I YEAR / II SEMESTER (INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY)

IT8201- INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ESSENTIALS

UNIT – III
NETWORKING ESSENTIALS

COMPILED BY

Mr.M.KARTHIKEYAN M.E., (AP/IT)

VERIFIED BY

HOD PRINCIPAL CEO/CORRESPONDENT

SENGUNTHAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING – TIRUCHENGODE

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

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UNIT III NETWORKING ESSENTIALS 9

Fundamental computer network concepts - Types of computer networks -

Network layers - TCP/IP model - Wireless Local Area Network - Ethernet - WiFi -
Network Routing - Switching – Network components.

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 UNIT – III
NETWORKING ESSENTIALS

 Fundamental computer network

 Types of computer networks
 Network layers
 TCP/IP model
 Wireless Local Area Network
 Ethernet
 WiFi
 Network Routing
 Switching
 Network components

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 PART – A
1. List out the advantages and limitations of WiFi.(NOV/DEC2019)
2. List out the networking components. (NOV/DEC2019)
3. What is the purpose of DNS server (APR/MAY2019)
4. You want to implement a mechanism that automates the IP configurations,
which protocol will you use to accomplish this? (APR/MAY2019)
5. How many bits does IPV6 address contain? How it is different from IPV4 ?
[APR/MAY2018]
6. Differentiate WiFi and WiMax? [APR/MAY2018]
7. Define Computer Network.
8. List out the Advantages of computer network.
9. Define Server.
10. Define communication channel.
11. Define network switch.
12. What are the types of media transmitters?
13. List out the merits of TCP/IP model.
14. List out the demerits of TCP/IP model.
15. What are the types of service?
16. What are the Switching techniques?
17. Define Path selection.
18. What is Network Interface Card?
19. Define PCF.
20. Define the error rate measurements.
PART – B

1. Describe about the switching techniques with diagrams.[NOV/DEC2019] OR

Compare and contrast different types of switching methodologies in
Network Communications. [APR/MAY 2018]
2. Discuss on the different network topology and give example for each.(6)
[APR/MAY 2019] OR Explain the various Network
Topologies.[APR/MAY2018]

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3. Explain detail about in Type of Networks.
4. With a neat diagram explain OSI model. (OR) How do layers of Internet
model correlate with OSI model?
5. Explain in detail about TCP/IP architecture and also brief the various
protocols used in this model (7) [APR/MAY2019]Explain in detail the TCP/IP
Reference model. [OR] Show how data flows through different layers in
TCP/IP network. Calculate the number of times encapsulation and de-
capsulation take place.[6marks]
6. Explain in detail the Wireless Local Area Network.
7. List out detail about Network components.

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 PART – A

1. List out the advantages and limitations of WiFi.(NOV/DEC2019)

Advantages of wifi
i. Convenience
ii. Mobility
iii. Productivity
iv. Deployment
v. Expandability
vi. Cost
Disadvantages of wifi
i. Security
ii. Range
iii. Reliability
iv. Speed

2. List out the networking components. (NOV/DEC2019)

a. Network Interface Card (NIC)
b. Hub
c. Switches
d. Cables and connectors
e. Router
f. Modem

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3. What is the purpose of DNS server (APR/MAY2019)
4. You want to implement a mechanism that automates the IP configurations,
which protocol will you use to accomplish this? (APR/MAY2019)

5. How many bits does IPV6 address contain? How it is different from IPV4 ?
[APR/MAY2018]
An IP address is binary numbers but can be stored as text for human
readers. For example, a 32-bit numeric address (IPv4) is written in decimal as
four numbers separated by periods. Each number can be zero to 255.
For example, 1.160.10.240 could be an IP address.
IPv6 addresses are 128-bit IP address written in hexadecimal and
separated by colons.
An example IPv6 address could be written like
this: 3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf

6. Differentiate WiFi and WiMax? [APR/MAY2018]

Wi-Fi is based on IEEE 802.11 standard whereas WiMAX is based on IEEE
802.16. However, both are IEEE standards.

Wi-Fi typically provides local network access for a few hundred feet with the
speed of up to 54 Mbps, a single WiMAX antenna is expected to have a range of
up to 40 miles with the speed of 70 Mbps or more. As such, WiMAX can bring
the underlying Internet connection needed to service local Wi-Fi networks.

