Conditional Statement:

In R we have two Conditional Statement. One is If else Statement and another one is Nested If
Else Statement. It works like any other programming language.
The If else statements are a very important part of R programming. In R there are a lot of
powerful packages for data manipulation. It produces a logical value and carries out the next
statement only when the logical values become TRUE.
If statement,
If the condition is true you can try to access the condition and if it doesn’t make then it goes to
else Statement.
As you can check, whether a is less than 4 or not?
If it is less than 4 then it is satisfied and then enters into the block and print a is less than 4 and
else again check whether it is a=4?
If it is a=4 then print whether a has the value of 4 otherwise go to another statement that’s how it
goes on and on. So, if statement you have the condition and you write that conditions it's just
checked and if it’s satisfying and it enters into the block and does whatever you order to do and
otherwise it goes to else statement.

The Nested If-Else the same thing can be done. With a Nested statement you are saying that if
a is less than equal to 4 then print a is less than equal to 4 which is exactly same as the
previous one but here you don’t write multiple else rather you are writing else if a == 4 then print
a is value of 4 otherwise else print a>=4.
Hurriedly, see the output. The output is also same. For If else statement a is the value of 4 and
since here we had stored 4 for a.
Similar things happened for the Nested If Else Statement.
Same in another variant which is If else variant. You can use If else function here you can print,
when a==4 then the output is Yes,otherwise it is No. it doesn’t have the If Else Statement level
of control but it does your job checking two conditions whether this made then print whatever
you want to say otherwise you print whatever is not made.
Loops-

● For Loop in R:
Suppose you are storing 1,2,3,4 in vector, using that combining function then you are seeing for
then you are writing the condition that if “i” in a vector for 1 to 4 times you are asking to run that
loop and you are asking to ​print (i)​.

so I will start from 1 then 2 then 3 then 4, that’s how the output you can see 1,2,3,4 and that’s
how a For Loop also. It is exactly to similar to any other languages.
● While Loop:
While loop repeats a statement or group of statements when the given condition is true. It is
testing the condition before executing the Loop body.Now in While Loop, while the test
expression remains true, the code inside the loop keeps on executing.
Till the point the condition is made which is X less than 6 this will just run. Here suppose we will
start with X equal to 1 then we will check whether it is less than 6 then we print X and then
before existing we will increase by 1 so it would print 1 and X becomes to again checks again
print 2 then again increase to 3 and again goes till the point 5 and then once it becomes 5 then
before existing it would increase that to 6 so it own entered into the while loop. That’s how a
while loop works. It is pretty simple.
● Repeat Loop:
Now discuss the Repeat Loop. A Repeat Loop executes a sequence of statements multiple
times and abbreviates the code that manages the Loop variable.
Earlier cases in For Loop and While Loop we are giving the condition before we even start the
loop but in Repeat Loop we are not mentioning any condition. Here we just start X equal to
1(X=1) and let’s print X before existing you increase X/1 and then you give your condition that if
X is == 6 (X==6) then break, break means nothing you just exist the loop. That’s how we jot
down the condition in a Repeat Loop.

So you keep on doing all those conditions and then, in the end, you just check the condition at
the end of the loop before existing and if it is satisfied, before it satisfied the condition then it
gives the output 1,2,3,4,5 then you just increase that 1 and then it becomes X equal to 6(X=6)
and finally you break from the loop.
Loops in R:
Now we are discussing ​Break Statement​ and ​Next Statement​ as well.
Here will be some situation where we have to terminate the loop without executing all the
statements. In this condition, we can use the Break Statement and Next statements. Just like
the While and Repeat Loop, you can break out of a loop completely by using the break
statement. Additionally, if you want to skip the current iteration and continue the loop then you
can use the Next Statements.

Break Statement:
In a Repeat Loop if you actually want to break from that loop so based on a condition you can
write that statement. Break Statement is used inside a loop, to stop the iteration and flow the
control outside of the loop. It is also used to terminate a case in the switch statement. (covered
in the next chapter) Break Statement can also be used inside the else branch of the if else
statement. Just like the While and Repeat Loop, you can break out of a loop completely by
using the break statement.

