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    Optimization of The Mix Proportion For Desert Sand Concrete Based On A Statistical Model - Elsevier Enhanced Reader

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    Consrction an Building Matra 26 2018) 469-482 Contents lists available at ScionooDiroct Construction and Building Materials journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat = Optimization of the mix proportion for desert sand concrete based on a ® statistical model sae Wenlong Yan, Gang Wu °, Zhigiang Dong Key laboratory of Concrete ond Prestressed Concrete Statues ofthe Mini of Education Southeast Univers, Nanjing 21006, China «The slump, ar content, and compressive strength of 36 DSC mixtures were investigated experimentally ‘ihe statistical models were established to evaluate the elects of the experimental factors on the DSC properties {An increase in the YF ratio and WIC rato in the mixtures caused a reduction in compressive strength {The optimization criteria for the mix proportion of DSC were propose for various construction demands. ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Fre io Received 1 Api 2019 Receive in revised or 17 july 2019 ‘To promote more construction applications of desert sand (DS), this study provides a method to design and optimize the mix proportion of desere sand concrete (DSC) based on a taistical model. The water to cement (W/C) ratio, sand to aggregate (S(A) ratio, DS to Fin aggregate (DJF) ratio, and water reducer (WR) dosage are selected as the experimental factors, In addition, the slump. at content, and compressive strength at7 days and 28 days of 36 DSC mixtures are investigated experimentally. The statistical models are established based on a central composite design to evaluate the effects ofthe experimental factors on ——— the bs properties andthe amass efvriane an th sda forthe mods nate hat al eed eet lone vfand hove peice caps. Adana he ess presented nthe espns acoso ay face ls inate haan nese inthe I tine tres can decease te samp an enn the ae content, but the augmentation of the W/C rato can increase the slump and reduce the ait content ‘An increas in both the DYF ratio and W/C ratio cause a reduction in compressive strength. On the other hand, the effects of the S/A ratio and WR dosage onthe DSC properties exhibit minor roles relative co the important eects ofthe WIC ratio and DF ratio. In addition Co the above, optimization criteria are pro- posed to select the appropriate mix design parameters of DSC fr various construction demands. 1 2010 Elsevier Le. Al right reserved ‘Opemization entra 1. Introduction 1-will not only save project costs and promote economic develop- ment in desert regions but also alleviate the consumption af scarce ‘The demand for fine agerogates is escalating rapidly along with the ever-increasing consumption of concrete. However, river sand (RS), which is the most commonly adopted fine aggregate used in concrete, has been excessively exploited all over the world. This has already induced serious environmental impacts [1,2). Ad tionally, RS resources ate very scarce in many regions, especially for those in desert areas [1.3], Under these circumstances, other ‘materials, for example, desert sand [4.5] (DS), manufactured sand {Gand even recycled fine aggregates [7.8], have been considered as fine aggregates, Because of the abundance and low cost of DS, the application of DS for producing concrete is the most attractive © Goresponing author. mal ede 020 ed. (6, Wo naps: doior/0.1016conbuitémat201807287 (950-0518/0 2019 Elsevier Ud Al rgts reserve RS resources and protect the ecological environment [9-14] Therefore, desert sand concrete (DSC) has attracted increasing, attention [15-24), In recent decades, numerous researchers have explored the fea- sibility of using DS as a substitute for fine aggregate either totally (or partially [25-21]. Some researchers have reported that the _mechanical properties of DSC were comparable with those of con- ventional concrete | 10.32). Others documented that the utilization ‘of DS can optimize the particle size distribution of fine aggregate and thereby improve the workability of the concrete [1.16.27 It ‘was generally accepted that DS can be used as the fine aggrezate with an appropriate mix design (15,18,22). However, due to the differences in the fineness, water absorption, and porosity compared with those of RS [14.31), the concrete prepared with 70 W. Yan eta /Constnton and uling Matra 226 (2019) 469-482 DS may be different than normal concrete made with RS in both the fresh and hardened states [12,14.15]. Bouziani [3] experimen tally evaluated the impact of DS on the concrete properties and indicated that the compressive strength decreased with an increase in DS content. A similar result was reported by Abu Seif [31], Al Harthy et al. 15] also investigated the performance of con- ‘rete mixes with various DS to fine aggregate (D{F) ratios and Found that the workability of the conerete was best and the reduc- tion in the compressive strength was less than 25% when the D/F ratio was 50%. On the other hand, since DS is much finer than nor- ‘mal sand, DSC has a higher water demand and a larger cement con- tent to reach the desired level of fluidity |25,28,30]- Hence, the use ‘of a water reducer (WR) and an adjustment of water to cement (WIC) ratio are two central aspects in determining the mix propor- tion design for DSC [11.25.33]. Zhang etal. [25] fabricated concrete with desert sand as a complete replacement of the fine aggregate and showed that the WR could effectively improve the slump ‘and the compressive strength. Amel eta. [28] also discovered that the workability of DSC was improved by increasing the WIC ratio. In addition, researchers suggested applying the aggregate packing theories to adress the problem of poor gradation for DS and found that the compressive strength of DSC with optimized aggregate ‘grading was improved by more than 20% [24]. Thus, the sand t0 aggregate (SIA) ratios, which represent different aggregate skele- ton structures in the mix proportion design, should be taken into account, Luo etal. (7) tailored the SA ratio to improve the com- pactness of the mixture and the workability of DSC. In addition, Zhang et al. [25] also controlled the S/A ratio in the range of ‘28%-32% to avoid separation and bleeding during the mixing pro- ‘ess, As discussed above, the D/F ratio, WR dosage, W/C ratio, and SJA rato are vital parameters of the mix proportion design for DSC. Currently, most studies have revealed the influence of DS (the DjF ratio) or other individual parameters (such as the WR dosage, ‘WIC ratio and S/A ratio) on the fresh and hardened properties of DSC, but few studies have considered the combined effects of mul- tiple factors (the D/F ratio, WR dosage, WIC ratio, and S/A ratio) ‘and the comparison of the contribution of each factor to the DSC behaviors. Moreover, to our knowledge, no study in the literature has put forward a design method for the mix proportion of DSC. For these reasons, the objectives ofthis research are to provide a ‘design method for the mix proportion of DSC by using a statistical ‘modeling approach and to optimize the formulation of DSC. To ful- fill this objective. in this paper. the W/C ratio, S/A ratio, D/F ratio. ‘and WR dosage are selected as the experimental factors to design the mix proportion of DSC. In addition, the properties of DSC with various mix parameters are experimentally investigated in terms (of the slump, air content, and compressive strength at 7 days and 28 days (d), Additionally, statistical models ae established to high- light the effects of the experimental factors on these properties, and the feasibility of using the derived models to predict the per- formance of DSC is verified. Finally. the optimization of the mix design parameters is conducted to meet the target properties of DSC based on the statistical models. 2. Experimental design approach In general, the traditional experimental design approach for the imix proportion of concrete refers mainly to tailoring the mix ‘design parameters constantly until the desired concrete properties are achieved, but this approach often requires a large number of trials. In contrast, central composite design {11,33,35~39] (CCD) is an ideal approach for determining the optimal mix design parameters that achieve the specified properties while minimizing the number of trials. Furthermore, the approach can be used to ‘establish the statistical madels that describe the influence of the ‘modeled factors on the investigated properties [40-43]. This work ‘ims to evaluate the effec ofthe mix design parameters on the rel- ‘evant performance measutes of DSC and select the optimal combi- nation of parameters to meet the target performance of DSC. For this reason, as it has already been noted, this study uses the CCD approach. which can not only quantify the effects but also optimize the design parameters [44], ‘ACD plan for four factors (e=-4) is taken in this work. In the ‘case of four independent variables (k = 4), the plan consists of six- teen (2°= 16) factorial points, eight (2k= 8) axial points, and some replicated central points [39]. In this study, twelve 4(1 +(2*)"”) 2le= 12) replicated central points are prepared, thus ensuring the ‘orthogonality of the design [39]. Additionally, a quadratic polyno ‘ial model is developed to investigate the impact of the four dif- ferent factors and their binary interactions on the given ‘engineering properties of DSC, while the quadratic effect of each factor is taken into account. Thus, the associated statistical model for the experimental plan can be expressed as follows yam + Na+)? Yana + ad +e a ‘where y isthe response; x, and x are the experimental factors: dis 2 constant term: a, ay and a are the regression coefficients that reflec the influence of experimental factors on the response; and ‘is the random error term representing the effets of other factors that are not considered in the model In this researc, the responses of the model are the relevant properties of DSC, including the slump (,) air content (94). and Compressive strength at 7 and 284 (Yery and yous). The WIC ratio (x: represents the mass ratio of water to cement) S/A ratio (Go represents the mass ratio of ine agaregates to total aggregates) DIF ratio (x represents the volumettic ratio of desert sands to fine ‘aggregates), and WR dosage (xy is the percentage of cement by “weight) are factors that can influence the responses and are thus selected asthe experimental factors. Each factors seta fivedifer- ent levels, as shown in Table 1. The WIC ratio varies from 0.30 to (050 by an increment of 005. The S/A ratio varies from 0:30 to (038 by an increment of 0.02. The DJF ratio varies from 0 to 1 by {an increment of 0.25. The WR dosage varies from 0% to 0.6% by {an increment of 0.15% To facilitate the calculations and analysis ‘of the models, the five different levels for each factor are trans- formed to corresponding dimensionless coded values of ~2. 