Strength of MaterialsStrength of Materials ‘Secend EditienAbout the Author S S Rattan is currently serving as Professor and Head in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra. He did his postgraduation in Mechanical Engineering from Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh, in 1981. Since then he has been engaged in teaching and research, He obtained his PhD degree from Kurukshetra University in 1995, Dr Rattan has authored several research papers, which have been published in national and international journals as well as in the proceedings of conferences in India and abroad. He is also the recipient of Sir Rajendra Nath Mookerjee Memorial Prize for a paper published in Journal of Institute of Engineers. Besides these, Dr Rattan is the author of two other books titled Theory of Machines and Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Machines. He is also a member of Indian Society of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics.Strength of Materials SS Rattan Professor of Mechanical Engineering National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited NEW DELHI ‘McGraw-Hill Offices New Delhi New York StLouis San Francisco Auckiand Bogoté Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Gity Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo TorontoIN E==l' Tata McGraw-Hill Published by the Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, ‘7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, Strength of Materials, 2e Copyright © 2011, 2008 by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not bbe reproduced for publication This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited ISBN(13): 978-0-07-107256-4 ISBN(10): 0-07-107256-X Vice President and Managing Director—MeGraw-Hill Education, Asia-Pacific Region: Ajay Shukla Head—Higher Education Publishing and Marketing: Vibha Mahajan Manager—Sponsoring (SEM and Tech. Ed.): Shalini Jha Associate Sponsoring Editor: Suman Sen Asst. Development Editor: Harsha Singh Executive—Editorial Services: Sohini Mukherjee Senior Production Manager: P L Pandita Deputy Marketing Manager (SEM & Tech. Ed.): Biju Ganesan Senior Product Specialist (SEM & Tech. Ed.): John Mathews General Manager—Production: Rajender P Ghansela Asst General Manager—Produetion: B L Dogra Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If'such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ‘Typeset at The Composers, 260, C.A. Apt., Paschim Vihar, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at Krishna Offset, 10/22, Vishnu Gali, Vishwas Nagar, Delhi 110032 Cover Printer: AP Offset RQXQCRZCDLYLYTo the Memory of My ParentsContents Preface av 1. Simple Stress and St Ll Stress 2 1.2 Shear Stress 2 1.3. Saint-Venant’s Principle 4 14° Strain 4 1.5 Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity 5 16 Elongation of a Bar 5 1.7 Principle of Superposition 5 1.8 Bars of Tapering Section 12 1.9 Elongation Due to Self-Weight 16 1.10 Column of Uniform Strength 17 1.11 Statically Indeterminate Systems 18 1.12 Temperature Stresses. 37 1.13. Shrinking On 42 1.14 Strain Analysis 43 1.15 Tensile Test Diagram 48 1.16 Factor of Safety 49 1.17. Elastic Constants 50 1.18 Relation Between Elastic Constants 57 1.19 Three-Dimensional Stress Systems 53 Summary 57 Objective Type Questions 58 Review Questions 60 Numerical Problems 60 2. Compound Stress and Strain 65 Stress Analysis 65 2.2 Sum of Direct Stresses on Two Mutually Perpendicular Planes 72 2.3 Principal Stresses 73vil concn 24 Maximum (Principal) Shear Stresses 74 2.5 Normal Stress on the Planes of Maximum Shear Stress 75 2.6 Mohr’s Stress Circle 76 2.7 Three Coplanar Stresses 96 2.8 Ellipse of Stress 98 2.9 Strain Analysis 100 2.10. Principal Strains 102 2.11 Principal Shear Strains 103 2.12. Sum of Direct Strains on Two Mutually Perpendicular Planes 103 2.13 Mobr’s Strain Circle 103 2.14 Principal Stresses from Principle Strains 104 215 Strain Rosette 105 Summary 110 Objective Type Questions 111 Review Questions 112 Numerical Problems 112 3. Strain Energy 1s 3.1 Strain Energy 115 3.2 _ Strain Energy (Three-Dimensional Stress System) 1/7 3.3. Shear Strain Energy 117 3.4 Shear Strain Energy (Three-Dimensional Stress System) 1/8 3.5 Strain Energy due to Bending and Torsion 119 3.6 Strain Energy of Bars of Tapering Section 120 3.7 _ Stresses Due to Various Types of Loading 129 Summary 135 Objective Type Questions 136 Review Questions 136 Numerical Problems 137 4, Shear Force and Bending Moment 138 4.1 Types of Supports and Beams 138 4.2. Shear Force 140 43° Bending Moment 140 44 Relation between Load, Shear Force and Bending Moment 140 45. Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for Cantilevers 141 46 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for Simply Supported Beams 146 4.7 Beams with Overhangs 149 48 Beams with Varying Distributed Load 157 49 Beams Subjected to Couples 163 4,10 Beams with Hinged Joints 168 4.11 Inclined Loading 170 4.12 Loading and Bending Moment Diagrams from Shear Force Diagram 172 Summary 173 Objective Type Questions 174 Review Questions 175 Numerical Problems 1765, Bending Stress in Beams 5.1 Theory of Simple Bending 179 5.2 Moment of Inertia 180 5.3 Beams with Uniform Bending Strength 200 54 Flitched or Composite Beams 203 5.5 Reinforced Concrete Beams 2/4 5.6 Unsymmetrical Bending 2/6 5.7 Determination of Principal Axes 223 5.8 Ellipse of Inertia or Momental Ellipse 231 5.9 Combined Direct and Bending Stress 233 5.10 Masonary Dams 243 5.11 Retaining Walls 247 Summary 249 Objective Type Questions 251 Review Questions 251 Numerical Problems 252 6. Shear Stress in Beams 6.1 Variation of Shear Stress 254 6.2 Shear Stress Variation in Different Sections 256 6.3. Built-up Beams 270 64 Shear Stress in Thin Sections 275 65 Shear Centre 278 Summary 286 Objective Type Questions 287 Review Questions 287 Numerical Problems 288 7, Slope and Deflection 7.1 Beam Differential Equation 290 7.2 Slope and Deflection at a Point 297 7.3 Double Integration Method 292 7.4 Macaulay’s Method 309 7.5 Moment-Area Method (Mohr’s Theorems) 325 7.6 Strain Energy Due to Bending 336 7.1 Castigliano’s First Theorem (Deflection from Strain Energy) 7.8 Deffections by Castigliano’s Theorem 340 7.9 Impact Loading on Beams 348 7.10 Conjugate Beam Method 350 7.11 Deffection Due to Shear 357 7.12 Maxwell’s Reciprocal Deflection Theorem 359 7.13. Betti’s Theorem of Reciprocal Deflections 360 Summary 360 Objective Type Questions 361 Review Questions 362 Numerical Problems 362 conten 178 254 290 339x [leone 8, Fixed and Continuous Beams 365 8.1 Effect of Fixidity 365 8.2 Moment-Area Method 366 8.3 Macaulay's Method 374 84 — Clapeyron’s Three-Moment Equation 380 8.5 Moment Distribution Method 390 8.6 Method of Flexibility Coefficients 403 Summary 409 Objective Type Questions 410 Review Questions 410 Numerical Problems 411 9. Bending of Curved Bars 413 9.1 Bars of Small Initial Curvature 413 9.2 Bars of Large Initial Curvature (Winkler-Bach Theory) 416 9.3 Values of p? for Various Sections 479 9.4 Stresses in a Circular Ring 430 9.5 Stresses in aChain Link 435 9.6 Deflection of Curved Bars 439 9.7 Deflection by Strain Energy (Castigliano’s Theorem) 445, Summary 452 Objective Type Questions 453 Review Questions 453 Numerical Problems 453 10. Torsion 456 10.1 Circular Shafts 456 10.2 Power Transmission 458 10.3. Torsion of Tapered Shaft 465 10.4 Shafts in Series and Parallel 467 10.5 Strain Energy in Torsion 472 10.6 Combined Bending and Torsion 477 10.7 Thin