For an example:
Suppose you have 15 statements inside the loop and you want to exit from the loop when a
certain condition is true otherwise it has to execute all of them. In this condition, you have to use
the If Statement to check for the expression and place the Break Statement inside the If block. If
the condition is true then the compiler will execute the break statement, and the break will exit
the controller from the loop completely otherwise, it will execute all the statements.
Next Statement:
Next statement is useful when we want to skip the current iteration of a loop without terminating
it. On encountering next, the R parser skips further evaluation and starts next iteration of the
loop. Next Statement simulates the behavior of R switch. The next discontinues a particular
iteration and jumps to the Next Cycle. In fact, it jumps to the evaluation of the condition holding
the current loop. The Next Statements can also be used inside the else branch and of if else
statements. Next Statement actually helps to skip from a current relationship of a loop.

So, suppose in a For loop ideally it should go from 1 so suppose I equal to 1? (I=1) and in
number, we have 5, so we are checking from one to five(1-5) and we are printing the value of i.
But now you want whenever it reaches I equal to three(i=3) then you want to skip that loop. So,
what would happen? So, it would print all of them but it own print if it is I equal to three (i=3). So,
it would print one to then skip three then four five.
This brings an end to this post, I encourage you to re read the post to understand it completely if
you haven’t and ​THANK YOU​.
Conditional Statement:
In R we have two Conditional Statement. One is If else Statement and another one is Nested If
Else Statement. It works like any other programming language.
The If else statements are a very important part of R programming. In R there are a lot of
powerful packages for data manipulation. It produces a logical value and carries out the next
statement only when the logical values become TRUE.
If statement,
If the condition is true you can try to access the condition and if it doesn’t make then it goes to
else Statement.
As you can check, whether a is less than 4 or not?
If it is less than 4 then it is satisfied and then enters into the block and print a is less than 4 and
else again check whether it is a=4?
If it is a=4 then print whether a has the value of 4 otherwise go to another statement that’s how it
goes on and on. So, if statement you have the condition and you write that conditions it's just
checked and if it’s satisfying and it enters into the block and does whatever you order to do and
otherwise it goes to else statement.

The Nested If-Else the same thing can be done. With a Nested statement you are saying that if
a is less than equal to 4 then print a is less than equal to 4 which is exactly same as the
previous one but here you don’t write multiple else rather you are writing else if a == 4 then print
a is value of 4 otherwise else print a>=4.
Hurriedly, see the output. The output is also same. For If else statement a is the value of 4 and
since here we had stored 4 for a.
Similar things happened for the Nested If Else Statement.
Same in another variant which is If else variant. You can use If else function here you can print,
when a==4 then the output is Yes,otherwise it is No. it doesn’t have the If Else Statement level
of control but it does your job checking two conditions whether this made then print whatever
you want to say otherwise you print whatever is not made.
Loops-

● For Loop in R:
Suppose you are storing 1,2,3,4 in vector, using that combining function then you are seeing for
then you are writing the condition that if “i” in a vector for 1 to 4 times you are asking to run that
loop and you are asking to ​print (i)​.

so I will start from 1 then 2 then 3 then 4, that’s how the output you can see 1,2,3,4 and that’s
how a For Loop also. It is exactly to similar to any other languages.
● While Loop:
While loop repeats a statement or group of statements when the given condition is true. It is
testing the condition before executing the Loop body.Now in While Loop, while the test
expression remains true, the code inside the loop keeps on executing.
Till the point the condition is made which is X less than 6 this will just run. Here suppose we will
start with X equal to 1 then we will check whether it is less than 6 then we print X and then
before existing we will increase by 1 so it would print 1 and X becomes to again checks again
print 2 then again increase to 3 and again goes till the point 5 and then once it becomes 5 then
before existing it would increase that to 6 so it own entered into the while loop. That’s how a
while loop works. It is pretty simple.
● Repeat Loop:
Now discuss the Repeat Loop. A Repeat Loop executes a sequence of statements multiple
times and abbreviates the code that manages the Loop variable.
Earlier cases in For Loop and While Loop we are giving the condition before we even start the
loop but in Repeat Loop we are not mentioning any condition. Here we just start X equal to
1(X=1) and let’s print X before existing you increase X/1 and then you give your condition that if
X is == 6 (X==6) then break, break means nothing you just exist the loop. That’s how we jot
down the condition in a Repeat Loop.