1, 0, +1, and +. The value of «is fixed and calculated as a function ‘of the number of factorial points (N) [36.29.45]: a= N'M (N= 16). “The coded value (Vand actual value (V) ofeach Factor are related by the following expression: Vq~ (max(V,) + min(V,))/2 (imax(V,) ~ min(V,))/2 7 2) In the ease of four factors and five levels, a total of thirty-six ‘combinations (n= 36) divided into three categories are considered, in the experimental plan, as shown in Table 5. The first category Consists of the “two-level factorial experiments” comprising six- sable ‘Witralio(s) Siavato(s;) Fate) Widaage a) coded 030 030 ° a2) 04s 036 ors asx a 030 oe t ase 2002) Yan eta /Contrction al Building Mater 226 (2019) 465-482 an teen DSC mixtures in which each factor is set at two different coded levels of -1 and +1. The second category consists of the “ax- jal experiments” and comprises eight additional conerete mixtures in which each factor is set at three different coded values of -2 (minimum), 0, and +2(maximum) and can be used to identify the nonlinear relationships among the factors and responses, The third category consists of the “central experiments” comprising twelve replicated mixtures corresponding to the coded value of O, which are conducted to estimate the experimental errors and evaluate the accuracy of models. 43. Experimental program 3.1, Materials The cement adopted for preparing the concrete was an ordinary Portland cement with a grade of 425, its performance characteris- tics are shown in Table 2. Tap water and a polycarboxylic high- performance WR supplied in the form of an aqueous solution were used in this investigation, The WR was produced by NANJING R&D HIGH TECHNOLOGY CO, and the solid content, specific gravity, and ‘ater reducing ratio of the WR were 32%, 1.07, and 20%, respec- tively. Crushed gravel with a maximum size of 31.5 mm was used a a coarse aggregate (CA), The fine aggregates (FA) used were sands from two different sources: DS and RS (Fig, 1). The DS was extracted from the Taklimakan desert (the largest desert in China and the tenth largest desert in the world) in the Xinjiang autono- ‘mous region of northwestern China, The RS was a commonly used sand from a local supplier. The physical properties of the CA and FA are presented in Table 3. The grading curves of the aggregates were obtained through a sieving analysis and are given in Fig. 2. As is evident from Table 3 and Fig. 2, there were some crucial differences Dbetween the DS and RS. The RS presented a continuous particle size distribution ranging from 0 to S mm while the DS had a more uni- {orm gradation with more than 80% of the grains smaller than he physical properties of th ‘Aawreates a Ds s ‘Apparent density (gle?) 701300 «1590 Specie density (gi Crushing vale ide (2) Water absorption 2) Moisture content (2) om = oon Masima size of aggregates (rn) ais S 2m 2560268 i : ny ps —o-Rs = Superior imit =o—ca = Inferior limit Cumulative 0 0075015 05 06 TAR DI AIS 95 Sieve diameter(mm) 19 375 Fig. 2. Particle size istbuton ofthe ageegates (0.16 mm. In addition, the DS was a superfine sand with a maxi ‘mum grain diameter of 0.315 mm, much finer than the RS. In fact, the fineness modulus and grain size distribution of the DS did not ‘able? “The cmon performance measures Specie density (lem?) Blane Fineness (hg) Soundness Setting ime Gin), enral sera Compressive Strength (4) Inia Final 2a aa ma 305 3 Qual 205, EJ ass 202 (DS Fig 1 Appearance of the ie apsresats meet the range for the FA suggested in the ASTM C33 [46] stan- dard, and there was no corresponding specification or standard for using DS in concrete [25]. Aalditionally, the X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis of DS and RS are presented in Table 4. The significant finding to notice is the presence of an obvious low percentage of silica in the DS compared to the RS, although both DS and RS are essentially siliceous in nat- ture, Amel etal (28) reported the same view for DS in the southern ‘area of Algeria and Alhozaimy etal. [47] found that DS had a lower, silica content in Saudi Arabia in comparison with white sand, while others discovered a similar percentage of Sis in DS and RS [1.25]. This could be explained by the differing properties of DS in difter- ‘ent regions, The results also showed thatthe percentages of Fe.0,, ‘AlsOs, CaO, MgO, NasO, and LOI were higher in DS than in RS, Based ‘on these findings, the DS from the Taklimakan desert and the RS ‘were different in terms oftheir chemical compositions. n addition, the DS is an aeolian sand with “inert” as well as more alkaline oxi- ‘des and organic impurities. Indeed, this may affect the hydration reaction, as well as the strength and durability of the concrete ‘and requires further research. Moreover, Fig. 3 demonstrates the morphologies of DS and RS. from