WiFi is for a LAN, and WiMax is for the WAN

7. Define Computer Network.

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing

hardware devices that are linked together through communication channels to
facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users.

8. List out the Advantages of computer network.

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  network-connected peripheral devices like printers, scanners and copiers,etc.,
 sharing of programming/files
 sharing of data
 sharing of information
 Sharing a single internet connection.
 sharing software between multiple users, saves money.
 it is cost-efficient and can help protect your systems.

5. Define Server.

A server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to another

computer over the internet or a local network.

That provides a specific kind of service to client software running on the same
computer or other computers on a network.

6. Define communication channel.

A path or link that connects computers or peripherals devices, such as pointers

and disk drivers to transfer information.

Cables are commonly used as communication channels in a network, but no

network can also transfer information through wireless communication.

7. Define network switch.

Switch is like a smart Hub.

It has a advanced features like the ability to form tables that keep updated about
all the computer or device and on which port it is on.

Using a physical device addresses in each incoming messages, it delivers the

message to the correct destination port.

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8. What are the types of media transmitters?

Twisted pair wire

Coaxial cable

Fiber-optic Cable

Wireless

9. List out the merits of TCP/IP model.

It operates independently

It is scalable

Client/ Server architecture

Support a number of routing protocols.

Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

10. List out the demerits of TCP/IP model.

In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

The model cannot be used in any other application.

Replacing protocol is not easy.

It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

11. What are the types of service?

Basic Services Set (BSS)

Extend Services Set (ESS)

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12. What are the Switching techniques?

There are four typical switching techniques available for digital traffic.

Circuit Switching

Packet Switching

Message Switching

Cell Switching

13. Define Path selection.

Path selection involves applying a routing metric to multiple routes to select the
best route.

In computer networking, the metric is computed by a routing algorithm, and can

cover information such as bandwidth, network delay, hop count, path cost, load,
MTU, reliability and communication cost.

15. What is Network Interface Card?

Network adapter is a device that enables a computer to talk with other

computer/network. Using unique hardware addresses (MAC address) encoded
on the card chip, the data-link protocol employs these addresses to discover
other systems on the network so that it can transfer data to the right destination.

Two types of network cards: wired and wireless.

16. Define PCF.

PCF- point Coordination Function.

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 PCF method is used in infrastructure network.

In this Access point is used to control the network activity.

PCF uses centralized, contention free polling access method.

17. Define the error rate measurements.

Sinal- to Noise ratio(SNR ratio)- is a relative measure of the received signal and this
noise.

Bit error rate(BER) – the probability that a transmitted bit s received in error at the
receiver.

PART – B

1. Describe about the switching techniques with diagrams.[NOV/DEC2019]

Compare and contrast different types of switching methodologies in
Network Communications. [APR/MAY 2018]

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 Following figure shows the types of switching:

Circuit Switching

 Circuit switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links.

 In circuit switched network, two nodes communicate with each other over a
dedicated communication path.
 There is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travel and no other data
is permitted.
 Before starting communication, the nodes must make a reservation for the
resources to be used during the communication.
 In this type of switching, once a connection is established, a dedicated path exists
between both ends until the connection is terminated.

 The end systems, such as telephones or computers are directly connected to a

switch.
 When system A needs to communicate with system B, system A needs to
request a connection to system B that must be accepted by all switches as well
as by B itself.

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  This is called as setup phase in which a circuit is reserved on each link, and the
combination of circuits or channels defines a dedicated path.
 After the establishment of the dedicated circuit, the data transfer can take place.
 After all data has been transferred, the circuit is torn down.

Packet Switching:

 In packet switching, messages are divided into packets of fixed or variable size.
 The size of packet is decided by the network and the governing protocol.
 Resource allocation for a packet is not done in packet switching.
 Resources are allocated on demand.
 The resource allocation is done on first-come, first-served basis.
 Each switching node has a small amount of buffer space to hold packets
temporarily.
 If the outgoing line is busy, the packet stays in queue until the line becomes
available.
Packet switching method uses two routing methods:

Datagram Packet Switching

 Datagram packet switching is normally implemented in the network layer.