Tubular Sections (Bredt-Batho Theory) 480 10.8 Thin-Walled Sections 482 10.9 Thin Rectangular Members 484 Summary 487 Objective Type Questions 488 Review Questions 489 Numerical Problems 489 11. Springs 491 11.1 Close-coiled Helical Springs 491 11.2. Springs in Series and Parallel 500 11.3. Concentric (Cluster) Springs 502 114 Open-Coiled Helical Springs 506 11.5. Flat Spiral Springs 5/4 116 Leaf or Laminated Springs 515Summary 521 Objective Type Questions 522 Review Questions 523 Numerical Problems 523 12. Columns and Struts 12.1 Euler's Theory 525 12,2 Equivalent Length 528 12,3. Limitations of Euler's Formula 528 12.4 Rankine’s Formula 535 12.5 Other Formulae 536 12.6 Strut with Eccentric Load (Secant Formula) 12.7, Strut with Initial Curvature 545 12.8 Strut with Lateral Loading 549 12.9 Tie with Lateral Loading 555 12.10 Struts of Varying Cross-Section 557 Summary 559 Objective Type Questions 560 Review Questions 561 Numerical Problems 562 13. Cylinders and Spheres 13.1 Thin Cylinder 564 13,2. Thin Spherical Shell 566 13,3 Thin Cylinder with Spherical Ends 566 13.4 Volumetric Strain 567 13,5 Wire Winding of Thin Cylinders 577 13.6 Thick Cylinders (Lame’s Theory) 580 13.7 Compound Tubes 591 13,8 Hub on Solid Shaft 598 13.9 Thick Spherical Shells 602 Summary 605 Objective Type Questions 606 Review Questions 607 Numerical Problems 607 14. Rotating Dises and Cylinders 14.1 Thin Rotating Ring 610 14.2 Disc of Uniform Thickness 613 14,3 Long Cylinder 627 14.4 Disc of Uniform Strength 633 14.5 Collapse Speed 634 Summary 636 Objective Type Questions 637 Review Questions 638 Numerical Problems 638 S41 conten 525 564 61048 |f eons 15. Theories of Failure 640 15.1 Main Theories of Failure 640 15,2. Design of Thick Cylindrical Shell 647 15.3 Graphical Representations of Theories of Failure 650 Summary 652 Objective Type Questions 653 Review Questions 654 Numerical Problems 654 16. Circular Plates 656 16.1 Symmetrically Loaded Circular Plates 656 16.2 Uniformly Distributed Load on a Solid Plate 660 16.3 Central Point Load on Solid Plate 666 16.4 Load Round a Circle on a Solid Plate 673, 16.5 Annular Ring, Load Round an Inner Edge 678 Summary 680 Objective Type Questions 681 Review Questions 682 Numerical Problems 682 17. Plastic Bending and Torsion 84 17.1 Plastic Theory of Bending 684 17.2. Moment of Resistance at Plastic Hinge 685 17.3. Symmetrical Bending 686 17.4 Unsymmetrical Bending 687 17.5 Collapse Load 694 17.6 Torsion of Circular Shafts 696 17.7 Combined Direct and Bending Stress 699 Summary 701 Objective Type Questions 701 Review Questions 702 Numerical Problems 702 18. Plane Frame Structures 704 18.1 Perfect Frames 704 18.2 Reactions at the Supports 705 18.3. Statically Determinate Frames 705 18.4 Assumptions in the Analysis of Frames 706 18.5 Sign Convention 706 18.6 Methods of Analysis 706 18.7. Method of Joints 706 188 Method of Sections 7/2 Summary 716 Objective Type Questions 717 Review Questions 718 Numerical Problems 71819. Properties and Testing of Materials 19.1 Mechanical Properties 721 19.2. Factor of Safety 722 19.3. Tensile Testing 722 19.4 Compression Testing 724 19.5 Torsion Testing 724 19.6 Hardness Testing 725 19.7, Impact Testing 725 19.8 Column Testing 727 19.9 Creep Testing 727 19.10 Fatigue Testing 727 Summary 729 Objective Type Questions 730 Review Questions 730 Appendix 731 Index conten f TA 734a Preface Anengincer always endeavours to design structural or machine members that are safe, durable and economical, To accomplish this, he has to evaluate the load-carrying capacity of the members so that they are able to withstand the various forces acting on them. The subject Strength of Materials deals with the strength, stability and rigidity of various structural or machine members such as beams, columns, shafts, springs, cylinders, et. These days, a number of books on the subject are available in the market. It is observed that although most of the books are having a few good features in them, their overall ranking drops when considered on composite parameters like coverage of a topic, lucidity of writing, variety of solved and unsolved problems, quality of diagrams ete. Usually, the students have to supplement one book with a few others to comprehend the subject. The present book aims to provide most of the good features in a single book. The book aims to be useful to degree-level students of mechanical and civil engineering as well as those preparing for AMIE and various other competitive examinations. However, diploma-level students will also find the book to be of immense use. The book will also benefit postgraduate students to some extent as it contains some advanced topics like bending of curved bars, rotating discs and cylinders, plastic bending and circular plates, etc. The salient features of the book are ‘* Moderately concise and compact text covering all major topics ‘Simple language aimed to benefit average and weak students Logical and evolutionary approach in descriptions for better imagination and visualisation Derivation of physical concepts from simple and readily comprehensible principles ‘Summary at the end of each chapter An appendix containing important relations and results, Rich pedagogy including = Over 540 illustrations = 440 Solved Examples = 220 Objective Type Questions = 175 Review Questions = 210 Problems It is necessary for students using this book to have completed a course in applied mechanics. Chapters 1 and 2 introduce the concept of simple and compound stresses at a point. The theory shows that an axial load maywil rece produce shear stresses along with normal stresses depending upon the section considered. The latter chapter also discusses the utility of Mohr’s circle in transformation of stress at a point. Chapter 3 explains the concept of strain energy that forms the basis of analysis in many cases. Chapters 4 to 8 are related to beams which may be simply supported, fixed at one or both ends or continuous having more than two supports. ‘The analysis includes the computations of bending moment, shear force, bending and shear stresses under transverse loads and deflection of beams. The concept of plastic deformation of beams beyond the elastic limit, being an advanced topic is taken up later in Chapter 17, Sometimes, curved members such as rings and hooks are also loaded. Chapter 9 discusses the stresses developed in such members. Chapter 10 takes up the theory of torsion, which also includes its application to shafts transmitting power. Chapter 11 discusses springs based on the same theory. Columns are important members of structures. Chapter 12 discusses the equilibrium of columns and struts, However, the computation of stress in plane frame structures, which is mostly included in the civil engineering curriculum, is discussed later in Chapter 18. Some other important machine members include cylinders and spheres under internal or external pressures; flywheels, discs and cylinders, which rotate while performing the required function, are covered in chapters 13 and 14. Design of mechanical members is mostly based on certain criteria of failure, and various theories based on the same are taken up in Chapter 15. Chapter 16 illustrates how circular plates are stressed under concentrated and uniform loads. The properties of materials as well as the methods to determine the same are discussed in Chapter 19. The first edition of the book aimed at providing the rudiments of the subject in a simple manner for easy comprehension by students. Simple