the scanning electron microscope (SEM). Ina schematic man- ner, the major differences between these two types of sands ate in their grain shape and surface texture, The DS particle is character- ized by its rounded shape and smooth surface, which are attributed to the aeolian transportation mechanism in deserts. The RS particle features an angular shape. The results were consistent with the findings of Bouziani [3,16], Bederina [10], Abu Seif [1431] and Hadjoudja [1] etal. 3.2. Mixture proportions ‘Thirty-six concrete mixtures were designed according to the JG} 55-2011 [48] specification. In all the mixtures, the water content ‘was kept constant at 190 kg/m’, and the amounts ofthe other con- stituents (CA, DS, RS, WR, andl cement) were determined by the fol- lowing equation. Table 5 shows the mixture proportions and the ‘experimental results. W. Yan ta /Constncton and uling Matra 226 (2019) 469-482 Mee Mn, MMe ys 8) Be oc oniatrats pe ere my Mn My and My were the masses of cement CA. RS DS and water in each m? of concrete, respectively. pc. fig, Pr Pt nd py were the specie denies of cement CARS, DS and wat, reopedva and thelr measured values ein Selon 31 of ts paper Vows the ar content of concrete; ntl study, I was ie 2.3. Ming procedure and resting methods All the concrete mixtures were manufactured in an identical procedure by a forced mixer with a capacity of GOL. To obtain the homogeneous mixtures, the gravel, sands, and cement were first dry mixed for 2 min, and then the mixing process was main- tained for 4 min after the water and WR were added to the mix- ture, At the end of mixing, the slump and air content of the fresh concrete were measured according to the ASTM C143 (49] and ASTM C231 [50] specifications, respectively. For each mixture, the fresh concrete was poured into six preciled 150mm cubic molds and the molds were vibrated on a vibrating table for 45~ ‘905 until the mixtures were compacted. After 24h of casting, all, the specimens were demolded and stored in a laboratory environ- ment at a temperature of 272°C and a relative humidity of 165 £ 5%. A total of 216 specimens were produced for the compres~ sive strength tests in accordance with the BS EN 12390-3 [51] spec- ification. At 7d and 28d, the specimens were tested by a press ‘with a maximum capacity of 3000 KN at a constant loading rate (of 0.5 MPafs. The result was taken as the average of three measure ‘ments performed on three specimens of each concrete mixture. 4. Statistical analysis of the models 4.1. Established statistical models The measured results and coded values of the factors for 36 mixtures in Table 5 were used to derive the statistical models. ea Chemie composition ofthe fn aggregates (2) TA 5G; Fas AWD MOK NED TW); MNOS io DS SSI «2M OSG ~~«ASR~~asa—«22 «OR ~~C«ISS~COI CSS COOK —ommas ana {Di tos on ion (@ DS ()RS ig. 3. SEM photographs of the Hie agaresates Yan et a /Contrction on ‘Matte proportions and experinental eau, ding Mater 226 (201) 465-482 an Tes Coded ators Mixture compositions (ain) Experimental results kX Xfm Water Cement CADSR WR Skimp (mm) alr contene(=) _Compresive seeneth canra) 14 tea Two lel coral expenieats T 190 1233 ass 3000 Oates 150) 3608460 1 1190 toes Mak 4an6 2443 150 4102 4607 1 1 190 10501 4992 1915 0814 am want 4000 1 11M 1195137454 0683 TH 14 jan 40a 1 1190 195137 42541800185 tos wo 477 1 1 190 M882 4157 1035 0623 18 188 2829 3048 t 1190 11983 135° 1900 35 160 sos? aaa 1 14 0 ms 4782 068 1 145, 3126 3923 1 11 190 1124 4782 1500 167 120 wage 4105 t lt tao ties ioi2 083317 245 3929 3438 ' 11 190 W169 ert 1612 1900 20 200 mar 3597 Central experiments 0 0 0 0 1 1258 285295142580 nies 4054 oo 0 6 M258 das 295142576 3385 4008, > 0 0 0 1 M258 285209 142570, jana 4032 >. 0 0 0 i 1958 285205 1425 3423 4072 0 0 0 0 1 1258 285 29514555 3474 4096 0 0 0 0 1m 1958 285205 Laas 73 sari 4st > 0 0 0 1% 1258 285 29514255 sas 4000 All the coefficients (Coef.) ofthe models (Ea. (1)) were determined by the least-square approach, using the SPSS Statistics 20 software. Additionally, based on Student’s ¢ distribution, the coefficients were evaluated using t-tests. The significance of each modeled term fora tested response could thus be investigated by evaluating, the probability (P-value) that the coefficient of each term was not zero. In this study, the acceptance probability for the coefficients ‘was set at a P-value less than 005 and the nonsignificant (N-S) terms were eliminated, which did not impact the establishment and accuracy of the models. The coefficient and P-value for each ‘modeled term, along with the estimated statistical models for the slump (7), air content (f,), and compressive strength at 7d and 28 d (Jey and 92s), ate summarized in Table 6, where the experimental factors (x, 3 x2, and x) take on the coded values between —2 and +2, 42. Analysis of variance Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the validity of statistical models, and it included three test methods. The first ‘method used the corelation coeicient (R2) and the adjusted cor- relation coefficient (R3) for assessing the ability of the established models to Bt the experimental results [52], R? was obtained by adjusting R” with the number of degrees of freedom (DF), which eliminated the effect of the numberof factors on the fiting