Introduction This important chapter serves as a framework for the rest of the textbook. The topics in this chapter include formulas, voltage sources, current sources, two circuit theorems, and troubleshooting, Although some of the discussion will be review, you will find new ideas, such as circuit approximations, that can make it easier for you to understand semiconductor devices.Chapter Outline Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be oble 10: 44 The Three Kinds of Formulas 442 Approximations 43° Voltage Sources 1 Current Sources, 45 Thevenin’s Theorem 4.6 Norton's Theorem 4.7 Troubleshooting Vocabulary cold-solder joint definition derivation duality principle formula Ideal (frst) approximation law Norton current Norton resistance open cevice second approximation shorted device solder bridge. stiff current source Name the three types of formulas, and explain why each is true Explain why approximations are often used instead of exact formules. Define an ideal voltage source and an ideal current source. Describe how to recognize a stiff voltage source and a stiff current source, State Thevenin’s theorem and apply itto a circuit. State Norton's theorem and apply it to a circuit. List two facts about an open device and two facts about @ shorted device. stiff voltage source theorem Thevenin resistance ‘Thevenin voltage third approximation troubleshootingGOOD TO KNOW For all practical purposes, a formula is like a set of instruc tions written in mathematical shorthand. A formula describes how to go about calculating a particular quantity or parameter. 1-1 The Three Kinds of Formulas ‘A formula is a rule that relates quantities. The rule may be an equation, an in- equality, or other mathematical description. You will see many formulas in this book. Unless you know why each one is true, you may become confused as they accumulate. Fortunately, there are only three ways formulas can come into existence, Knowing what they are will make your study of electronies more logical and satisfying. The Definition When you study clectrcity and electronics, you have to memorize new words like current, voltage, and resistance. However, a verbal explanation of these words is not enough. Why? Because your idea of current must be mathematically identical to everyone else's. The only way to get this identity is with a definition, a formula invented for a new concept. Here is an example of a definition. In your earlier course work, you learned that capacitance equals the charge on one plate divided by the voltage between plates, The formula looks like this @ cme ‘This formula is a definition. It tells you what capacitance C is and how to calcu- late it. Historically, some rescarcher made up this definition and it became widely accepted, Here is an example of how to create a new definition out of thin air Suppose we are doing research on reading skills and need some way to measure reading speed. Out of the blue, we might decide to define reading speed as the number of words read ina minute. Ifthe number of words is Wand the number of minutes is M, we could make up a formula like this: In this equation, Sis the speed measured in words per minute To be fancy, we could use Greek leters: w for words, for minutes, and «for speed. Our definition would then look like ths: o=d ‘This equation still vanslates to speed equals words divided by minutes. When you see an equation like this and know that it isa definition, itis no longer as impres~ sive and mysterious as it initially appears to be In summary, definitions are formulas that a researcher creates, They are based on scientific observation and form the basis for the study of electronics. ‘They are simply accepted as facts. I's done all the time in science. A definition is ‘wue in the same sense that a word is true, Each represents something we want to talk about. When you know which formulas are definitions, electronics is easier to.understand, Because definitions are starting points, all you need to do is under- stand and memorize them, The Law A law is different. It summasizes a relationship that already exists in nature. Here is an example of a law 2:02 fax. Chapter 1Introduction where f = force K = aconstant of proportionality, 910°) ; = first charge Qs = second charge 4 = distance between charges This is Coulomb's law. It says that the force of attraction or repulsion between ‘ovo charges is directly proportional to the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, ‘This is an important equation, for itis the foundation of electicity. But where does it come from? And why is ic rue? To begin with, all the variables in this law existed before its discovery. Through experiments, Coulomb was able to prove that the force was directly proportional to cach charge and inversely pro- portional to the square of the distance