mathematical derivations were favoured instead of more elegant but perplexed ones so that those with limited mathematical skills could easily grasp the essence. However, t0 make the book more purposeful and acceptable to a wider section of users, the present edition aims at making, it more exhaustive. Many new sections under various chapters have been added apart from rewriting of some of the previous sections. Many more worked-out examples as well as unsolved problems have been added. The objective type questions, which had been contained in an appendix in the previous edition, are now provided at the end of each chapter as was suggested by most of the readers. Effort has been made to eliminate all sorts of errors and misprints as far as possible. In spite of the addition of a large amount of ‘material, care has been taken to let the book remain concise and compact. Though students are expected to exert and solve the numerical problems given at the end of each chapter, hints to most of these are available at the publisher's website of the book for the benefit of average and weak students. However, full solutions of the unsolved problems are available to the faculty members at the same site. The facility can be availed by logging on to https://www.mhhe.convrattan/som2. In preparing the script, I relied heavily on the works of renowned authors whose writings are considered classics in the field. I am indeed indebted to them. I sincerely acknowledge the help of my many colleagues, who helped me in one form or the other in preparing this treatise. I also acknowledge the efforts of the editorial and production staff of the McGraw-Hill Education for taking pains in bringing out this edition in an excellent format. Tam also grateful to the following reviewers of this book who took out time from their busy schedules and sent me usefull comments and suggestions: Raman Bedi National Institute of Technology (NIT) Jalandhar, Punjab SP Harsha Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee, Uttarakhandoe fj A Bhattacharya Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University (IT BHU) Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh Abid Ali Khan Zakir Hussain College of Engineering and Technology Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh Debasis Datta Bengal Engineering and Science University Shibpur, West Bengal HK Dash College of Engineering and Technology ‘Techno Campus, Bhubaneswar, Orissa VG Ukadgaonkar Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Bombay, Mumbai Jatin A Desai Chhotubhai Gopalbhai Patel Institute of Technology Bardoli, Gujarat V Alfred Franklin St. Xavier's Catholic College of Engineering Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu K Palanichamy National Institute of Technology (NIT) Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu S Ramanathan Maturi Venkata Subba Rao Engineering College Hyderabad Ravindra Kommineni RVR & JC College of Engineering Guntur, Andhra Pradesh K Kalyani Radha Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University (JNTU) Hyderabad LBhaskar Rao Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad Finally, I am also indebted to my wife, Neena, and my children, Ravneet and Jasmeet, for being patient with me while I went about the arduous task of preparing the manuscript. But for their sacrifice, I would not have been able to complete it in the most satisfying way. A creation by a human being can never be perfect. A number of mistakes might have crept in even in this revised text. I shall be highly grateful to the readers and the users of the book for their uninhibited comments and for pointing out the errors do feel free to contact me at ss_rattan@hotmail.com SS RattanBRT RR RS SR Oe THT OAR SES sweets oe area area width width diameter, height, depth diameter eccentricity modulus of elasticity, Young’s modulus force acceleration due to gravity shear modulus, modulus of rigidity height, distance height moment of inertia, length number of joints polar moment of inertia torsional stiffness, stiffness of spring Bulk modulus length length, load factor mass, modular ratio, number of members moment, bending moment, mass number of coils pressure, compressive stress force, load shear flow ORESONE wereraeps Pee cr Symbols radius radius, reaction length shape factor thickness, time, temperature torque energy density strain energy, resilience volume rate of loading force, weight, load rectangular coordinates, distances section modulus direct stress angle angle, shear strain angle, coefficient of thermal expansion increment of quantity, deflection, extension shear stress elongation direct strain 3.1416 Poisson’s ratio angle angle angular velocity densityExternal forces acting on individual structural or machine members of an engineering design are common. An engineer always endeavours to have such designs that are safe, durable and economical. Thus, load-carrying capacity of the members being designed is of paramount impor- tance to know their dimensions to minimise the cost. The subject Strength of Materials deals with the strength or the load-carrying capacity of various members such as beams and columns. It also considers their stability and rigidity. Theory of Structures involves the application of these principles to structures made up of beams, columns, slabs and arches. The force acting on a body is termed as load. A concen- trated load is also known as a point load, and a distributed load overa length is known as distributed load. A distributed load of constant value is called uniformly distributed load. Ifa structure as a whole is in equilibrium, its members are also in equilibrium individually which implies that the resultant of all the forces acting on a member must be zero. However, the forces acting on a body tend to deform or tear the body. For example, a load P acting on. a body tends to pull it apart (Fig. |.I3).This type of pull ‘may also be applied if one end of the body is fixed (Fig. |. 1b). In this case, the balancing force is provided by the reaction of the fixed end, Sueh type of a pulling force is known as tension or tensile force.A tensile force tends to Chapter Simple Stress and Strain ee x » © Fig.t increase the length and decrease the cross-section of the body. Ina similar way,a force tending to push or compress a body is known as compression or compressive force which tends to shorten the length (Fig. I.I¢) Usually the forces acting on a body along the longi- tudinal axis are known as direct or axial forces, and the forces acting normal to the longitudinal axis of a body are known as transverse or normal forces. In the elementary theory of analysis, a material subjected to external forces is assumed to be perfectly clastic, ie., the deformations caused to the body totally disappear as soon as the load or forces are removed. ‘Other assumptions are that the materials are isotropic (same properties in all directions) and homogeneous (same properties anywhere in the body)a eee 1, STRESS ‘The applied external forces on a body are transmitted to the supports through the material of the body. This phenomenon tends to deform the body and causes it to develop equal and opposite internal forces. These internal forces by virtue of cohesion between particles of the material tend to resist the deformation. The ‘magnitude of the internal resisting forces is equal to the applied forces but the direction is opposite. Let the member shown in Fig. 1.12 be cut through the section X-X as shown in Fig, 