ability ofthe models. Additionally, Rand K varied between Oand I they presented high values (Ror Ri > 0.85), that suggested a good corre lation between the experimental results and the predicted values from models. The other two test methods were significance tests based on ANOVA for evaluating the quality ofthe established mod- cls. The general principle of the two methods was to calculate two ‘mean squares (MS) and then use the MS in Ftests to verify the sig- nificance of the difference between the two MS [53] The fist signif- ‘cance testis called the statistical model significance analysis. It calculated two M5 (MSq and MS,) according to the square sum of tie regression (SS) and the square sum of the residual (SS,). This process climinated the effect of the number of experimental data points on the square sum (SS). The SSq was a sum of squares of cif ferences between the predicted values from the models and the ‘mean of all the measured values, representing the variability in the responses attributed to the experimental factors. The SS, was a sum of squares of the differences between the measuted values nd the predicted values from the models, representing the variabil ity inthe responses explained by the experimental errr. So, for the statistical models, it needs to be verified that the MS of the regres- sion (MSq) was greatly higher than the MS of the residual (MS, ‘Based on that, the Fisher values (F-values) for the models were ‘obtained by dividing the MSq values by the MS, values. In addition, an F-test was cartied out by comparing the F-values for models with the critical Fvalues fora probability ata fixed 99% confidence inter- val. the F-values for models were higher than the critical F-values ound in the Fisher-Snedecor table adjusted for the degrees Prrameereinates forthe exabliahed statistical models (cad ators W. Yan ta /Constncton and uling Matra 226 (2019) 469-482 Tem ‘Stump 0) ‘i content (i) Compresive seat 24) oe 7361 ‘000 1736 3ams 0000 “06870000 a 19.000 m0 ‘22s 2365 0000 2768000 a air m0 0169 1.188 000 1.05, ‘00 oe Ns 09 Ns. Ns on NS 510 ro NS oss NS NS 0585 02560000 ‘Simated sista models, 67361 184) ie 1736. 02234, Fou 28, Sema ~40687 175K) 175, 01604, -0173e 4 17515, + 1185, 25x, 10256, 5.583e1 958 ‘o121xf 01048, 82445-0675, 328% + 03975. 66675 198% 5a 0.1785 02560 ‘of freedom (Dx and DF), the derived models were considered as validated. The second significance testis named the lack-of-t test for the statistical model. It divided the SS, into two parts: the SS of| the lack-offit (SS) caused by the imperfection of the models and the SS ofthe pure error (SS) estimated from the replicates data error (SS,= 55, + 5p). The SS, wasa sum of squares of differences between, the predicted values from the models at each level and the mean of the measured values at that level. The SSp was a sum of squares of, the differences berween al the individual measured values and the mean of the measured values at the same level, Thus, the MS of the lack-oF-fit (MS,) and the MS of the pure error (MSp) were ‘obtained by dividing the SS, values and SSp values by their respective degrees of freedom. in addition, the Ftest compared the ratio between the MS, and MS» with the critical F-values found in the Fisher-Snedecor table adjusted for degrees of freedom (DF, and fp). I the values of MSyMSp exceeded the critical F-values at a ‘95% confidence interval, the proposed models were inadequate Table 7 presents the ANOVA procedure and some equations concern= Ing ANOVA. “Table 8 shows the ANOVA results for the established model eval- uation and validation, as we can see, all the models in this study ‘exhibited high R® and 2 values, which suggested that the estab- lished models fitted the experimental results very well. In addition, the results for the frst significance test indicated that the F-values for all the models were much higher than the critical F-values ‘Additionally inthe case of the lack-of fittest, the SS, values were ‘able? ANOVA forthe statistical model higher than the $Sp values, and the F-values forall the modets were lower than the critical Fvalues, In conclusion, all the statistical mod- ‘els were verified to be statistically significant and valid and had pre- dictive capacity. 43. Analysis ofthe residual In the procedure of using the least-square approach to establish, the models or adopting ANOVA to validate models, it was impor- {ant to note that there was only one term representing the random ‘error, represented by « in Eq. (1). The random error was called the residual and is defined as the difference between the predicted ‘value from the model and the experimentally measured value. It represented the measurement errors, the effects of uncontrollable factors, etc. Before using these models, the residuals must be ana- lyzed by the hypothesis of homoscedasticty to ensure that there ‘was no more effect of other factors on the results. The hypothesis ‘of homoscedasticity supposes that the residual had a normal and independent distribution, with an average of zero and a constant variance of ¢*. In this study. three diagnostic graphs were used to verify the supposition Fig. 4 shows the scatter plots ofthe stan- ‘dardized residuals against the standardized predicted values, The points in the plots were distributed randomly