between the charges, Coulomb's law is an example of a relationship that exist in nature, Although earlier researchers could measure f, Q;, Q2, and d, Coulomb discovered the law relating the quantities and wrote a formula for it, Before discovering a law, someone may have a hunch that such a rela- tionship exists. After a number of experiments, the researcher writes a formula that summarizes the discovery. When enough people confirm the discovery through experiments, the formula becomes a law. A law is true because you can verify it with an experiment. The Derivation Given an equation like this yaar we can add 5 to both sides to get: yrSaaxts ‘The new equation is true because both sides are still equal. There are many other operations like subtraction, multiplication, division, factoring, and substitution that preserve the equality of both sides of the equation. For this reason, we can derive many new formulas using mathematics. ‘A derivation is a formula that we can get from other formulas. This ‘means that we start with one or more formulas and, using mathematics, arrive at a new formula not in our original set of formulas. A derivation is true because ‘mathematics preserves the equality of both sides of every equation between the starting formula and the derived formula, For instance, Ohm was experimenting with conductors. He discovered that the ratio of voltage fo current was a constant. He named this constant resis- tance and wrote the following formula fori v Rey This is the original form of Ohm's law. By rearranging it, we can get IR This is a derivation. It is the original form of Ohm's law converted to another equation,Here is another example. The definition for capacitance is: c Vv ‘We can multiply both sides by Vto get the following new equation: = ‘This is a derivation. It says that the charge on a capacitor equals its capacitance times the voltage across it, What to Remember Why is a formula true? There are three possible answers. To build your under- standing of electronics on solid ground, classify each new formula in one of these three categories: Definition: A formula invented for a new concept Law: A formula fora relationship in nature Derivation: A formula produced with mathematics 1-2 Approximations We use approximations all the time in everyday life, If someone asks you how old you are, you might answer 21 (ideal). Or you might say 21 going on 22 (second approximation). Or, maybe, 21 years and 9 montas (third approximation). Or, if yyou want to be more accurate, 21 years, 9 months, 2 days, 6 hours, 23 minutes, and 42 seconds (exact) ‘The foregoing illusteates different levels of approximation: an ideal ap- proximation, a second approximation, a third approximation, and an exact answer, ‘The approximation to use will depend on the situation. The same is tue in elec- ltonies work. In circuit analysis, we need to choose an approximation that fits the situation, The Ideal Approximation Did you know that 1 foot of AWG 22 wire that is 1 inch from a chassis has a resistance of 0.016 @, an inductance of 0.24 wH, and a capacitance of 3.3 pF? If wwe had to include the effects of resistance, inductance, and capacitance in every calculation for current, we would spend too much time on calculations. This is why everybody ignores the resistance, inductance, and capacitance of connecting ‘wires in most situations ‘The ideal approximation, sometimes called the first approximation, is the simplest equivalent circuit for a device. For instance, the ideal approximation of a piece of wite is a conductor of zeto resistance. This ideal approximation is adequate for everyday electronics work. ‘The exception occurs at higher frequencies, where you have to con- sider the inductance and capacitance of the wire, Suppose 1 inch of wire has an inductance of 0.24 Hand a capacitance of 3.3 pF. At 10 MHz, the inductive reactance is 15.1 0, and the capacitive reactance is 4.82 kf. As you see, a cir- cuit designer ean no longer idealize a piece of wire. Depending on the rest of the circuit, the inductance and capacitive reactances of a connecting wire may be important, Chapter 1Introduction [AS a guideline, we can idealize a piece of wire at frequencies under 1 MHz, This is usually a safe rule of thumb. But it does not mean that you ean be careless about wiring. In general, keep connecting wires as short as possible, because at some point on the frequency scale, those wires will begin to degrade circuit performance ‘When you are woubleshooting, the ideal approximation is usually adequate because you are looking for large deviations from normal voltages and currents. In this book, we will idealize semiconductor devices by reducing them to simple equ alent circuits. With ideal approximations, itis easier to analyze and understand how semiconductor circuits work. The Second