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Central Dogma of
Life
Heredity
Message in the Double Helix
DNA Replication
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Transcription
Protein Synthesis
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Heredity
Passing of characteristics or traits from
parents to offspring
 Genetics
Study of heredity

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Loci
- Locations on the chromosome where a gene appears
Alleles
- Different versions of a gene
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Classical or Mendelian
Genetics
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Pea Plant: Pisum sativum
Mendel’s First
Postulate
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Unit factors occur in PAIRS

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Unit factors occur in pairs

Smooth Rough

RR rr

X
Mendel’s Second
Postulate
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Dominance/ Recessiveness
When two unlike unit factors responsible for a single
character are present in a single individual, one unit
factor is dominant to the other, which is said to be
recessive.
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Dominance/ Recessiveness
Smooth Rough

RR rr

X
◼ Dominant allele
◼ Produces the same phenotype whether its partner allele is
identical or different
◼ RR, Rr - smooth

◼ Recessive allele
◼ Fails to express its phenotype when dominant allele is present;
both unit factors must be recessive for expression
◼ rr- wrinkled
Mendel’s Third Postulate

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Segregation
During the formation of gametes, the paired unit
factors separate or segregate randomly so that
each gamete receives one or the other with
equal likelihood.
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Segregation
Smooth Rough

RR rr

X
RR rr

Gamete formation

R Gametes r
Modern Genetic
Terminologies
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Phenotype/ Genotype
Naming!

Phenotype Smooth Rough

Genotype RR rr

X
◼ Phenotype
◼ Refers to physical appearance or characteristic of an organism
◼ Combination of genotype

◼ Genotype
◼ Refers to the genetic composition of an organism
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Naming Alleles

RR rr

◼ Convention is…

◼ Use the first letter of the recessive trait

◼ Uppercase for dominant
◼ Lowercase for recessive
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Homozygous

Homozygous dominant Homozygous recessive

X
Smooth Rough
RR rr

◼ Gene pair where maternal and paternal genes are identical

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Heterozygous

Heterozygous dominant

Rr

◼ Gene pair where maternal and paternal genes are different

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Monohybrid Cross

◼ Crossbetween contrasting characteristics of a

single trait

◼ Trait: seed shape

◼ Characteristic: smooth vs. wrinkled

+ Smooth Rough

RR rr

P1
(parental generation) X

F1
(first filial generation)

Rr Rr Rr Rr

◼ Dominant trait is what appears in

F1 progeny (smooth)

◼ Recessive is what does not!

(rough)
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Homozygous
X
Smooth Rough
RR rr

Heterozygous

Rr Rr Rr Rr
 Smooth Rough
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RR rr
P1
(parental generation)
Homozygous X

F1
(first filial generation)
Heterozygous X
Rr Rr Rr Rr

F2
(second filial generation)

RR Rr Rr rr
◼ 75% smooth, 25% wrinkled (3:1 ratio)
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Using the Punnett Square…

Aa x Aa

female gametes
A a A a A a A a
male gametes

A A A A A AA Aa
a
a a a Aa aa a A a a Aa aa
a a a
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◼ Mendel interpreted his results as:

Various traits are controlled by

PAIRS OF FACTORS, one factor
from the male parent and another
from the female parent.

Genes
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Dihybrid Cross

◼ 2 homozygous parents differing in 2 traits

Purple flowers White flowers

Tall stem Short stem
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WWSS wwss
purple- X white-
WS ws
flowered Flowered
tall parent short parent
(homozygous (homozygous
dominant) recessive)

F1 OUTCOME:
All of the F1 plants are WwSs heterozygous
(purple flowers, tall stems).

WwSs
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F1 generation
WwSs

WwSs X WwSs

WS Ws wS ws
WWSS WWSs WwSS WwSs
WS
(purple, tall) (purple, tall) (purple, tall) (purple, tall)
F2 WWSs WWss WwSs Wwss
generation Ws (purple, tall) (purple, short) (purple, tall) (purple, short)
WwSS WwSs wwSS wwSs
wS (purple, tall) (purple, tall) (white, tall) (white, tall)
WwSs Wwss wwSs wwss
ws (purple, tall) (purple, short) (white, tall) (white, short)
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Dihybrid Cross
WS Ws wS ws
WWSS WWSs WwSS WwSs
WS
(purple, tall) (purple, tall) (purple, tall) (purple, tall)
WWSs WWss WwSs Wwss
Ws (purple, tall) (purple, short) (purple, tall) (purple, short) F2
WwSS WwSs wwSS wwSs generation
wS (purple, tall) (purple, tall) (white, tall) (white, tall)
WwSs Wwss wwSs wwss
ws
(purple, tall) (purple, short) (white, tall) (white, short)