So you keep on doing all those conditions and then, in the end, you just check the condition at
the end of the loop before existing and if it is satisfied, before it satisfied the condition then it
gives the output 1,2,3,4,5 then you just increase that 1 and then it becomes X equal to 6(X=6)
and finally you break from the loop.
Loops in R:
Now we are discussing ​Break Statement​ and ​Next Statement​ as well.
Here will be some situation where we have to terminate the loop without executing all the
statements. In this condition, we can use the Break Statement and Next statements. Just like
the While and Repeat Loop, you can break out of a loop completely by using the break
statement. Additionally, if you want to skip the current iteration and continue the loop then you
can use the Next Statements.

Break Statement:
In a Repeat Loop if you actually want to break from that loop so based on a condition you can
write that statement. Break Statement is used inside a loop, to stop the iteration and flow the
control outside of the loop. It is also used to terminate a case in the switch statement. (covered
in the next chapter) Break Statement can also be used inside the else branch of the if else
statement. Just like the While and Repeat Loop, you can break out of a loop completely by
using the break statement.

For an example:
Suppose you have 15 statements inside the loop and you want to exit from the loop when a
certain condition is true otherwise it has to execute all of them. In this condition, you have to use
the If Statement to check for the expression and place the Break Statement inside the If block. If
the condition is true then the compiler will execute the break statement, and the break will exit
the controller from the loop completely otherwise, it will execute all the statements.
Next Statement:
Next statement is useful when we want to skip the current iteration of a loop without terminating
it. On encountering next, the R parser skips further evaluation and starts next iteration of the
loop. Next Statement simulates the behavior of R switch. The next discontinues a particular
iteration and jumps to the Next Cycle. In fact, it jumps to the evaluation of the condition holding
the current loop. The Next Statements can also be used inside the else branch and of if else
statements. Next Statement actually helps to skip from a current relationship of a loop.

So, suppose in a For loop ideally it should go from 1 so suppose I equal to 1? (I=1) and in
number, we have 5, so we are checking from one to five(1-5) and we are printing the value of i.
But now you want whenever it reaches I equal to three(i=3) then you want to skip that loop. So,
what would happen? So, it would print all of them but it own print if it is I equal to three (i=3). So,
it would print one to then skip three then four five.
This brings an end to this post, I encourage you to re read the post to understand it completely if
you haven’t and ​THANK YOU​.
Function in R:
What is function?
The function is exactly the same concept as any other language it’s like a Black Box, you give
input and based on the function it tries to solve and it would give you the output.

Like, you have a function called mean(), it gets as input and whatever it's given,it provides you
the output. Similarly, in R a function called mean() and if you give the input as 1,5,6,7 and you
combining all of them by combine function and you would get the output as 4.75.

By using the keyword ‘function’ the R function is created.