1.2. Now, each segment ‘ of the member is in equilibrium under the action of the + | force P and the internal resisting force. The resisting °*— i force per unit area of the surface is known as intensity : of stress or simply stress and is denoted by @. Thus, if x the load P is assumed as uniformly distributed over a Fig.12 sectional area 4, then the stress is given by o= PIA ay However, ifthe intensity of stress is not uniform throughout the body, then the stress at any point is defined as 0 = BP/6A where 64 = infinitesimal area of cross-section and P= load applied on area 64 ‘The stress may be tensile or compressive depending upon the nature of forces applied on the body. Stress at the elastic limit is usually referred as proof stress. Units ‘The unit of stress is N/m? or Pascal (Pa). However, this is a very small unit, almost the stress due to placing an apple on an area of 1 m, Thus, it is preferable to express stress in units of MN/m? or MPa. 1 MN/m? = 1 MPa = 1X 10©N/m? = 1 N/mm? Also 1 GPa = 1000 MPa = 1000 N/mm? = 1 kN/mt In numerical problems, it is always convenient to express the units of stress mentioned in MPa and GPa in the form of N/mm? 1. SHEAR STRESS ‘When two equal and opposite parallel forces not in the same fine act on two parts of a body, then one part tends to slide over or shear from the other across any section and the stress developed is termed as shear stress. In Figs. 1.3 a and b, the material is sheared along any section X-X whereas in a riveted joint (Fig. 3c), the shearing is across the rivet diameter. If P is the force applied and A is the area being sheared, then the intensity of shear stress is given by 7=PIA (2) and if the intensity of shear stress varies over an area, 1 = 8P/6A Remember that shear stress is always tangential to the area over which it acts.SHEARING Pp © Complimentary Shear Stress Consider an infinitely small rectangular element ABCD under shear stress of intensity r acting on planes AD and BC as shown in Fig. 1.4a, Itis clear from the figure that the shear stress acting on the element will tend to rotate the block in the clockwise direction. As there is no other force acting on the element, static equilibrium of the element can only be attained if another couple of the same magnitude is applied in the counter-clockwise direction. This can be achieved by having shear stress of intensity 7’ on the faces AB and CD (Fig. 1.4b).. ° c orx——— 1 Ff r y | t AR « —>18 i—r8 Fig.t4 Assuming xand y to be the lengths of the sides AB and BC of the rectangular element and a unit thickness perpendicular to the figure, The force of the given couple = =F (y 1) The moment of the given couple = (7+ y)+x ‘Similarly, The force of balancing couple = +" +(x 1) The moment of balancing couple =(7" + x)-y For equilibrium, equating the two, (reyyrx or 7 which shows that the magnitude of the balancing shear stresses is the same as of the applied stresses. The shear stresses on the transverse pair of faces are known as complimentary shear stresses. Thus every shear stress is always accompanied by an equal complimentary shear stress on perpendicular planes. The presence of complimentary shear stress may cause an early failure of anisotropic materials such as timber which is weaker in shear along the grain than normal to the grain. ‘* Owing to the characteristic of complimentary shear stresses for the equilibrium of members subjected 10 shear stresses, near a free boundary on which no external force acts, the shear stress must follow a direction parallel to the boundary. This is because any component of the shear force perpendicular to the surface will find no complimentary shear stress on the boundary plane.4 |] serengen of teriats 1. SAINT-VENANT’S PRINCIPLE According to this principle, the distribution of internal stresses or strains on sections of a body, which are at sufficient distance from the surfaces of the load applications, is not affected by the nature of actual application of load over the surface. Thus, in case of a rod under simple tension, the load applied may be centrally r{ be nn concentrated (Fig, 1.Sa), distributed over the outer circumference (Fig. 1.5b), distributed in a circular @ © way on the end surface (Fig. 1.5e) or uniformly distributed over the end surface (Fig. 1.5d), the nn: Pp an; distribution of stresses is found to be uniformly distributed in all types of loading for points distant © © more than about two to three times the diameter of rere the rod. Figure 1.6a shows a member having two rigid plates attached at the two ends, When the loads are applied at the centre of each plate, the plates move towards each other causing the member to be shorter while increasing the lateral dimensions of the member. It can safely be assumed thatthe plane sections will remain plane and all elements of a the member deform in the same way. In such a case, the distribution of strains throughout the member is uniform, ie. the axial and lateral strains are constant. However, ifthe plates are removed and the concen- trated loads are applied directly as shown in Fig. 1.6b, the elements near the points of applications of loads deform appreciably while no deformation takes place atthe corners resulting in very large stresses in the vicinity of points of application of loads and almost no deformation near the ends. But ifthe elements farther and farther from the ends are observed, a more nearly uniform distribution ofthe strains and stresses across a section is obtained. ) Fig.1.6 STRAI The deformation of a body under a load is proportional to its length. To study the behaviour of a material, it is convenient to study the deformation per unit length of a body than its total deformation, The elongation per unit length of a body is known as longitudinal strain ot simply strain and is denoted by Greek symbol e. If A is the elongation of a body of length Z, the strain « is given by e= ML (3) is dimensionless. Asit s a ratio of similar quantities, Shear Strain A rectangular element of a body is distorted by shear stresses as shown in Fig. 1.7. If the lower surface is assumed to be fixed, the upper surface slides relative to the lower surface and the comer angles are altered by angle g. Shear strain is defined as the change in the right angle of the element measured in radians and is dimensionless.MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND MODULUS OF RIGIDITY For elastic bodies, the ratio of stress to strain is constant and is known as Young's modulus or the modulus of elasticity and is denoted by E, i., E=ole (4) Strain has no units as itis a ratio. Thus, £ has the same units as stress. ‘The materials that maintain this ratio are said to obey Hooke’s law which states that within elastic limits, strain is proportional to the stress producing it. The elastic limit of a material is determined by plotting a tensile test diagram (Refer Section 1.15). ‘Young's modulus is the stress required to cause a unit strain, As a unit strain means elongation of a body equal to its original length (since ¢ = A/L), this implies that Young’s modulus is the stress or the force required per unit area to elongate the body by its original size or to cause the length to be doubled. However, for most. of the engineering materials, the strain does not exceed 1/1000. Obviously, mild steel has a much higher value of Young’s modulus E as compared to rubber. Similarly, for elastic materials, the shear strain is found to be proportional to the applied shear stress within the elastic limit. Modulus