2.

3 Carbohydrates & lipids

Carbohydrates & lipids

Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides
and polysaccharide polymers.

- Monosaccharides: single sugar molecules (glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose)

- disaccharides: 2 monosaccharides linked together (maltose: glucose + glucose; sucrose:
glucose + fructose)

- polysaccharides: many monosaccharides linked together (starch, glycogen, cellulose)

- Combining of monosaccharides: condensation - combination of subunits, yields water

- Loss of OH group from one molecule and hydrogen from another - OH + H forms H2O
- Anabolic process - requires energy
- ATP supplies energy

Polysaccharides
Structure and function of cellulose and starch in plants and glycogen in humans.
- OH groups on Carbon 1, 4, 6 are used to make links. OH on Carbon 6 is used to form side
branches

- ∂-glucose: carbon 1 OH points downwards; ß-glucose: points upwards

- cellulose

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 2.3 Carbohydrates & lipids
• made by linking ß-glucose. Condensation reaction linking carbon 1 and 4
• OH groups point in opposite directions therefore each glucose molecule is positioned 180˚
to the previous one (ß-glucose alternate ‘up and down’). Results in a straight chain.

• Unbranched chains allow them to form bundles, connected by hydrogen bonds and created
cellulose micro-fibrils. These give cellulose its high tensile strength. Used in cell walls.

- Starch
• made by linking ∂-glucose. Condensation reaction linking carbon 1 and 4.
• OH groups both point downwards therefore all molecules orientate in the same way. Results
in a curved chain.

• 2 forms of starch: amylose: chain of ∂-glucose is unbranched, forms a helix; amylopectin:

branched, globular shape.

• Hydrophilic but too large to be soluble in water - used to store large amount of glucose -
would not cause too much water to enter a cell by osmosis

- Glycogen
• Similar to amylopectin in strucutre; but has more branching —> more compact
• Made by animals + some fungi, stored in liver + some muscles
• Same function as starch (store glucose)
• Easy to add/remove glucose molecules on either branched/unbranched sides of glycogen/
starch

Lipids
Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids and one glycerol.

- All lipids are insoluble

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 2.3 Carbohydrates & lipids
- triglycerides: principle groups of lipid (eg. fat in adipose cells, sunflower seeds)
- Fats are liquid at body temp. But solid at room temp.(20˚)
- Oils are always liquid
- Each of fatty acids linking to the glycerol by condensation reaction —> 3 H2O produced

- Used as energy stores - E can be released by aerobic cell respiration

- Used as heat insulators b/c don’t conduct heat well

Energy storage
Lipids are more suitable for long term energy storage in humans than carbohydrates.

- Lipids stored in adipose tissue - beneath skin + around some organs

- Amount of energy released in cell respiration per gram of lipids is double that of
carbohydrates —> energy stored as lipids adds half the body mass as carbohydrates
- Fats store as pure droplets whereas glucose stores w/ two grams of water (per g of glucose)
- Lipids are 6 times more efficient in energy storage than carbohydrates
- Lipids are insulators as they are poor conductors of heat - why adipose tissue is
subcutaneous

- Can also act as shock absorbers b/c they are liquid at body temp.
- However fat cannot be rapidly used and therefore can only be used in aerobic respiration.

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 2.3 Carbohydrates & lipids

Body mass index

Determination of body mass index by calculation or use of a nomogram.

Fatty acids
Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated.
- Most fatty acids have 14-20 carbon atoms
- Carbon atoms linking to adjacent carbons by single bonds
can bond to 2 hydrogen atoms

- If carbon atom linked by a double bond, it can only bond

to 1 hydrogen atom
- Saturated fatty acid: fatty acid w/ single bonds b/t all
of its carbon, contains as much as hydrogen possible

- Unsaturated: contains 1 or more double bonds, contains

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 2.3 Carbohydrates & lipids
less hydrogen than they could

• Monounsaturated: there is 1 double bond

• Polyunsaturated: there is more than one double bond

Unsaturated fatty acids

Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers.

- Fatty acids are cis if the hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the double bond. If they
are on the opposite sides they are trans.
- Cis-fatty acids: a bend in the hydrocarbon
chain at the double bond

• Less good at packing together in regular

arrays than saturated fatty acids —> lowers
the melting point - usually liquid at room
temp.

- Trans-fatty acid: do not have a bend in the

hydrocarbon chain at the double bond

• Higher melting point - solid at room temp.

• Produced artificially by vegetable or fish oils

Health risks of fats

Scientific evidence for health risks of trans-fats and saturated fats.

- Main concern: coronary heart disease (CHD)

- Coronary arteries getting partially blocked by fatty deposits, leading to blood clot
formation + heart attacks
- Positive correlation b/t saturated fatty acid intake and CHD
- Cis-monounsaturated fatty acids are claimed to be good fats
- Trans fats are the biggest contributors to heart disease

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Evaluating the health risks of foods

Evaluating claims: health claims made about lipids need to be assessed.

Nature of science question: using volunteers in experiments.

Analysis of data on health risks of lipids

Evaluation of evidence and the methods used to obtain the evidence for health claims made
about lipids.

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