 In datagram network, each packet is routed independently through the network.
 Each packet carries a header that contains the full information about the
destination.
 When the switch receives the packet, the destination address in the header of
the packet is examined; the routing table is consulted to find the corresponding
port through which the packet should be forwarded.

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2. Virtual Circuit Packet Switching

 Virtual circuit packet switching is normally done at the data link layer.
 Virtual circuit packet switching establishes a fixed path between a source and a
destination to transfer the packets.
 It is also called as connection oriented network.
A source and destination have to go through three phases in a virtual
circuit packet switching:
I. Setup phase
ii. Data transfer phase
iii. Connection release phase

 A logical connection is established when a sender sends a setup request to the

receiver and the receiver sends back an acknowledgement to the sender if the
receiver agree.
 All packets belonging to the same source and destination travel the same path.
 The information is delivered to the receiver in the same order as transmitted by
the sender.

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 Message Switching

 In message switching, it is not necessary to establish a dedicated path between

transmitter and receiver.
 In this, each message is routed independently through the network.
 Each message carries a header that contains the full information about the destination.
 Each intermediate device receives the whole message and buffers it until there are
resources available to transfer it to the next hop.
 If the next hop does not have enough resources to accommodate large size message,
the message is stored and switch waits.
 For this reason a message switching is sometimes called as Store and Forward
Switching.
 Message switching is very slow because of store-and-forward technique.
 Message switching is not recommended for real time applications like voice and video.

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2. Discuss on the different network topology and give example for each.(6)
[APR/MAY 2019] OR Explain the various Network
Topologies.[APR/MAY2018]

Types of Computer Network Topology

Network really has two shapes or two types of topology.

1. Physical topology
2. Logical topology

Physical Topologies

The physical topology is the physical shape or layout of the wires that can be
visible in a network. The Physical topology defines how devices are
interconnected with or without wires. Physical topology is further divided into two
sections.

1. Point-to-point connections
2. Multipoint connections

Point-to-point connections

In a point-to-point connection, a communication link is established between two

devices with one wire or air (in the case of wireless). A simple example of point-

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to- point connection is talking over telephone between two persons where anyone
else is not allowed to use the phone on either side.

Multipoint Connection

Multiple devices or machines are involved in a multipoint connection. These

devices mainly share cabling but each device needs to have a unique number to
identify each other for sending data between them. A good example of a
multipoint connection is communication between a group of computers in a
network.

Logical Topology

A logical topology defines how devices communicate with each other across the
physical topology. The physical and logical topologies are independent of each
other. The physical topology refers to the physical layout of the wires where the
logical topology refers to how data moves through the network. There are five
types of logical topology that are used in a network.

 Star topology
 Hierarchical topology
 Bus topology
 Mesh topology
 Ring topology

Star Topology

Star topology is the most popular network topology that is used in many business
and home networks today. A star topology is established with a central
connection point called a hub node. The hub may be an actual hub device or a
network switch or a network router. Network devices generally connect to the hub
with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet cables also known as RJ45 cables.
The main benefit of a star network is that failure in any start network cable will

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 only take down one computer’s network access but not the entire LAN. However,
if the hub node fails, the entire network will be down in a start network.

Star Network

Hierarchical Topology

The hierarchical topology is also known as tree topology. In a tree topology, a central
‘root’ node (top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are
one level lower in the hierarchy with a point-to-point physical link. The second level
node may also have connected to one or more other nodes that are one level down in
the hierarchy with another point-to-point link. The top level node i.e root node is the only
node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy.

Multiple star networks can be connected with tree network where each hub node of a star network
functions as the node of a tree network.

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Tree Network

Bus Topology

In a bus network, a common backbone is connected to all network devices. The high capacity bus
backbone (generally a single cable) functions as a shared communications medium and it joins networks
and central devices. If any network device wants to communicate with another network device within a
bus network, the device sends a broadcast message onto the backbone. All other devices will see the
broadcast message but only the desired recipient will accepts and process the message.

The performance of a bus network will be visual negatively if more than few dozen computers are
connected to this network. In addition, failure of the backbone cable will damage the whole network.