of rigidity or shear modulus denoted by Gis the ratio of shear stress to shear strain, ie, Garp (15) 1.6 ELONGATION OF A BAR ‘An expression for the elongation of a bar of length L and cross-sectional area A under the action of a force P is obtained below: 2 o-2 on Ase=f os z o-L_ PL r a2 hk Ph Thus, elongation of a bar of length L, A= “=== (1.6) 1 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION The principle of superposition states that if a body is acted upon by a number of loads on various segments of a body, then the net effect on the body is the sum of the effects caused by each of the loads acting indepen- dently on the respective segment of the body. Thus, each segment can be considered for its equilibrium. This is done making a diagram of the segment along with various forces acting on it. This diagram is generally referred as free-body diagram. The principle of superposition is applicable to all parameters like stress, strain and deflection. However, it is not applicable to materials with nonlinear stress-strain characteristics which do not follow Hooke’s law.6 | secengen of Materia Example 141 || Acirlar steel bar of various cross sections subjcted toa pul of800 KN as shown nig. PIC * Hl Determine the extension of the bar. E = 204 GPa. 4 4 e00kN-—{ feo ]eo-] 180 ‘6 80} —-800 kn = 400 ++ abo ++ 500 —= abo si= 400 +1 (en) Fig.1.8 Solution Given A circular steel bar of following cross-sections: — Two lengths of 400 mm each of 80-mm diameter — Two lengths of 300 mm each of 60-mm diameter — Single length of 500 mm of 100-mm diameter P=800KN E=204GPa To find Extension of the bar Total ext renee 16 otal extension, = = (Eq. 1.6) 800000 (400x2 300x250 (x/4)x 204000\” go? 602-1002 = 4,993 (0.125 + 0.167 + 0.05) = 1.708 mm ‘A bar made up of two square sections, one of steel and the other of aluminium is shown in Fig. 1.9. The bar is acted upon by a compressive force P. Determine the value of P ifthe total 105 GPa and E,,= 75 GPa. Example 1.2 | decrease in length of the bar is 0.3 mm. Take E, Solution Given A bar with following two square cross-sections: — — Steel section of 600-mm length with 30 mm X 30 mm cross-section sell — Aluminium section of 800-mm length with 60 mm X 60 mm cross- 49.39 2 section A=03mm — £,=205GPa.—E= 75 GPa. | To find Applied force P t =a ‘Aluminium Force P s Force applied can be found by considering the total decrease. 6060 8 PL Total decrease, = ——= eng. 1.6 otal decrease, A = 7 (Eq. 1.6) | 600 800 ftom 03= pj) _,__ 80 _ Pp 30? x 205000 60x 75.000 Fig.t9 or 3.252 +2,963)= 10° or 6215 P= 03x 10° or P=48270N or 48.27 KNA steel bar of 25-mm diameter is acted Bg ¢ Example 13 |] pon by forces as shown in Fig. 110 ‘What is the total elongation of the bar? Take E= 190 GPa. a ot D Ke 2m 1 mie— 3m >t GOKN <| 20kKN<1 1» 30 kN [> 50 kN Solution Given A steel bar having three segments with different Fi forces as shown in the figure. 140 d=25 mm. E=190GPa ‘To find Elongation of bar " Area of the section = 7-(25)° = 490.87 mm? Calculation of forces in various segments Forces in various segments are considered by taking the free-body diagram of each segment as follows (Fig. 1.11): A_ Bc D GOKN=20KNe} -30KN T+ 5OKN ac tama 3m AB Bc c > 60+] 0 60 80+] L. aA 8B es cD D 20-7 f+ 90+ Ir B_c cD c D e+) f+s0 50+] p50 BC c D Segment AB At Section AA, the force is 60 KN tensile and for force equilibrium of this segment, itis to be 60 KN tensile at BB also. Segment BC Force at Section BB = 60 KN tensile (as above) + 20 kN (applied tensile force at B) 80 KN (tensile) = Force at Section CC Segment CD Force at Section CC = 80 KN tensile (as above) ~ 30 kN (applied comp. force at CC) 50 KN (tensile) Force at Section DD Determination of total elongation PL a= --(Eq. 1.6) = FBTR Toy o00 (60 000 X 2000 + 80 000 x 1000 + 50 000 x 3000) = 3.75 mmStrength of Materials A steel circular bar has three segments as shown in Fig. Determine (i) the total elongation of the bar (il) the length of the middle segment to have zero elongation of the bar (il) the diameter of the last segment to have zero elongation of the bar Take E = 205 GPa. Example 1.4 | [200 wnt 320 x 12, ee ey 20mm 4 A 8 fe 150mm-+f— 200mm —+}— 250mm —+] Fig. 12 Solution Given A steel circular bar having three segments with different forces E=205 GPa. To find — Total elongation — Length of middle segment for zero elongation of bar — Diameter of last segment for zero elongation of bar 80 kN c D oon! soon [220s soy | com A a c 4 D Je 150mm —-f-— 200mm —+l-— 20mm —} | |<— 330 Fig. 113Calculation of forces in various segments (® Segment CD At Section D, the force is 80 KN tensile and for force equilibrium of this segment, at C also it is to be 80 KN tensile. Segment BC Force at Section C 0 KN tensile (as above) ~ 330 KN (comp, Force at Section C) 250 KN (compressive) = Force at Section B Segment AB Force at Section B = -250 KN (comp. as above) + 300 kN (tensile force at section B) SOKN (tensile) = Force at section A Total elongation Total elongation, 1 (qos soem 200 500005) (7/4) x 205000(° 29? 30? 1s? (50.000 ~ 55 555.5 + 33 333.3) = 1.173 mm © 161007 Length of middle segment for zero elongation of bar Let the length of the middle segment be L to have zero elongation of the bar. 1 250 000 x L Then 4= no (# 000-83 sna] 0 2 or = 555 999 % 833333 = 300 mm Diameter of last segment for zero elongation of bar Let the diameter of the last segment be d to have zero elongation of the bar. wa M2 -$5555.5+33 x3) 0 161007 2 = 50000250 699 or d= 30mm 22:222.2 Example 15. [fA et sel bar having vee segments i sect to varius forest ifereterosssee tions as shown in Fig. I.I4. Determine the necessary force to be applied at Section C for the equilibrium of the bar: Also, find the total elongation of the bar. Take E = 202 GPa. soKn Tp x sow <[ foomm tSMiomm?<| «opm |» rou ¥ A | 5 D J+ 600mm ->[<— 800 mm—>L«— 900 mm —>| Fig. 134 Solution Given A steel circular bar having three segments with different forces. E=202 GPa,10[[ strength of materials To find Total elongation of bar Calculation of forces in various segments Forces in various segments are considered by taking the free-body diagram of each segment (Fig. 1.15). sown t p x cow Fave tf aohm foin ¢ A t t D [+600 mm ->/— 800 mm —>/— 900 mn —>| <| 1. 4 L> «J L, a % 7 A 8 b 4 oo, D L_@ Ey sy D <| L, 108P 7 6 D 0 10 Fig. 145 Segment AB At Section A, the force is 40 KN tensile and for force equilibrium of this segment, itis to be 40 KN tensile at B also. Segment BC Force at Section B = 40 KN tensile (as above) ~ 30 KN (compressive at Section B) 10 KN (tensile) = Force at Section C Segment CD Force at Section C= 10 KN tensile (as above) + P (tensile force at Section C) = Force at Section D (= 70 kN tensile) Thus, 10 + P= 70 or P= 60 KN (tensile) P can also be found directly by equating leftward and rightward forces, ic., P +40 = 30+ 70 or P= 60 KN Determination of elongation of the bar _ PL On aE 1 40.000 x 600 , 10.000 x800 , 70.000 x 900 ~ aoeml 302 602 402 ) > Tap ggg (26 667 + 2222 + 39 375) = 0.4303 mm‘A vertical circular steel bar of length 31 fixed at both of its ends is loaded Example +6 ||“ inemedne secon ores W nd 2a Show mfp le Deter a mine the end reactions if W = I.5 kN. i Solution Given A circular fixed end steel bar having three segments with different forces, 11° W= 1500 ow To find End reactions 1 Forces in various segments ° } Let A be the area of cross-section of each section and £, the modulus of elasticity. ¥ Let the reaction at the upper fixed end be 2 (tensile). Forces in various segments are w ! considered by taking the free-body diagram of each segment (Fig. 1.17), Pa R i Le t Fig. 1.16 7 i aR DW Rew re $ A aw) 1 - +|° Rew y f RSW ce wily t dw ot + = y f Trew Fig. 1.17 Segment AB At Section A, the force is R tensile and for force equilibrium of this segment, itis to be R tensile at B also. Segment BC Force at Section B = R tensile (as above) — 2 (compressive at Section B) —2W (tensile) = Force at Section C Segment CD Force at Section C = R ~2W tensile (as above) — W” (compressive at Section C) —3W (tensile) =Force at D End reactions As the total extension is to be zero since both the ends are fixed, RL, (R=), (R= 3) AE’ AE AEtaf serengen of materits or R+R-2W+R-3W=0 or 3R=SWorR=SWI3 reaction at the lower end = R~ 3W = a -3W s i.e, the reaction is upwards, ‘Numerical calculations Reaction at the upper end = R= = ee — 395 kN upwards Reaction at the lower end = 4 oe ~ 3 2 kN upwards 8 BARS OF TAPERING SECTION Bars of tapering section can be of conical section or of trapezoidal section with uniform thickness, Conical Section Consider a bar of conical section under the action of an axial force Pas shown in Fig. 1.18. p #) Let D= diameter at the larger end eee = diameter at the smaller end poy L=length of the bar E = Young's modulus of the bar material Consider a very small length 5x at a distance x from the small end. Fig. 1418 D-a The diameter at a distance x from the small end = d+ PL The extension of the small length peel 2) a( D-d _ d+ Poa, 4 L 4 Extension of the whole rod = f ———*P ___. gy jad +(D—dyiL-E 1, -2 L = 2i(a+ Pots) Ee REM xE (D-ad(@+@-ayil), _4PL (2 4PL p=d) 4PL 1 #ED-)\d D) xED-a\ aD) READ an Trapezoidal Section of Uniform Thickness Let B= width at the larger end ‘6 = width at the smaller end 1= thickness of the sectionKt KK >} Kk Se Oo T+ 5 Y Fig. 1419 L= length of the bar ‘Young’s modulus of the bar material Consider a very small length dx at a distance x from the small end of the rod (Fi 1.19). The width at a distance x from the small end = b + X= bt ke {Taking k= (B ~ bY/L] ‘The area of cross-section at this distance = (b + kx) ¢ P-bx ‘The extension ofthe smal length = oe L a P Extension of the whole rod J Orme Pl b+kL)_ P Fh hog.(b + kx 09.2 TE gloeell x) > ) Ee 5 (1.8) (o+w=0+2=*.1-2) ‘A tapering conical bar of I-m length has diameters of 20 mm and 50 mm at the two ends. Find Example 1. ample 7 || {Conon oh ar unr nl eeu of DEN E= 208 Gh Solution Given A tapering conical bar D=50mm 1000 mm d=20mm 250 KN 05 GPa ‘To find Elongation of bar 4PL___ 4x 250x103 1000 mEAD x 205 10° x 20x 50 A flat steel plate of trapezoidal section has a thickness of 20 mm and tapers uniformly from a ‘width of 80 mm to 30 mm ina length of 500 mm.What willbe the elongation of the plate under = 205 Gpa. =1.55 mm Elongation of the bat Example 1.8. | an axial load of 200 kN?Strength of Materials Solution Given A flat steel plate of trapezoidal section B=80mm L= 500mm 5=30mm 0 mm P=200KN 205 GPa To find Elongation of plate B-b_ 80-30 rT) El fthe rod = Pope 2 longation of the rod = 7 loge 200 x 10° 80 = 201 0g, 0 0.1 20 x 205 x 10" 30 = 0.488 mm Example ig. || Atewon ar aper fom (+) diameter to (d~) diameter Prove tat the ero mod in Using the mean diameter to calculate the Young’s modulus is (10a/4)? percent. Solution Given A tapering conical bar with diameters (d + a) and (d — a) at the two ends. ‘To find Error involved if mean diameter is used to calculate E Let P be the load applied and the L the length of the tapered bar. Calculation of E when tapered bar relation is applied 4PL po Phe © RE(d = a)(d +a) nd? =a?)A Calculation of E when tapered mean diameter is used The mean diameter is d. PL PL 4PL ors or E=—;— ae (nd7/4)A nd? 8 4PI 4PL 4PI ror = | eae m(d?—a?)A nd?A)/ m(d*-a?)A Calculation of Error involved 2 2 error = (3) x00 (4) A steel plate,22 mm thick and 220 mm wide at one end, tapers uniformly to 12 mm thick and Example 140 || ‘sormwideatc ther end Dearne he ogalon nea pul oT 20KN when the eg of the plate is 24 m.E = 205 GPa. Solution Given A steel plate of varying cross-section of dimensions as shown in Fig, 1.20. E=205 GPa P=20KN22mm 2mm % ame Fig. 1.20 ‘To find Elongation of plate Width at the smallerend = 180 mm Width at the largerend = 220 mm Thickness at the smaller end = 12 mm Thickness at the larger end = 22 mm Consider an elementary strip of length de of the plate at a distance from the small end Area of elementary strip 220 ~ 180 x x= 1804 2400 60 2-12 x os 2400 240 Width of the strip = 180 + Thickness of the strip = 12 + ea of the strip = wi jickness = [180+ = [12+ ‘Area of the strip = width X thicknes: ( a) 5) Elongation of elementary strip PL Elongation of the strip = 7 = Elongation of whole plate P 2400 Total elongation zh ( 2 am 0 EM a16 strength of materials > 2000 | 2aoin( 45+ ~non(12+ 2) Te 20 26 20.000 x 240 one wir nds — 132x 205 x10 -0.1774) (0.5878) = 0.1043 mm In45 —1n22 + In10] 9 ELONGATION DUE TO SELF-WEIGHT ‘The elongation due to self-weight of bars of rectangular and conical sections may be considered as follows: Rectangular Section Consider a bar hanging freely under its own weight as shown in Fig. 1.21. Consider a small length 6x of the bar at a distance x from the free end. Let A= area of cross-section of the bar w= weight per unit volume of the bar ight of the whole bar = wAL weight of the bar below the small section = wax Wey: 6x _ wAx- dx AE AE Fig. 121 KX Ee bi ~ —>| The extension of the small length = L Extension of the whole rod = f™* . dx 0 2\e yp (3) wh _wAL-L_ WL as) 2), 2B 2A 2AE E = deformation due to a weight Wat the lower end/2 ‘Thus the deformation of the bar under its own weight is equal to half the deformation due to a direct load equal to the weight of the body applied at the lower end Conical Section Let 4 =area of cross-section at the small length Consider a small length dx of the bar at a distance x from the free end (Fig.1.22). F L w= weight per unit volume of the bar \enn/t W = weight of the whole bar = wAL va = os ‘eight of the bar below the section = was/3 L \/ x Wy-5x _ wAx-Sx 1 The extension of a small length = 4 aE SAE Fig. 122 1 Extension of the whol a= ft Pfr dee (2) 02 wate kW 110 Mension of the whore OE ABE 3B) 3E( 2), 6E GAB OAE (10)Comparing it with Eq. 1.9, this elongation is one-third that of the rectangular section of the same length under own weight of the bar. A steel wire of &-mm diameter is used to life weight of 1.5 kN at its lowest end.The density of 100 m.