within a range of [-2, 2] of the standardized residual value. It indicated that there was no outlier and that the residuals and the responses were uncorrelated and were independent of each other, Source of variation = OF ws Fas ‘ial vals Regression) SEN, Dok T = 550R SS, Foo DF) Resid) Sy SP3F0y HF Die=n Ms. SSD, leo (0) SDP Dr=m ke MS. S8,08, ss Feed. Df) Pure eror(P) See STH, 1? Drom Ms, =85/DF Total) S812 55e255, Dram 1 © 1 S585, 5 1 (S8/0F 35 0F) 7 Total number of expenimentsn =n Number of rpliates 3 the Mh evel e Number of ems in the mde i Namber of planning eves; m = 25,9, Predced value dye Measured vale. Mean ofthe measured ale. Yan eta /Contrction al Building Mater 226 (2019) 465-482 [ANOVA sess forthe statisti del. 415 Mosel Soure of variation SS DEMS Frvaloes Gra values “The made for slump (i) P= OTA = 0957 egrssion(R) 756500858 —OASTSI_T28S87 5.26, Residual (7) sasi39 2773561 Lickorst(l) 113988916 71243 a6 2.708, Pureenor(®) 846251175982 The model for ir content) +0895. RE 0854 Regrssion(®) 10873.—= 8135928805326, Residual (7). iam ner Lckobt(t) a8 16 os 23508, Pueenor(®) 02570 ‘The model for compressive strength at 7d Geas\R’=OS577,Ri-0972 Regression ®)—«775.186—&=ASBSA 20287350 Resid) Sss0 29a, Lckorft(t) 5330180285 2667268 Pureemor(®) 12260 aattt The model for compressive strength a 28. (jan) F?=0981,R/=0988 Regression (R) «367TH 940875335169 38 Residual) aim) 36 Lekota) 24051527 ae Pureenor(®) 067611 aot 4 a. 31 é a ~ : é 8 - Zo q g 5 4 . a] a ee la : at 7 ts to ee ‘Standardized predicted values ‘Standardized predicted values (a) The model for slump. (b) The model for air content z ¥ 3 3 8 g 3 5 3 5 5 3 tet Standardized predicted values (©) The model for compressive strength at 7 d Standardized predicted values (@) The model for compressive strength at 28 d Fig. The sate plots ofthe standardize residuals guns the standardized predicted vals, The normal probability plots a graphical technique for normal- lity testing: assessing whether of not a data set is approximately normally distibuted. Fig. 5 presents the normal probability plots ‘of the observed cumulative probability (Observed Cum Prob) against the expected cumulative probability (Expected Cum Prob), for the standardized residuals. In each graph, the points were approximately on a straight line through the otigin with slope fequal {0 1.0, Thus, the residuals for the models exhibited the nor- ‘ality and the models were adequate. In addition, the histograms of the standardized residuals against the frequency are shown in Fig. 6, They also revealed that the resid uals had a normal distribution and satisfied the hypothesis of homoscedasticity. Therefore, it can be concluded that the effects ‘of the experimental factors had a statistical signifieance and that ‘there was no other significant factor to be extracted from the stud- Jed responses. 5, Results analysis and discussion In this work, the established statistical models were used to illustrate the influence of various experimental factors and their binary interactions on DSC properties in the modeled region. The value and sign (+ or ~) for each regression coefficient in the model 6 W. Yan ta /Constncton and uling Matra 226 (2019) 469-482 10 Expected Cum Prob (Observed Cum Prob (a) The model for slump 00 02 08 06 O8 10 Observed Cum Prob (b) The model for air content Expected Cum Prob 0 + Cr 00 02 04 05 08 10 (Observed Cum Prob (©) The model for compressive strength at 7 d 00 ‘Observed Cum Prob (€) The model for compressive strength at 28 d Fig 5. The normal probability pots of the standardize residuals directly indicated the contribution and positive or negative effect ‘of each item on the response. For example, according to statistical ‘models in Table 6, the slump was influenced, in order of signi cance, by the D/F ratio, W/C ratio, and WR dosage, wherein the WIC ratio and WR dosage had positive effects. The air content \was influenced, in order of significance, by the DjF ratio, W(C ratio, WR dosage, and S/A ratio, wherein the DIF ratio and S/A ratio had positive effects. However, the compressive strength at 7d was influenced, in order of significance, by the WIC ratio, D/F ratio, WR dosage, and S/A ratio, wherein the WR dosage and SIA ratio had positive effects. The compressive strength at 28d was influ- ‘enced, in order of significance, by the W/C ratio, D/F ratio, S/A ratio, land WR dosage, wherein the WR dosage had a positive effect. Therefore, the D/F ratio had the greatest effect on the slump and air content (coefficients of 45.583 and 0.503). However, the com- pressive strengths at 7d and 28 d were shown to be most influ- fenced by the W/C ratio (coefficients of 2.366 and 2.768). Furthermore, the statistical models can also be used to present results in the response trace or surface plots that described the influence of an individual factor ora binary interaction of two fac- tors on the performances of DSC relative (0 a reference mixture The reference mixture was the centroid of the experimental domain with each factor at a fixed coded level of 0. In addition, the response trace plots or the response surface plots were ‘obtained by the method of "Multifactor Dimensionality Reduc- tion”, which changed each individual factor or two factors while the residual factors were held a a constant coded level of O. In this study, only the binary interactions of two factors that had already been established in statistical models were considered because of the insignificance for other binary interactions. The detailed dis- ‘cussion of different properties of DSC is as follows. 