Lecture#1o

MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM

INTRODUCTION
The magnet was discovered about 2000 years ago in the form of lead color
mineral in magnesia, a province of Asia Minor. It possessed the property of
attracting small pieces of iron. It was given the name of Magnetite. This was
the natural magnet in the form of iron oxide and it chemical composition was
Fe3O4
Artificial Magnets.
The magnets are made artificially from the alloy of iron, nickel and cobalt.
There are two types of artificial magnets, (1) Permanent Magnets (2)
Temporary magnets. All the physical properties related to magnets are called
magnetism.
PERMANENT MAGNETS
Permanent magnets are made of carbon free alloys of iron nickel and cobalt
which are heated to a very high temperature and then cooled in a very strong
magnetic field. They retain their magnetic properties for extended period of
time, such as bar magnets, horse shoe magnets. However they lose their
magnetism if subjected to sever mechanical shocks or heating. Their polarity
can’t be reversed. They are used in electrical measuring instruments,
magnetic chuck, moving coil loud speakers, and certain types of electric
motors.
Temporary Magnet
They are made by placing a piece of iron inside the solenoid carrying dc
current. The iron piece remains magnetized as long as it remains inside the
magnetic field of solenoid.Wen the current is switched off it losses its
magnetic properties and retains only a small magnetism called the residual
magnetism. Such magnets are extensively used in he construction of the
core/field magnets of dc /ac motors and transformers( Silicon steel is most
commonly used material).They have the following properties(1) Their
magnetic strength can be increased by increasing the current through the coil,
till it reaches the saturation point. (2) Their polarity can be revered by
changing the direction of current through the coil.

Properties of magnets
1. It attracts small pieces of iron
2. When a magnet is suspended it turns freely in horizontal plain and
come in a definite direction, the ends pointing towards north is called
N-Pole and the end pointing towards south is called s-pole.
3. Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
4. If a magnet is divided into pieces it still has two poles that is N and S
pole for each piece.
Laws of magnetic force
Coulomb was the first who experimentally determined that the force of
attraction and repulsion between the two magnets placed in a medium. This
force is directly proportional to their pole strength and inversely proportional to
square of distance between them.It is also inversely proportional to the
absolute permeability of the surrounding medium.
For example if m1 and m2 represent magnetic strength of the two poles, and r
is the distance between them and μ is the absolute permeability of the
surrounding medium, then force of attraction or repulsion them is given as
under.
F α m1m2/ μr². or F= k m1m2 / μr²
In SI system of unit value of k=1/4Π. Therefore F= m1m2 / 4 Πr²
if m1= m2=1 unit pole and r=1m then F= 1/ 4 μ0 Π (Newton). Where μ0 is the
permeability of free space
Unit magnetic pole
It may be defined as that pole which when placed at distance of 1m apart from
a similar pole repel it with a force F= 1/ 4 μ0 Π Newton.
Unit of Flux
Te unit of flux is Weer,It is defined as the flux radiated by a unit north pole,
and Its symbol is Wb, therefore flux coming out of a magnetic pole of strength
m is given by Φ=m Wb.It is denoted by symbol ø.
Magnetic Field
The region or space around a magnet in which its magnetic effect is felt by a
test magnet, is called magnetic field .
Magnetic Lines of Force
These are the imaginary lines or path along which a free isolated test north
pole would move in the magnetic field is called the line of force.
These lines enter the magnet form the South Pole and leave at North pole

Magnetic flux
It is defined as the total number of magnetic lines of force passing through
any surface area placed perpendicular to the magnetic field. It is denoted by
Φ and its unit is Weber.
Flux density
It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force passing through a unit
area placed at the right angle to the flux. It is denoted by B and its unit is
Wb/m2 it is also known as Tesla.
Electromagnetism
A stationary eclectic charge creates electric field around it, whereas a moving
charge i.e. current produces magnetic field around itself. This phenomenon is
called electromagnetism.
Magnetic field around a straight wire carrying current
When the current is passing through a straight wire of infinite length, the
magnetic field is formed around the current carrying wire in the form of circular
lines of force having the plain perpendicular to wire and their centre is at the
center of the wire. Let the current I amperes passing through the wire of
infinite length and the magnetic field strength at a point C, distance r meter
from the centre of wire is H. If a unit n pole is placed at c, I will experience a
force of H Newton. The direction of the force would be tangential to the
circular lines of force passing through C.If this unit N pole is moved once
round the conductor against this force, then the work done is equal to mmf
(NI)= Force multiplied by distance, NxI= Hx 2¶r, where N=1, hence I=H×2¶r.
H =I/2¶r. B= µ H = µ NI/2¶r

Magnetic Field Strength inside Solenoid

A solenoid having of length l having N turns and carrying current I,having
magnetic field strength H inside the coil,te value of H = NI/L (AT/M)
Force between two current carrying parallel conductors.
(1) If current through two parallel wire flowing in the same direction they
experience a force of attraction between each other.
(2) If current through two wires flow in opposite direction they would
experience a force of repulsion.
Direction of magnetic field by current carrying conductor
The direction of magnetic lines of force around the wire is determined by right
hand rule.
Right hand rule it states that hold the current carrying wire in the right hand,
with the thumb pointing the direction of current, the fingers encircle the wire in
the direction of magnetic field. It may also be find as if the current is flowing in
wire in the upward direction, the direction of lines of force would be anti
clockwise and it would be clock wise if the direction of current is downward.