Bus Network

Mesh Topology

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In a mesh network, every network device is connected to every other network device with a point-to-
point connection. This topology is mostly used in WAN and wireless networks. The route concept is
introduced by mesh topology and this topology is used by routers to determine the best path. Mesh
network also provides physical link redundancy in the event of a link failure. As each device is
connected to all other devices in a mesh network, this topology is the most expensive and difficult to
maintain.

Two types of mesh topology are possible. If every device is connected to all other devices, it is called full
mesh. On the other hand, partial mesh also possible where some devices are connected to only
indirectly to others.

Ring Topology

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In a ring network, every network device is connected to two neighbor devices with a point-to-point
connection for communication purpose. All devices in a ring network make a loop. If any cable or device
is fail, the loop will break and also break down the entire ring network. In the ring network, messages
travel through the loop in the same direction (effectively either clockwise or counterclockwise). FDDI,
SONET or Token Ring technology is used to implement a ring network. A Token is passed from one
computer to another which enables each computer to have equal access to the network.

Ring Network

Network topology plays an important role in computer network design theory. You can probably build a
small network without having better knowledge on the network topology but if you have better
understanding, you will be able to understand basic networking concept like network broadcasting,
switching and routing.

Computers in a network are connected in some logical manner, referred to as network topology
or network architecture. Learn about the different types of network architecture.

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 3. Explain detail about in Type of Networks.

Computer Networks fall into three classes regarding the size, distance and the
structure namely: LAN (Local Area Network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), WAN
(Wide Area Network). Before we discussing about type of network we can discuss about
what is a network.

Types of Networks

Personal Area Network (PAN)

A personal area network is a computer network organized around an individual person.

Personal area networks typically involve a mobile computer, Personal area networks
can be constructed with cables or wirelessly. Personal area networks generally cover a
Network range of less than 10 meters (about 30 feet).

PAN (Personal Area Network) first was developed by Thomas Zimmerman and other
researchers at M.I.T.'s Media Lab and later supported by IBM's Almaden research lab.

Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)

LAN (Local Area Network)

A Local Area Network is a privately owned computer network covering a small Networks
geographical area, like a home, office, or groups of buildings e.g. a school Network. A
LAN is used to connect the computers and other network devices so that the devices
can communicate with each other to share the resources. The resources to be shared
can be a hardware device like printer, software like an application program or data. The
size of LAN is usually small. The various devices in LAN are connected to central
devices called Hub or Switch using a cable.

Now-a-days LANs are being installed using wireless technologies. Such a system
makes use of access point or APs to transmit and receive data. One of the computers in
a network can become a server serving all the remaining computers called Clients.

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For example, a library will have a wired or wireless LAN Network for users to
interconnect local networking devices e.g., printers and servers to connect to the
internet.

LAN offers high speed communication of data rates of 4 to 16 megabits per second
(Mbps). IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly
40 Gbit/s. LANs Network may have connections with other LANs Network via leased
lines, leased services.

Types of LAN

There are basically two types of Local Area Networks namely: ARCnet and Ethernet.

LAN (Local Area Network)

 A Local Area Network is a privately owned computer network covering a small

Networks geographical area, like a home, office, or groups of buildings e.g. a
school Network.
 A LAN is used to connect the computers and other network devices so that the
devices can communicate with each other to share the resources.
 The resources to be shared can be a hardware device like printer, software like
an application program or data. The size of LAN is usually small.
 The various devices in LAN are connected to central devices called Hub or
Switch using a cable.
 Now-a-days LANs are being installed using wireless technologies. Such a
system makes use of access point or APs to transmit and receive data.
 One of the computers in a network can become a server serving all the
remaining computers called Clients.
 For example, a library will have a wired or wireless LAN Network for users to
interconnect local networking devices e.g., printers and servers to connect to the
internet.
 LAN offers high speed communication of data rates of 4 to 16 megabits per
second (Mbps).

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  IEEE has projects investigating the standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly 40
Gbit/s. LANs Network may have connections with other LANs Network via leased
lines, leased services.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)

 MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Networks is one of a number of types of

networks.
 A MAN is a relatively new class of network.
 MAN is larger than a local area network and as its name implies, covers the area
of a single city.
 MANs rarely extend beyond 100 KM and frequently comprise a combination of
different hardware and transmission media.
 It can be single network such as a cable TV network, or it is a means of
connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that resources can be
shared LAN to LAN as well as device to device.