5. Stump ‘The response trace plot forthe influence of each individual fac- tor on the slump relative to the reference mixture is presented in Fig. 7. According to the steep slope for each factor, the values of slump were most sensitive to the change of the DJF ratio. An aug- ‘mentation of the D/F ratio in the mixtures decreased the slump. ‘This result was mainly attributed to the extra fine particle size in Ds and to the high water requirement for DS {26} (fineness modu- lus of DS = 0.19 and water absorption of DS= 1.932). Indeed, the DS ‘containing more fine particles tended to absorb more water due to the increased surface area that was required to be wet, and then the free water for Nuidity was reduced, which reduced the slump. A similar result was reported by Bouzian (16] and Guettala (12) In ‘addition, the slump increased with an increase inthe W)C ratio and ‘WR dosage. These behaviors can be explained by the increase of the free water in the mixtures and were in agreement with the findings of Bederina [10] and Rmili [26]. Fig. 7 also indicates that as the SIA ratio increased, the slump increased initially and then ‘decreased. However, the highest and lowest slump forthe response trace curve of the S/A ratio occurred at 67.4 mm and 51.5 mm, respectively, which implied that the variation ofthe slump caused by the changing S/A ratio was not significant. ‘The response sutface plots presented in Fig. 8(a) andl (b) illus- trate the effects of the D/F ratio and WIC ratio or WR dosage on the stump. From Fig. 8{a), i can be seen that for mixtures with a (0.34 S/A ratio and 0.3% WR dosage, the slump is nearly enhanced ‘with an increase in W)C ratio and reduced with an increasing D/F ratio, These results were consistent with the response trace plot for the slump. It can also be seen that when the value of the WiC ratio was fixed at 0.5 (coded value of 2), the values of the slump Yan eta /Contrction al Building Mater 226 (2019) 465-482 an ‘Sanda devinon=0 78 © Memeo of by 7 7A Stanant vinioo-DT® 1o4yicer Frequency a ws Tees 2 Standardized residuals (a) The model for slump 201 0 1 2 Standardized residuals, (b) The model for air content Scar dion. 862 eer Nora cre 10} san-0 Norma cane z 8 6] A a4 ee Oe 2 400 1 2 Standardized residuals Standardized residuals (c) The model for compressive strength at 7d. (d) The model for compressive strength at 28 d Fig. 6 The histograms ofthe standardized resis. 200. We ratio= = SA ratio. : “DIP iio. —-— WR dosage iso. E give : o . Coded values of each factor Fig. 7. The response tac plot fr slp. for the mixtures with a D/F ratio of more than 0.83 (coded value of 1.32) were less than 0 mm, which was impractical. Hence, the sug- gested threshold of the D/F ratio was set as 083. Similarly, the results in Fig, 8(b) indicated that for a constant value of the S/A. ratio and WIC ratio (0.34 for the S/A ratio and 0.40 for the WiC ratio), the slump almost increased with an increasing WR dosage and decreased with an increasing DIF ratio. In addition, the thresh- ‘ld of the DjF ratio was 0.895 (coded value of 1.58), 5.2. Air content Fig. 9 shows the effect of each individual factor on the air con- ‘ent. From this figure, the D/F ratio was shown to exhibit the great- fest impact on the increment of the air content. This can also be vetified by the coefficients in the model in that the positive effect of the D/F ratio on the air content was approximately four times greater than that of the S/A ratio (coefficients of 0.503 for the DF ratio versus 0.126 for the S[A ratio) It was noted that the air con- tent decreased slightly at a low level of the D/F ratio (coded value of the DjF ratio <~1), This was apparently caused by the filling effect of the DS particles: ie. the fine particles of the DS filled the spaces among the coarser particles of RS, thereby improving. ‘the compactness of the mixture, which resulted in the decrease of the air content. While at a high DjF ratio (coded value of the DF ratio >~1), the voids had been totally filed, and it was common knowledge that the finer particles tended to introduce more air Dubbles than the coarser particles. Consequently, the excessive addition of DS contributed to increasing the air content rapidly Similarly, owing to the filing effect ofthe aggregate particles, the air content increased with the increase of the S/A ratio up to a ‘maximum value of 1.77% (corresponding to the coded value of (06 for S/A ratio) and then decreased. On the other hand, the increase in the W/C ratio or WR dosage tended to result in decteas- ing the air content. The similar effect of the WIC ratio on the air content had been reported by former studies [11:44]. ‘The response surface plot illustrating the variation in the air content with the WIC ratio and D/F ratio is presented in Fig. 10. twas observed that the mixtures made with a 0.34 SIA ratio and (0.3% WR dosage, all obtained values of air content above 1.4%, For a given WIC ratio, the increase in DIF ratio was shown to increase the air content, and the increase