Magnetic Field Strength

At any point inside the magnetic field it is equal to the force experienced by
the unit N pole placed at that point. It is denoted by H and its unit is N/Wb.
Electromagnets: are made by placing an iron core inside direct current
carrying coil. Each complete turn wrap around the core is called turn and the
turns are collectively called winding. The wrapped winding is also called
solenoid.
Magneto Motive Force (mmf)
It is the force which drives or tends to drive the magnetic flux through the
magnetic circuit. It depends on the magnitude of current flowing though the
coil and also directly proportional to number turns in the winding and mmf =NI
(unit is Ampere Turn)
It is analogous to electromotive force (emf) in electric circuit
Magnetic Field Intensity (strength)
It is defined as the mmf per unit length. It is denoted by H and H=NI/l. (A
turn/meter)
Reluctance: it is the property of a material which opposes the flow of flux
through itself. It may also be defined as the measure of extent to which a
material restricts the flow of flux through itself. Flux= mmf /reluctance. It is
denoted by S
Φ=F/S, S=F/ Φ (mmf/flux)
Its unit is AT/Wb. Reluctance =L
/μA. Where as L is length of magnetic path, A is area of cross section of
magnetic path and μ is the absolute permeability of the magnetic material. It is
analogous to resistance in electrical circuit.
Permeability It is defined as the measure of how well magnetic field line
concentrate (pass through) inside the boundary of a material under the
influence of magnetic field intensity. It is the reciprocal of reluctance and
analogous to conductance in electric circuit, it is denoted by μ and it depends
upon the magnetic property of material.
Relative Permeability
It is the ratio of permeability of a material to permeability of free space or
vacuum. It is denoted by μr =μ/ μo.
μo is the permeability of free space and
μo = 4Π*10-7 and μ is the absolute permeability of the material.
It may also be defined as the ratio of flux density produced in a material to the
flux density produced in air under the influence of same magneto motive
force.
Types Of Magnetic Material
Diamagnetic material: are those materials whose permeability is slightly less
then vacuum e.g. copper and silver bismuth. If a small piece of this material is
placed near a strong magnetic field it experiences a feeble force of repulsion.
Paramagnetic: are those materials having permeability slightly greater than
vacuum e.g. aluminum, platinum and magnese.This type of substance if
placed near a strong magnetic field will experience a feeble force of attraction.
These materials are grouped together as non magnetic materials. Their
permeability is assumed to equal to that of free space and they are not used
in the construction of magnetic circuits.
Ferromagnetic material: these are important magnetic material their
permeability is several hundred (6000) times greater than vacuum and are
extensively used in electromagnetic circuit, such as iron, steel, nickel, cobalt
and their alloys. They have the property of retaining certain amount of
magnetism after they have been subjected to strong magnetic field. The
silicon iron is extensively used in the magnetic circuits of electric machines
such as the cores of transformers and generators/motors.
Molecular Theory of Magnetism.
The basic assumption of this theory is that molecules of all the substances are
tiny magnet in themselves, each having N and S poles, called dipoles. In UN
magnetized state these molecules lies in haphazard manner and cancel the
magnetic effects of each others and there is no net magnetic effect. But the
property of certain materials of retaining the magnetic effects or even
becomes permanent magnets after they have been subjected to strong
magnetic field could not be explained on the basis of this theory. This behavior
of certain materials is explained on the basis domain theory.

Domain Theory Of Electromagnetism .

The atoms of Ferro magnetic material are clustered in groups called domain.
Each domain consists of 1012 to 1014 atom.All the atoms in a domain have the
same orientation and produce resultant magnetic field. Each domain in itself
acts as a small magnet,whose magnetic field is many time stonger than that
of a single molecule.In an unmagnetised state these domains are oriented
randomly in different directions hence they cancel the magnetic effect of each
other. How ever when a bar of iron is placed inside the strong magnetic field
it interact with the magnetic field of domain in such away that a rotational
force is exerted on the domain, hence they rotate and tend to align them
selves in the direction of external magnetic field and become magnetized.
When external magnetic field is removed some of the domain retain their new
alignment, as a result the net magnetic field is developed throughout the bar
with one end become the North pole and the other end become south pole.
The greater the strength of external magnetic field, the greater is the extent to
which the magnetic domain aligns. When the entire domain aligns them, the
magnetic material is said to be saturated. How ever when the magnetic force
(mmf) is removed the Ferro magnetic materials retain small amount of
magnetism, called residual magnetism.
Magnetic hysterisis: it is defined as the lagging behind of magnetization or
induction flux density B behind the magnetizing force H or it may also be
defined as the property of a magnetic substance due to which energy is
dissipated in it on the reversal of its magnetism. When an unmagnetised iron
bar is placed inside the magnetizing field of the solenoid And the value of the
magnetizing force H can be increased or decreased by changing

the current through the solenoid by a variable resistance. The flux density B
setup inside the iron bar is directly proportional to the magnetizing force that is
B=μH. The value of B for different value of H is noted. If we plot the graph
between B and H the graph will be like oa as shown in diagram

the material becomes saturated at point a. if now H is decreased gradually by

decreasing the current in the solenoid, the flux density will not decrease along
oa but will decrease less rapidly along ab. That is when the value of H is zero
B is equal to ob. It means that on removing the magnetizing force the iron bar
is not completely demagnetized. This phenomenon is called residual
magnetism.
To demagnetize the iron bar we will have to apply the magnetizing force H in
the reverse direction by reversing the direction of current through the
solenoid. B is reduced to 0 when H is oc.

If the value of H is further increased in negative direction the iron bar again
reaches the state of saturation in opposite direction at point d. By taking H
back to the positive saturation point the curve will follow the path of defa. It
may be noted that b always lags behind H. this phenomena is called
hysteresis. The closed loop abcdefa is obtained through one complete
cycle of magnetization is called hysteresis loop.
The area of hysterisis loop represent the net energy spent in taking the bar
through one cycle of magnetization.