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  A MAN can be created as a single network such as Cable TV Network, covering
the entire city or a group of several Local Area Networks (LANs).
 It this way resource can be shared from LAN to LAN and from computer to
computer also. MANs are usually owned by large organizations to interconnect
its various branches across a city.
 MAN is based on IEEE 802.6 standard known as DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual
Bus).
 DQDB uses two unidirectional cables (buses) and all the computers are
connected to these two buses. Each bus has a specialized device that initiates
the transmission activity.
 This device is called head end. Data that is to be sent to the computer on the
right hand side of the sender is transmitted on upper bus.
 Data that is to be sent to the left hand side of the sender is transmitted on lower
bus.

WAN (Wide Area Networks)

 A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunication network. A wide area

network is simply a LAN of LANs or Network of Networks.
 WANs connect LANs that may be on opposite sides of a building, across the
country or around the world.
 WANS are characterized by the slowest data communication rates and the
largest distances.
 WANs can be of two types: an enterprise WAN and Global WAN.

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 Computers connected to a Wide Area Networks are often connected through
public networks, such as the telephone system.
 They can also be connected through leased lines or satellites.
 The largest WAN in existence is the Internet. Some segments of the Internet, like
VPN based extranets, are also WANs in themselves.
 Finally, many WANs are corporate or research networks that utilize leased lines.
 Numerous WANs have been constructed, including public packet networks, large
corporate networks, military networks, banking networks, stock brokerage
networks, and airline reservation networks.
 Organizations supporting WANs using the Internet Protocol are known as
Network Service Providers (NSPs). These form the core of the Internet.
 By connecting the NSP WANs together using links at Internet Packet
Interchanges (sometimes called "peering points") a global communication
infrastructure is formed.

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4. With a neat diagram explain OSI model. (OR) How do layers of Internet model
correlate with OSI model?

The Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) model has seven layers. This article
describes and explains them, beginning with the 'lowest' in the hierarchy (the physical)
and proceeding to the 'highest' (the application). The layers are stacked this way:

1.Physical layer

2.Data Link layer

3.Network layer

4.Transport layer

5.Session layer

6.Presentation layer

7.Application layer

OSI model layers

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PHYSICAL LAYER

The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the
transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium.
It describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical
medium, and carries the signals for all of the higher layers. It provides:

 Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the
PC to better accommodate the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid
in bit and frame synchronization. It determines:

o What signal state represents a binary 1

o How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts
o How the receiving station delimits a frame
 Physical medium attachment, accommodating various possibilities in the
medium:

o Will an external transceiver (MAU) be used to connect to the medium?

o How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin used for?
 Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted
by baseband (digital) or broadband (analog) signaling.
 Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals
appropriate for the physical medium, and determines:

o What physical medium options can be used

o How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal state, using
a given physical medium

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DATA LINK LAYER

The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another
over the physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume virtually error-free
transmission over the link. To do this, the data link layer provides:

 Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link
between two nodes.
 Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" when no frame
buffers are available.
 Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.
 Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and
recovers from errors that occur in the physical layer by retransmitting non
acknowledged frames and handling duplicate frame receipt.
 Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.
 Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
 Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the
physical medium.

NETWORK LAYER

The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path the
data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It
provides:

 Routing: routes frames among networks.

 Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a
sending station to "throttle back" its frame transmission when the router's buffer
fills up.

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  Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum
transmission unit (MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a
frame for transmission and re-assembly at the destination station.
 Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses, or names, into
physical addresses.
 Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames
forwarded by subnet intermediate systems, to produce billing information.

Communications Subnet
The network layer software must build headers so that the network layer software
residing in the subnet intermediate systems can recognize them and use them to route
data to the destination address.

This layer relieves the upper layers of the need to know anything about the data
transmission and intermediate switching technologies used to connect systems. It
establishes, maintains and terminates connections across the intervening
communications facility (one or several intermediate systems in the
communicationsubnet).

In the network layer and the layers below, peer protocols exist between a node and its
immediate neighbor, but the neighbor may be a node through which data is routed, not
the destination station. The source and destination stations may be separated by many
intermediate systems.