Function Structure & Documentation:
Now, R has a lot of inbuilt function like Numeric function, Statistical Function and Character
functions and lots of other function as well. Before we actually deep drive in those function let’s
understand what is the structure of a function.
Therefore, the function has a body where you have written all those things. There is another
function we are trying to create all those things which are about added, so if you pass two
argument X and Y then we will add them and return the value. Now, by default you can set
some values and if you set X, Y then there is so no default value but if you set X, Y=1 then by
default you are saying that even you don’t pass anything in Y value, and suppose you pass 2 in
this function then it would give the result 2+1=3.
So, we will be learning all those things, like, How to write a function on your own but before we
learn all those things, we will actually learn a couple of inbuilt function in R, which are very
popular and we are actually using all those functions in our subsequent courses.
Function Arguments Matching:
In the fifth or sixth position argument is very difficult to remember that’s why, whenever you are
passing any value to a function, you can pass it two way either By Position where you say the
first position is value, the second one is na.rm. But if you forget it by any chance then you just
remember it By Name. so, if you have two arguments and suppose in Standard Deviation.
Then in the fifth position, there is an argument which you want to change. Instead of position,
you can choose By name so you can say na.rm equal to False or True and it would understand.
Introduction to Function:
Now, we are talking about lots of Inbuilt Function. There is a couple of Numeric Function, a
couple of Statistic Function and couple of Character Function as well.
At first, we are discussing Numeric Function.
Numeric Function:
We are learning the Numeric Function from R Studio. We are talking about its various function.
The first thing is a couple of easier one ​sqrt(x).
Sqrt(x):​ It is a numeric value or a valid numeric expression for which you want to see square
root. If the Numeric Expression is positive value then sqrt() function will go back to the square
root of a given value.
If the numeric expression is negative value then sqrt() function will return NaN.
If the numeric expression is not a number(NaN), or negative infinity then sqrt in R will return
NaN.
If the numeric expression is positive infinity then sqrt function will return the result as positive
infinity.
Ceiling(x): ​It is one of the R Math Function which is used to return the smallest integer value
that is greater than or equal to an individual number, or an expression. It can be a numeric value
for which you want to find the square root. If the numeric Expression is positive or negative
numeric value, then ceiling() function will return the ceiling value.
If the numeric expression is positive or negative zero then ceiling() function will return zero.
If the numeric expression is not a number(NaN) therefore ceiling will go back to NaN.
If the numeric number is positive or negative infinity then the function will return the same.
Floor(x): ​The R Floor method is one of the R Math Function that is used to return the largest
integer value which is not greater than(less than) or equal to an individual number or an
individual expression.
It can be a numeric value for which you want to find the square root. If the numeric expression is
positive or negative numeric value then floor function will return the floor value.
If the numeric expression is positive or negative zero then the function will return zero.
If the numeric expression is NaN(not a number), therefore floor function will return NaN.
If the numeric expression is positive or negative infinity, therefore the function will return the
same.
Exp(x):​ The function Exp() defines exponential distribution,a one-parameter distribution for a
gamlss.family object to be used in GAMLSS fitting using the function gamlss(). The mu
parameter represents the mean of a distribution. The functions are dEXP,pEXP,qEXP and rEXP
define the density, distribution function, quantile function and random generation for the specific
parameterization of the exponential distribution defined by Exp() function. “Keywords” is
“distribution” “regression”
Log(x):​ log computes logarithms, by default natural logarithms, log10 computes common (that
is base 10) logarithms, and log2 computes binary (that is base 2) logarithms. The general form
log(x, base) computes logarithms with the base.
Round(x,digits=n): ​Round is classified in some steps like,
Ceiling: It takes a single numeric argument x and returns a numeric vector containing the
smallest integers not less than the corresponding elements of x.
Floor: It takes a single numeric argument x and returns a numeric vector containing the largest
integers not greater than the corresponding elements of x.
Trunc: It takes a single numeric argument x and returns a numeric vector containing the integers
formed by truncating the values in x toward 0.
Round: rounds the values in its first argument to the specified number of decimal places (default
0)
Signif: rounds the values in its first argument to the specified number of significant digits.
Append():​ Append values to x, probably inserted into the middle of x. This function is important
since its trains to perform a little faster than using the concatenation (c) function.
Identical(): ​The safe and reliable way to tests two objects for being equal True in this case and
False in every other case.
Length(): ​Get the length of vectors and factors, and any other R object for which a method has
been defined.
Range():​ Range returns a vector containing the minimum and maximum of all the given
arguments. The range is a generic function, its methods can be defined for it directly or via the
summary group generic. Its arguments should be unnamed and dispatch is on the first
argument. The keyword is “arith” , “Univar”.