in air content was more pronounced at lower values of the W/C ratio, This positive trend ‘was in agreement with the behavior observed inthe response trace a W. Yan ta /Constncton and uling Matra 226 (2019) 469-482 200] y0.0 sh, i340, Z He 60.0 Coded, values of WR dosage a ° i Coded values of WIC ratio (@) The effect ofthe WiC and DIF ratios Coded values of D/F ratio (6) The elfet ofthe DIF ratio and WR dosage Fig. 8 the eesponse surface plots for the stamp (mm wie ratio +s DPF ratio = = SiAratio =-= WR dosage Air content (%) 7 0 i Coded values of each factor Za 7D | Coded values of D/F ratio Coded values of WIC ratio Fig. 1. Te cespnse surface plat for ar content (2). plot for air content. In the same way, for a given D/F ratio, an increase in WIC ratio was shown to decrease the air content, espe- || qe £ | g ELE 4 tl Eo. é° ry ace & cana AED ae Mixture type ° Mixture type (€) Compressive stength at 7. (4) Compressive strength a 28 d Fig. 15. The comparison between the predicted values andthe measured values. ‘and measured values for the tested mixtures. In this figure, one can ‘observe that all measured values fall within the limits of the pre- diction intervals corresponding to a 95% confidence level. Thus, it ‘was revealed that there was a good agreement between the exper imental results and predicted results from the statistical models. 7. Conclusions In this study, the slump, the alr content, and the compressive strength of 36 DSC mixtures were examined experimentally, and the statistical models based on the CCD method were established to investigate the influences of the W/C ratio, S/A ratio, D(F rato, and WR dosage on the relevant properties of DSC. Additionally. the optimization criteria for the mix proportions were proposed for the desired performance characteristics of DSC. Based on the ‘obtained results, the major conclusions are summarized as follows. (1) The statistical models between the experimental factors and the relevant properties of DSC were established according to the experimental results of 36 mixtures. In addition, the analysis of variance and residual for the statistical models both indicated that all the models were valid and statisti- cally significant. That was to say, there was no other signif- icant factor to be extracted from the studied responses and all the models had a predictive capacity for the DSC perfor- ‘mance characteristics. (2) The DIF ratio had the greatest effect on the slump and air content of DSC, but the compressive strength at 7d and 284 of DSC were shown to be most influenced by the WiC ratio. The inerease of the D/F ratio in the mixtures can decrease the slump and increase the air content, while the augmentation of the W/C ratio can enhance the slump and reduce the air content. n addition, the increase in both the DIF ratio and WIC ratio caused a reduction in compressive strength at 7d and 28 (3) The influences of the 5/A ratio and WR dosage on DSC prop- erties exhibited minor roles relative tothe important effects fof the W(C ratio and DjF ratio. The S/A ratio had no Yan eta /Contrction al Building Mater 226 (2019) 465-482 4s significant effect on the slump and compressive strength at 7d. However, the compressive strength at 28 d decreased initially with an inereasing SA ratio, and then kept constant basically when the value of the $/A ratio was more than 0.34. Inaddition, the air content increased with the increase of the SIA ratio up to a maximum value of 1.77% and then ‘decreased, On the other hand, the increase in the WR dosage tended to improve the slump and compressive strength but resulted in decreasing the air content. (4) The optimization ofthe mix design parameters based on the statistical models was conducted and the corresponding cr: teria were proposed for the various construction demands. ‘The optimization criteria offered a simple tool for selecting the appropriate combinations of the parameters 10 ‘meet the target properties of DSC. witch contributes to fail- itating the construction applications of DSC. Furthermore, additional experiments were performed on three new DSC ‘mixtures and a good agreement between the experimental ‘values and predicted values was verified Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared 1 influence the work reported in this paper Acknowledgments The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No 51525801 and 51838004), the Key Laboratory of Coastal Disasters and Defence of Ministry of Education (6805000305), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities. References LIL Fo ia bo et al fect of very fine partes on workabity and strength of oneete made ith dame son Conte Bal, Mater 47 (2003) 131-197, ‘tps fdorg/10.1016), combat. 2013.05.00. (2) Udes Jayavardena HCL indtatlata, Use of dase and as an alemate for "er sand for castration Indust in St Lanka in: Engineering Clog ft Sacety an Teeny Volume. Springer. Cham. 2015. pp 1277-1280. dover) 10.1007/978 3.319 09088 1 25 (31 Taye Bouzian, Assesment of fesh properties and compressive strength of ‘elf-compacting concrete made wih diferent sand type by mixture design ‘modeling approsc Const Bul, Mater 49 (2013) 308-314, hips data) 1.1016) convaldna-2015.08.032 [Al Benchaa Benabed et al. Popertis of self

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