Fig. 2 WDM Basics

1.1.1 What is WDM?

WDM means Wavelength Division Multiplexing

It is Frequency Domain Multiplexing at optical frequencies (~200 THz)

It can be divided into

Copyright © Coriant 2013. All rights reserved.

1.1.2 How Does it Work? School Physics Lesson ...

How Does it Work? School Physics Lesson ...

Copyright © Coriant 2013. All rights reserved.

Fig. 4 Working Principle

1.1.3 WDM - Wavelength Division Multiplexing

WDM - Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Glass Prism Glass Prism

• Each “coloured” wavelength represents one WDM channel

Copyright © Coriant 2013. All rights reserved.

Fig. 5 Wavelength Division Multiplexing

1.1.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Cosmic radiation X ray radiation UV radiation IR radiation Communications radiation

(1 THz) (1 GHz) (1 MHz)

C0 = 300 000 km/s l = wavelength

Visible fibre transmission

850 1310 1410 1500 1550 1650 nm

Copyright © Coriant 2013. All rights reserved.

Fig. 6 Electromagnetic Spectrum

1.1.5 Optical fiber Attenuation

Optical fibre Attenuation

1530 1560 1620nm

Coarse WDM (CWDM) Region

Copyright © Coriant 2013. All rights reserved.

Fig. 7 Optical fiber Attenuation

1.1.6 DWDM Blue & Red Band

DWDM Blue & Red Band

• Blue band – higher frequencies, red band – lower frequencies

Copyright © Coriant 2013. All rights reserved.

Fig. 8 DWDM Blue & Red Band

1.1.7 Performance Limiting Nonlinear fiber Effects

Performance Limiting Nonlinear fibre Effects

15 Self Phase Modulation (SPM)

Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)

Copyright © Coriant 2013. All rights reserved.

Fig. 9 Performance Limiting Nonlinear fiber Effects

1.1.8 Long Distance Transport W/O WDM

Long Distance Transport W/O WDM

SDH/Sonet Mux SDH/Sonet repeater SDH/Sonet Mux

Copyright © Coriant 2013. All rights reserved.

Fig. 10 Long Distance Transport W/O WDM

1.1.9 WDM - Passive Single Span Systems

WDM - Passive Single Span Systems

SDH/Sonet Mux SDH/Sonet Mux

WDM Mux WDM Mux

IP router Coloured interfaces

Multiple channels use same fibre pair

Copyright © Coriant 2013. All rights reserved.

Fig. 11 WDM - Passive Single Span Systems

1.1.10 Active Single Span Systems

Active Single Span Systems

SDH/Sonet Mux SDH/Sonet Mux

IP router Coloured interfaces

Multiple channels use same fibre pair