Rep(x,n):​ Rep reproduces the values in X. It is a generic function and the default method is
described here. The keyword is “manip”, “chron”.
Rev(): ​Rev provides a reverse version argument. It is a generic function with a default method
for vectors and one for dendrograms.
Seq(x,y,n): ​Generated regular sequences,seq is a standard generic with a default method.
Seq.int is a primitive that can be much faster but has a few restrictions. Seq.along and seq.len
are very fast primitives for two common cases. The keyword is “manip”.
Unique(): ​Unique goes back to a vector, data frame or array-like x but with duplicate elements
removed. The keyword is “manip”, “logic”.
Now we will be learning about a couple of Statistical Function as well as Character Function and
how to write down our own function.
Statistical Function:
Now we are learning the Statistical function in R. The first function which we will be talking now
is the mean() function.
● mean() function: ​ The function mean() is mainly used to calculate in R, it is calculated
by taking the sum of the values and dividing with a number of values in data series. On
the other word, mean() of an observation variable is a numerical measure of the central
area of the data values.

The keyword is “Univar”. Mean() function is the arithmetic average and is a common statistic
used with ratio data. Mean can be calculated on an isolated variable via the mean(VAR)
command. VAR is the name of the variable.
● Median(x):​ The middle most value in a data series is called Median. The median of an
observation variable is the middle value when the data is sorted in ascending order.

It is an ordinal measure of the central area of the data values. This is a generic function where
methods can be written. The median is called a reasonable concept for its default method,
which will work for most classes.
● Sd(x):​ The Standard Deviation of an observation variable is a square root of its variance.
This function computes the standard deviation of the values in x. If na.rm is TRUE
therefore missing the values are removed before computation proceeds. In R Standard
Deviations are calculated in the same as the mean.

The Standard Deviation of a single variable can be computed with the sd command, where VAR
is the name of the variable. A Standard Deviation can be calculated for each of the variables in
a dataset by using the SD (DATAVAR) command, where DATAVAR is the name of the variable
containing the data.
● Range(x):​ The range of an observation variable is the difference between its largest and
smallest data values. This is a measure of how far apart the entire data spread in value.

Range returns a vector which is containing the minimum and maximum of all the given
arguments. The keyword is “:arith”, “Univar”. It is recommended that ranges also be computed
on individual variables.
 ● Sum(x): ​Sum function in R is used to calculate the sum of vector elements.

Sum returns the sum of all the values present in its arguments. These generic function methods
can be defined for it directly or in via the summary group generic.
● min(x):​ min function computes the minimum value of a vector.

A minimum can be computed on a single variable using the min (VAR) command.
● max(x): ​max function computes the maximum value of a vector.

The maximum, via max(VAR), generates identically.

Character Function:
Now we will deal with some character variable. Suppose, you have your customer, customer’s
names, location and customer other attributes those are mainly character in nature. Lots of time
we have to manipulate and clean the data before we use it in a model that’s why we have no
couple of simple example as well.
Here we discuss some inbuilt Character Function. Now we are talking about the first function
which is tolower function.

● Tolower():​ It converts a string to lower case letter.

● Toupper():​ It converts a string actually uppercase letter.

● Substr(X,star=n1,stop=n2):​ It extract or replace substrings in a character vector. How

does it extract?

It has a starting point and an ending point and it does on a top of X. It can also be used to
overwrite a part of the character string.
● Grep(pattern,x,ignore.case=FALSE):​ It searches a pattern in X.

Substr is actually extracting but this grep() actually find a particular pattern in each element of a
vector x.
● Sub(pattern,replacement,x,ignore.case=FALSE,Fixed=FAlse): ​It finds a pattern in x
and replaces with the replacement text. According to Sub, there is a little bit different
between Sub and Gsub.
Sub replaces only at the first place but Gsub replaces at all the places where ever it finds, it
shows. All matches of a string replace by gsub() function.
● Paste(...,sep=””):​ In this function, you can paste two words or two letter.

It converts its arguments to character strings and concatenates them.

This brings an end to this post, I encourage you to re read the post to understand it completely if
you haven’t and THANK YOU.