£ = 205 GPa. Solution nA steel wire mm, p= 8000 kg/m? L=100m E=205 GPa 500.N To find Elongation of wire Weight of wire Specific weight of wire, w = 8000 X 9.81 Nim? =8 X 9.81 x 10 N/mm? Wei ot wire r= Ex (2008? x 10 8981-03945 N Elongation of wire Elongation of wire due to load = PE = 1500100 000 14.55 mmm AE (n/4)x 8? x 205 000 2 Elongation of wire due to self-weight = = « AEG.1.9) _ 8x 9.81107 x 100 x10°)? _ 1g) - 2x 205.000 a Total elongation = 14.56 + 1.91 = 16.47 mm 1.410 COLUMN OF UNIFORM STRENGTH Let a bar of varying cross-sectional area be acted upon by a load P as shown in Fig. 1.23. It is desired to know the cross- section of the bar so that it has a constant uniform compressive stress o throughout when the weight of the bar is also taken into account, Consider a small length dx at a distance x from the top. Let A =area at distance x my A+ dA = area at distance x +d ee w= weight per unit volume of the bar Considering the balance of forces acting on the small Fig. 123 length, 7A + weight of the small length dr of the bar or A+ wAdeStrength of Materials or Bova Ao Integrating both sides, log, A= “x + o At the top, where x= 0, let Area 4 =a Then, loga=0+C w A lo Thus loge A= Tax tlogea oF loge = or A=ae™*/ (uy Fig.1.24 ‘* The bar may also have been considered suspending from top (tie bar) as shown in Fig, 1.24. The force balance will be (cis tensile in this case), o (A + dd) =o A+ weight of the small length dr of the bar i.e,, the same equation as above. Thus the final expression will be the same if x is taken from bottom and a is the area at the bottom. ‘A vertical tie bar is used to withstand a uniform tensile stress of 30 MPa throughout its length. Determine the diameter of the section at a point 6 m above the section where the diameter is 30 mm. Density of the bar material is 7500 kg/m?.. Solution Given A tie bar of uniform stress of 30 MPa Example 1.12 | p= 7500 kg/m? ‘To find Diameter of a section at 6 m above the section of 30-mm diameter Specific weight, w= 7500 x 9.81 Nim? =7.5 x 9.81 x 10 N/mm? Calculation of diameter We have, A = ae" . (Eq. 1.11) o DP = deme = 302 @?5X9.81%10 3000/30 900 x 1.0148 = 913.34 or D=3022 mm Ltt STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS ‘When a system comprises two or more members of different materials, the forces in various members cannot be determined by the principle of statics alone. Such systems are known as statically indeterminate systems, In such systems, additional equations are required to supplement the equations of statics to determine the unknown forces. Usually, these equations are obtained from deformation conditions of the system and areknown as compatibility equations. A compound bar is a case of an indeterminate system and is discussed below: Compound Bar A bar consisting of two or more bars of different materials in parallel is known as a composite ot compound bar. In such a bar, the sharing of load by each can be found by applying equilibrium and the compatibility equations. Consider the case of a solid bar enclosed in a hollow tube as Fig.125 shown in Fig. 1.25. Let the subscripts 1 and 2 denote the solid bar and the hollow tube respectively. Equilibrium Equation As the total load must be equal to the load taken by individual members, P=P,+Py Compatibility Equation ‘The deformation of the bar must be equal to the tube. AL _ PL AE AL PL g_ Ai Es ae, Inserting (ii) in (i), PAE, a P,A\E\ + PyAgE _ Py( AE, + ArE2) AE, Ay Ey Ay Ey P AED or AME, + AYE, PAE Similarly, E+ hE Example 113 I] Three equally spaced rods in the same verti ample 13 | cal plane support a rigid bar AB. Two outer >| |-30 mm @ Gi) (1.12) (1.13) rods are of brass,each 600 mm long and of 25 mm in iameterThe 96 my >| a central rod is of steel that is 800 mm long and 30 mm in diameter. t Determine the forces in the rods due to an applied load of 120 kN F through the midpolnc ofthe barThe bar remaire horizontal after the >» lt \lp bE application of load. Take E/E, = 2. B ie \8 Es Solution Ed 537 Given A rigid bar system as shown in Fig. 1.26, <#>iea>i] yf t EJE,=2. AC 6 To find Forces in brass and steel rods Applying compatibility equation 120 KN AAs the bar remains horizontal after the application of load, 1g. 1.26 the elongation of each of the brass bars and of the steel bar are the same, A,=A,‘Strength of Materials Poly _ Pols “ ApEp AEs 2 2 or p= 42. Fo{ dy p 800 48) P, Ty Ey \dy 600 2\30 or P,=0463P, Applying equilibrium equation 2P,+P,= or 2x 0.463 P, + P,= 120 or 1.926 P, = 120 or P, = 62.3 KN and P, = 28. 84 KN Three equidistant vertical rods, each of 20 mm diameter, support a load of 25 kN in the same plane as shown in Fig. 1.27. Initially. all the rods are adjusted to share the load equally. Neglecting any chance of buckling, and taking E,= 205 GPa and E, = 100 GPa, determine the final stresses when a further load of 20 kN is added. Example 114 || Solution Given Three equidistant vertical rods supporting a load of 25 KN as 25 kN shown in Fig. 1.27. t L,=3.6m E,= 205 Gpa | L,=28m E,= 100 Gpa - d=20mm i f , t t Initial load = 25 kN fry a, foo € To find Final stresses when a further load of 20 kN is added. B 3 lo Ve are ari? yo A= (arid) 20? = 100 = mm? E ~| Finding of inital stress in each rod } 12, = 75000 96.53 MPa 7 100% x3 Finding of additional stresses in each rod On adding a further load of 20 KN, let the increase of stress in the steel rod be ©, and in the copper rod be oe From equilibrium equation, the additional load P is Q0,+0)4=P or (2, +0,) X 100m = 20000 @ From the compatibility equation, 6, 36 1! 28” 205000 E, E, L, or o.= or 9,=0.6274, L. ye ys Inserting this value of «in (i) (207, + 0.6270) x 100 = = 20.000 or 2.627 = 63.662 or 4.23 MPa and o, = 15.19 MpaFinding of total stresses in each rod Final stress in steel rod = 24,23 + 26.5. Final stress in copper rod = 15.19 + 26.5: 50.76 MPa 41.72 MPa Example 1.15 |] Art! rodof 16mm diameter pases through a copper tube of 20.mm internal meter and of 32mm external diameter The steel rod is fitted with ruts and washers at each end-The nuts are tightened til a stress of 24 MPa is developed in the steel rod.A cutis then made in the copper tube for half the length to remove 2 mm from its thickness. Assuming the Young’s modulus of steel to be twice that of copper, determine (i) the stress existing in the steel rod (i) the stress inthe steel rod if compressive load of 6 KN is applied to the ends of the steel rod Solution Given {A steel rod in a hollow copper tube, fitted with nuts at ends as shown in Fig. 1.28. The nuts are tightened till a stress of 24 MPa is developed in steel rod ‘Accut is made in copper tube for half the length and 2 mm is removed from its thickness. COPPER STEEL Fig. 128 ‘To find — Stress in steel rod — Stress in steel rod when a compressive load of 6 KN is applied to ends of steel rod. = F164 mm? and A, = F(32?— 202) = 156 mm On tightening the nut, the steel rod is elongated and the stress induced is tensile whereas the tube is shortened and the stress is compressive. Let 0, = stress in the steel rod = 24 MPa 7, = stress in the copper tube Determination of initial stress in copper tube From equilibrium equation Push on copper tube = Pull on steel rod 04 %A,= 04 XA, or oa, % 156m = 24 X 644 or 74, =9.846 MPa (compressive) When the copper tube is reduced in diameter A!= reduced area of cross-section of the tube Let o,.= stress in the steel rod Fos? 20°) = 96% 02 = stress in the reduced section of tube stress in the remaining section of tubeStrength of Materials From equilibrium equation, Forces in each section of copper tube as well as in the steel rod are to be equal ie, 0,4 X 156 w= O72 X 9 T=), 647 @ 0.4103 0, and 6% = 0.6667 0, Compatibility equation When the cross-section of the tube is reduced, the change in length of the rod as well as of the tube is to be of the same nature, ic. either the length of both is increased or decreased. Let us assume that the length of each is reduced which means a reduction of tensile stress in the rod and increase of compressive stress in the tube Thus reduction in length of steel rod = reduction in length of copper tube Ga Fn 1 Gea~Fa L, Fa- Fa Lb E 2) & 2 a Fqt Oy ~ 2 (E,= 28) Gi) or 240, = 0.410307,3 + 0.66670, ~ 2 X 9.846 or 2.0770,.