TRANSPORT LAYER

The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error free, in sequence, and
with no losses or duplications.

It relieves the higher layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of data between
them and their peers.

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The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get
from the network layer.

For a reliable network layer with virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport layer is
required.

If the network layer is unreliable and/or only supports datagrams, the transport protocol
should include extensive error detection and recovery.

The transport layer provides:

 Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it,
splits the message into smaller units (if not already small enough), and passes
the smaller units down to the network layer. The transport layer at the destination
station reassembles the message.
 Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with
acknowledgments.
 Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no
message buffers are available.
 Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto
one logical link and keeps track of which messages belong to which sessions
(see session layer).

Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there are strict
message size limits imposed by the network (or lower) layer.
Consequently, the transport layer must break up the messages into smaller units, or
frames, prepending a header to each frame.
The transport layer header information must then include control information, such as
message start and message end flags, to enable the transport layer on the other end to
recognize message boundaries.
In addition, if the lower layers do not maintain sequence, the transport header must
contain sequence information to enable the transport layer on the receiving end to get

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the pieces back together in the right order before handing the received message up to
the layer above.

End-to-end layers

Unlike the lower "subnet" layers whose protocol is between immediately adjacent
nodes, the transport layer and the layers above are true "source to destination" or end-
to-end layers, and are not concerned with the details of the underlying communications
facility.

Transport layer software (and software above it) on the source station carries on
a conversation with similar software on the destination station by using message
headers and control messages.

SESSION LAYER

The session layer allows session establishment between processes running on different
stations. It provides:

 Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application

processes on different machines to establish, use and terminate a connection,
called a session.
 Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to
communicate over the network, performing security, name recognition, logging,
and so on.

PRESENTATION LAYER

The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It
can be viewed as the translator for the network. This layer may translate data from
a format used by the application layer into a common format at the sending station,

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 then translate the common format to a format known to the application layer at the
receiving station.
The presentation layer provides:

Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.

Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on

the network.

Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password
encryption.

APPLICATION LAYER

The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to
access network services. This layer contains a variety of commonly needed functions:

 Resource sharing and device redirection

 Remote file access
 Remote printer access
 Inter-process communication
 Network management
 Directory services
 Electronic messaging (such as mail)
 Network virtual terminals

5. Explain in detail about TCP/IP architecture and also brief the various protocols
used in this model (7)[APR/MAY2019]Explain in detail the TCP/IP Reference
model. [OR] Show how data flows through different layers in TCP/IP network.

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Calculate the number of times encapsulation and de-capsulation take
place.[6marks]

The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the network
model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which
govern every possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the
movement of data between the source and destination or the internet. They also offer
simple naming and addressing schemes.

Overview of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by
Department of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a
research project of network interconnection to connect remote machines.

The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP
reference model were:

 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the source and
destination machines were functioning.

The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data
packets) another application running on different computer.

Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:

Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.

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 3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless

internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by
transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of the
protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.

1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a

remote machine and run applications on it.

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 2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst
computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport
electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for
Hosts connected over a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
o TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-oriented
protocol which handles byte-stream from source to destination without
error and flow control.
o UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-less
protocol that do not want TCPs, sequencing and flow control. Eg: One-
shot request-reply kind of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

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Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model

Now it's time to compare both the reference model that we have learned till now. Let's
start by addressing the similarities that both of these models have.

Following are some similarities between OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Reference
Model.

 Both have layered architecture.

 Layers provide similar functionalities.
 Both are protocol stack.
 Both are reference models.

TCP/IP Reference Model

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6. Explain in detail the WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORK.

 A wireless local area network (WLAN) is a wireless computer network that

links two or more devices using wireless communication within a limited
area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building.
 This gives users the ability to move around within a local coverage area
and yet still be connected to the network.
 Through a gateway, a WLAN can also provide a connection to the wider
Internet.
 Most modern WLANs are based on IEEE 802.11 standards and are
marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name.

CDMA

 CDMA is an example of multiple access, where several transmitters can

send information simultaneously over a single communication channel.
 This allows several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth).
 To permit this without undue interference between the users, CDMA
employs spread spectrum technology and a special coding scheme
(where each transmitter is assigned a code)

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Types of wireless LANs

The IEEE 802.11 has two basic modes of operation: infrastructure and ad hoc mode.