Genotypic Ratio Phenotypic ratio

1/16 WWSS
2/16 WWSs
9/16 purple flowers, tall stem
2/16 WwSS
4/16 WwSs
1/16 WWss
3/16 purple flowers, short stem
2/16 Wwss
1/16 wwSS
3/16 white flowers, tall stem
2/16 wwSs
1/16 wwss 1/16 white flowers, short stem
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1. Rr x Rr
R – black hair
r – red hair

a. Gametes formed?
b. Phenotype ratio of offspring?
c. Genotype ratio of offspring?
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2. WwDd X WWDD
W – yellow seeds
w – white seeds
D – tall stems
d – dwarf stems

a. gametes formed?
b. phenotypic ratio of offspring?
c. genotypic ratio of offspring?
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◼ Gametes: R, r

◼ PR: 3 black hair: 1 red hair

75% black hair: 25% red hair

◼ GR: 1 RR: 2 Rr: 1 rr

25% RR: 50% Rr: 25% rr

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◼ Gametes: WD, Wd, wD, wd

: WD,WD, WD, WD

◼ PR: All yellow round seeds

100% yellow seeds, tall stem

◼ GR: 4 WWDD: 4WWDd: 4WwDD: 4WwDd

1WWDD: 1WWDd: 1WwDD: 1WwDd

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DNA
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◼ Hereditary information in nucleic acids

◼ DNA- bacteria, archaea, fungi, algae, protozoa, viruses

◼ RNA- phages, many animal & plant viruses

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centromere multiple levels of coiling
of DNA and proteins
(constricted region)

fiber

beads on a
string

DNA double helix

nucleosome
core of histone
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Basis of inheritance:
CHROMOSOMES
◼ Genes located in the chromosomes

◼ Behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization

dictate the Mendelian patterns of inheritance

◼ Proposed by Theodore Boveri and Walter Sutton (1902-1903)

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Fundamental Principles

◼ Chromosomes contain genetic material

◼ Chromosomes are replicated and passed from parent to

offspring

◼ The nuclei of (most eukaryotic cells) contain homologously-

paired chromosomes

◼ During gamete formation, different types of nonhomologous

chromosomes separate

◼ Each parent contributes one set of chromosomes to its

offspring (“half-dad and half-mom”)
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In application to Mendel’s
postulates…
◼ Law of Segregation
◼ Homologous pairs eventually separate during the process of
meiosis

And….
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Principle of Segregation

◼ Twomembers of a gene pair

segregate from each other in the
formation of gametes

◼ Halfthe gametes carry one

allele, and the other half carry
the other allele
Mendel’s Fourth Postulate

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Independent Assortment
Genes for different traits assort independently
of one another in gamete formation (mixing and
matching of male gametes with female
gametes). Different genes are inherited
separately
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Mendelian Traits

◼ An offspring receiving a dominant allele (whether it be

homozygous or heterozygous) will express the dominance

◼ Only those receiving homozygous alleles (both parents) will

express the recessive trait

◼ Recessive traits may skip generations, especially if its

genotype its heterozygous
◼ Activated only when paired with another who has the recessive
allele
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Mendelian Traits
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Mendelian Traits
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Mendelian Traits
+ NUCLEIC
ACIDS
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
+ DNA Basic
Structure
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Basic Structure

◼ Nitrogenous base

◼ Five Carbon ring (pentose; deoxyribose)

◼ Phosphate
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Basic Structure

Nitrogenous
BASE
Phosphoester linkage

N-glycosidic bond

PHOSPHATE Deoxyribose
+ Alternating
deoxyribose and
phosphate group
make up the
backbone of
DNA!

Phosphodiester bond
joins the 5’ phosphate
of one nucleotide and
3’ OH of adjacent
nucleotide
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DNA Nitrogenous Bases
 • Bases project
+ inwards

• Double stranded
nature with base
pairing between
nitrogenous base
of the opposite
strand

• Hydrogen bonds
link the 2
opposite bases
(holds DNA)
• A = T (2 H)
• G = C (3 H)
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Eukaryotic Chromosome

◼ Linear

◼ Helix coiled around

histone proteins

◼ Multiple levels of
coiling =
chromosome
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Prokaryotic Chromosome

◼ Covalently closed
circle

◼ Nicked circle

◼ Supercoils- twisted

ALLOWS
PACKAGING OF
DNA!
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Good genetic material must…

◼ Store huge amounts of information

◼ Replicate and transmit accurately

◼ Be very stable

◼ Capacity for alteration/ genetic exchange

◼ Be flexible
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RNA Basic Structure
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Presence of OH in
C2 makes RNA
more susceptible to
chemical and
enzymatic
degradation
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RNA Nitrogenous Bases
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◼ Single stranded
nature

◼ Except
for some
RNA phages &
eukaryotic viruses
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3 Major Types of RNA

◼ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

◼ “construction worker”
◼ Makes up the ribosomes
◼ Present in the cytoplasm ~80%
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3 Major Types of RNA

◼ Transfer RNA (tRNA)

◼ “transport vehicle”
◼ Transports AA floating in
the cytoplasm to the
ribosomes for protein
synthesis
◼ ~10 – 20% of the total RNA
inside the cell
◼ Clover leaf or hairpin
structure
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3 Major Types of RNA

◼ Messenger RNA (mRNA)

◼ “mailman”
◼ Carries information for protein synthesis
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Compare!

Prokaryote Eukaryote

Type/ shape of
nucleic acid

Location