= 43.692 or 0,)= 21.036 MPa AAs the stress in the steel rod is decreased from 24 MPa to 21.036 MPa, the assumption of reduction of the length of the two is correct. In case, the lengths are assumed to be increased, the stress in the steel rod is. increased and in the copper tube decreased. The equation formed would have been 2-1, _F1~Fe2 Lb , Fa~ Gia L E, E 2) & 2 and the result would have been the same, ie., = 21.036 MPa which would have indicated that the length actually would be reduced due to decrease in the stress of steel rod. When a compressive load of 6 KN is applied to the ends of the steel rod When a compressive load of 6 KN is applied to the ends of the steel rod, the length of the rod is further reduced. From equilibrium equation, 0,5 X 156 7 = 073 X 96 w= 07, X 64 7 + 6000 fas in (i)] or 0, X 156= 6/3 X 96=0,,, X 64+ 1909.9 or 0,57 0.4103 0,4 12.243 and 63 = 0.6667 0, + 19.895 Applying compatibility equation, nF y= F 34 O23 ~ 284 {as in (i)] or 24 —0,,= 0.410307,5 + 12.243 + 0.666707, + 19.895 —2 X 9.846 or 20770,,= 1.554 or 0,3 = 5.56 MPa Example 116 || A "und ste! rod supported ina recess is surrounded by 2 co-axial brass tube a shown in Fig. .29.The level ofthe upper end ofthe rod is 0.08 mm below that of the tube, Determine (0) the magnitude of the maximum permissible axial load which can be applied to a rigid plate resting on the top of the tube, the permissible values of the compressive stresses are 105 MPa for steel and 75 MPa for brass (i) the amount by which the tube is shortened by aload if the compressive stresses in the steel and the brass are the Take E, = 210 GPa and E, = 105 GPa.Load BRASS ‘STEEL BRASS L<— 300 mm —>| g 4100 mm |< — 50 mm —>| I<— 60mm —>! >| 96 | | Fig.129 Solution Given A round steel rod supported in a recess and surrounded by a co-axial brass tube as shown in Fig. 1.29. To find — Maximum axial load to be applied to rigid plate — Shortening of tube, if compressive stresses in steel and brass are same 4, 7x36? =324emm? and 4,= 4% (60"- 50*) Determination of load before the compression of the rod Let W, be the load applied for the initial compression of the tube before the compression of the rod starts. ‘Then as Ook 5300 By Bo 008 TOS 99 E 3 W, = 28 x 275m = 24 190N or 0,=28MPa Determination of additional load Limiting value of stress in the brass = 75 MPa Maximum value of stress due to additional load can be = 75 ~ 28 = 47 MPa Let 1” be the additional load to compress both, the tube and the bar. Let o, be the stress induced in the steel rod and @, the additional stress in the brass tube. From equilibrium equation, 0,4, + 7,4,—W From compatibility equation, A, ~ A, or Gils _Fsln Ly Es, _ 300, 210000 5 , OS °'L, By? 400° 105000 °°” or o,= 150, «=. stress induced in the steel rod = 1.5 x 47 = 70.5 MPaStrength of Materials Its less than the permissible value of stress for steel Thus DA, + PyAy = 10-5 X 324+ 47 X 275m = 112 365 N Determination of total load Total maximum load = 112 365 + 24 190 = 136 555 N or 136.555 kN Determination shortening of tube Let A be the shortening of the steel rod. This will also be the additional shortening of the brass tube. Then 105.000 210 000 r 0.08 +A) ani or = a9 ) and == Equating the stresses in the steel and the brass, 105.000 210.000 5 0.08 + A) = A . = 300 ) = T09 or 0.08+A=154 or 0.5 A= 0.08 or A= 0.16 mm Total shortening = 0.08 + 0.16 = 0.24 mm ‘Three wires of the same material and cross-section support a rigid bar which further supports a ‘weight of 5 KN.The length of the wires is 5 m,8 m and 6 m in order-The spacing between the ‘wires is 2 m and the weight acts at 1.6 m from the first wire. Determine the load carried by each wire. Solution Given Three wires of same material and cross-section and of different lengths supporting a weight as shown in Fig. 1.30. gee To find Load cartied by each wire Example 117 | LL —_ ‘As the wires are of different lengths and the weight suspended * is unsymmetrical, the bar will not remain horizontal but willbe tilted. Let it take the shape as shown in Fig. 1.30. t |<2m> Let P,, P, and P, be the loads taken by the first, second and ~ , i the third wire respectively. Equilibrium equation Pit P3t Py= Moment equation Taking moments about the first wire, 2P;+ 4 P,= 1.6 X 5000 = 8000 Pp, Poo |Ps = 5000 or P,= 4000-2 P, Compatibility equation Ai+4s From symmetry, 42=l5—* or or 2 Pal, = Pil, + Pl or 2P,X 8=P,X5+P,X6 or 16P,=5P,+6P, or 16 (4000 ~2 P,) = 5P, + 6 P, or 64 000-32 P, = SP, +6 P,or 64000 -38 P, 12 800 —7.6 P, (iii) Inserting the values of P, and P, from (ii) and (iii) in (i), 12800 — 7.6 P, + 4000-2 P, + P,= 5000 or 8.6P,=11800 or P,=1372N or 1.372kN = 4000 - 2 P, = 4000 ~ 2 x 1372 = 1256 N or 1.256 kN P, =12, 800 ~ 7.6 X 1372 = 2373 N or 2.373 KN or Example 118 || Atom of thre brs suport avert load Pas shown in Fig.|31.The outer bars are identical and of the same material ‘whereas the inner bar i of different material. Determine the forces in the bars of the system. Solution Given A system of three bars supporting a vertical load. Bars 1 and 3 are identical and of same material. WV ‘To find Force in each bar Owing to symmetry, forces in the outer bars 1 and 3 will be equal. Let it be P, and the force in the inner bar P, The dotted lines show the deformed shape of the system under the load P (Fig. 1.32). Fig. 132 Equilibrium equation 2P, cos 0+ Py (assuming negligible change in 6) @ Compatibility equation A, =A, cos Bor “4 — AE, AE; A\E\P(L, cos 8) AE; or = MEPs co59 — AEH 0080) og AEF A9529 i) AnEDLy AnEDLy AnE Substituting this value of P, in (i), 2 MEP. co339 +P, AQ Ey‘Strength of Materials or From (ii), 2 1 1 Pecos’ EO AQE: 2A E, AQE: : 22! 1+ theo 2-2 + 2eos8 AE AE AE, Example 1.19 | A horizontal bar supported by two suspended vertical wires 240 mm apart fixed to a rigid sup- port. A load W is attached to the bar.The left-hand side wire is of copper with a diameter of '5 mm and the right-hand side wire is of steel of 3-mm diameter. The length of both the wires is 4m initially. Find the position of the weight on the bar relative to the copper wire so that both the wires extend by the same amount. Also, calculate the load, stresses and the elongation of each wire if W = | KN. Neglect the weight of the bar and take E,=210 GPa and E, = 120 GPa, Solution Given A horizontal bar system as shown in Fig. 1.33. Both wires extend by the same amount. & g To find & # 8 5 — Position of weight on bar 8 4m — Load on each wire «240 mn >| — Stress in each wire Elongation of each wire ao Let the load W be placed at a distance x from the copper wire and P,and P,[ ] the forces in steel and copper wires respectively (Fig. 1.33). A | B © x w © 652 = 6.250 mm? 2 gy=2: 2 1.= 4 ©) = 6.25m mm? and A,= 7 3)? = 2.25 mm: gs 133 Moments equations Wee ‘Taking moments about 4, 240 P, = W-xor P,= > @ Taking moments about B, 240 P, = 17( 240 —x) p= W240 -9) “ c 240 w Pe Dividing (i) by (i), Dn Gi) Compatibility equation ‘As both the wires extend by the same amount, A. or (2 L,=L,)6.25 120.000 2.25 210000 = 1.587 (iv) From (iii) and (iv), 587 or x= 92.77 mm Load on each wire W(240— x) _ 1000 x (240 - 92.77) =613.46N P 240 1000 92.77 _ 396 54 y 240 Stress in each wire 613.46 _ 31.24 MPa 6.250 Elongation of each wire E. 120000 Example 1.20 || Ths !denial pinconnected bars support aloud Pas shown in Fig 1.34. the bars ar ofthe same area of cross-section and same length. Determine (i) the force in each bar (il) the vertical displacement of the point where the load is applied Neglect the possibilty of lateral buckling of the bars. 120° \P Fig. 1.34 Solution Given Three identical pin-connected bars of equal cross-section and length supporting a load P. ‘To find — Force in each bar — Vertical displacement of load point Figure 1.35 shows the deformed figure in dotted lines after the application of load. Assuming that there is negligible change in the angles after the deforming of the bars,