In ad hoc mode, mobile units transmit directly peer-to-peer.

In infrastructure mode, mobile units communicate through an access point that serves
as a bridge to other networks (such as Internet or LAN).

Since wireless communication uses a more open medium for communication in

comparison to wired LANs.

The 802.11 designers also included encryption mechanisms:

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP, now insecure), Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA,
WPA2), to secure wireless computer networks. Many access points will also offer Wi-Fi

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Protected Setup, a quick (but now insecure) method of joining a new device to an
encrypted network

WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

Infrastructure

 Most Wi-Fi networks are deployed in infrastructure mode.

 In infrastructure mode, a base station acts as a wireless access point hub, and
nodes communicate through the hub.
 The hub usually, but not always, has a wired or fiber network connection, and
may have permanent wireless connections to other nodes.
 Wireless access points are usually fixed, and provide service to their client nodes
within range.
 Wireless clients, such as laptops, smartphones etc. connect to the access point
to join the network.
 Sometimes a network will have a multiple access points, with the same 'SSID'
and security arrangement.
 In that case connecting to any access point on that network joins the client to the
network.
 In that case, the client software will try to choose the access point to try to give
the best service, such as the access point with the strongest signal.

Peer-to-Peer or ad hoc wireless LAN

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 An ad hoc network (not the same as a WiFi Direct network[3]) is a network where
stations communicate only peer to peer (P2P).
 There is no base and no one gives permission to talk.
 This is accomplished using the Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS).
 A WiFi Direct network is another type of network where stations communicate
peer to peer.
 In a Wi-Fi P2P group, the group owner operates as an access point and all other
devices are clients.
 There are two main methods to establish a group owner in the Wi-Fi Direct
group. In one approach, the user sets up a P2P group owner manually.
 This method is also known as Autonomous Group Owner (autonomous GO). In
the second method, also called negotiation-based group creation, two devices
compete based on the group owner intent value.
 The device with higher intent value becomes a group owner and the second
device becomes a client.
 Group owner intent value can depend on whether the wireless device performs a
cross-connection between an infrastructure WLAN service and a P2P group,
remaining power in the wireless device, whether the wireless device is already a
group owner in another group and/or a received signal strength of the first
wireless device.
 A peer-to-peer network allows wireless devices to directly communicate with
each other.
 Wireless devices within range of each other can discover and communicate
directly without involving central access points.
 This method is typically used by two computers so that they can connect to each
other to form a network.
 This can basically occur in devices within a closed range.
 If a signal strength meter is used in this situation, it may not read the strength
accurately and can be misleading, because it registers the strength of the
strongest signal, which may be the closest computer.

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  IEEE 802.11 defines the physical layer (PHY) and MAC (Media Access Control)
layers based on CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance).
 The 802.11 specification includes provisions designed to minimize collisions,
because two mobile units may both be in range of a common access point, but
out of range of each other.

PEER-TO-PEER

7 List out detail about Network components.

 Hub
 Repeater
 Modem
 NIC
 Bridge
 Basic switch
 Basic router
 Basic firewall

Hub A hub is basically a multiport repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different
stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In

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other words, collision domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also,
they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.

Repeater A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal
over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An
important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When
the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original
strength. It is a 2 port device.

Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator. Modems are used for data
transfer from one computer network to another computer network through telephone
lines. The computer network works in digital mode, while analog technology is used for
carrying massages across phone lines.

NIC A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board or card that is installed in a
computer so that it can be connected to a network.

A network interface card provides the computer with a dedicated, full-time connection to
a network. Personal computers and workstations on a local area network (LAN) typically
contain a network interface card specifically designed for the LAN transmission
technology

Bridge – A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and
destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

Switch – A switch is a multi port bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency (large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. Switch is data link
layer device. Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it

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very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to correct port only. In other words, switch divides collision domain of hosts,
but broadcast domain remains same.

Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. Router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs
and WANs together and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they
make decisions on routing the data packets. Router divide broadcast domains of hosts
connected through it.

NETWORK COMPONENTS

Basic firewall - In computing, a firewall is a network security system that monitors and
controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predetermined security rules. A
firewall typically establishes a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted
external network, such as the Internet.

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FIREWALL

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