Approximation ‘The ideal approximation of a flashlight battery is a voltage source of 1.5 V. The ‘second approximation adds one or more components (othe ideal approximation, For instance, the second approximation ofa flashlight battery isa voltage source of 15 V and a series resistance of 1 (2 This series resistance is called the source or internal sistance ofthe battery. Ifthe load resistance is ess than 10 2, the load volt- age will be noticeably less than 1.5 V because of the voltage dtop across the source resistance, In this ease, accurate calculations must include the source resistance. The Third Approximation and Beyond ‘The third approximation includes another component in the equivalent circuit of the device. An example of the third approximation will be examined when we discuss semiconductor diodes Even higher approximations arc possible with many components in the equivalent circuit of a device. Hand calculations using these higher approxima tions can become difficult and time consuming. Because of this, computers using circuit simulation software are often used. For instance, Multisim by National Instruments (ND) and PSpice are commercially available computer programs that use higher approximations to analyze and simulate semiconductor eicuits. Many of the cixcuits and examples in this book can be analyzed and demonstrated using this type of software, Conclu: n Which approximation to use depends on what you are uying to do. If you are twoubleshooting, the ideal approximation is usually adequate, For many situations, the second approximation is the best choice because it is casy to use and does not require a computer. For higher approximations, you should use a computer and a program like Multisim, A Mullisim tutorial can be found on the Instructor Resources section of Connect for Electronic Principles. 1-3 Voltage Sources An ideal de voltage source produces a load voltage that is constant, The sim- plest example of an ideal de voltage source is a perfect battery, one whose inter- nal resistance is zero. Figure I-La shows an ideal voltage source connected to a variable load resistance of 1 2 to 10 MQ The voltmeter reads 10 V, exactly the same as the source voltage. Figure 1-1b shows a graph of load voltage versus load resistance. As you can see, the load voltage remains fixed at 10 V when the load resistance changes from 1 to 1 MO. In other words, an ideal de voltage source produces a constant load voltage, regardless of how small ot large the load resistance is, With an ideal voltage source, only the load current changes when the load resistance changes.Figure #4. {@) kical votage source and variable load resistance; (9) load voliage is constant for ell load resistances. vs nb 10} $$ 9 ma " (22) 7 1a-1Ma yoo kOe 10a BA, resistance (Ohms! ta wo Second Approximation ‘An ideal voltage source is a theoretical device; it cannot exist in nature, Why” When the load resistance approaches zero, the load current approaches infinity. No real voltage source can produce infinite current because a real voltage source always has some internal resistance. The second approximation of a de voltage source includes this internal resistance, Figure 1-22 illustrates the idea, A source resistance Rs of 1 Mis now in series with the ideal battery. The voltmeter reads 5V when R, is 1 0. Why? Be- cause the load current is 10 V divided by 2 0, or 5 A. When 5 A flows through the source resistance of 1 O, it produces an internal voltage drop of 5 V. This is why the load voltage is only half ofthe ideal value, with the other half being dropped across the internal resistance. Figuie 1-2b shows the graph of load voltage versus load resistance. In this case, the load voltage does not come close to the ideal value until the load resistance is much greater than the source resistance. But what does much greater ‘mean? In other words, when can we ignore the source resistance? {@) Second approximation includes source resistance: (b) load valage stant (or large load resistances veiw 10 ° Rs 8 | sit region ———— a ; 5 5 7 yoo kok 900k a A, resistance {Ohms} la w Chapter 1GOOD TO KNOW ‘A well-regulated power supply is 2 900d example of a stiff voltage Introduction Figure 3. stif region occurs when load resistance is lage enough veivi tif region ————> oor, Ay resistance (Ohms) Stiff Voltage Source Now is the time when a new definition can be useful. So, let us invent one. We ‘ean ignore the source resistance when itis atleast 100 times smaller than the load resistance. Any source that satisfies this condition is a stiff voltage source. As a definition, Stift voltage source: Rs < 0.01R,, ay ‘This formula defines what we mean by a stiff voltage source, The boundary of the inequality (where < is changed to =) gives us the following equation: Rs = O01R, Solving for load resistance gives the minimum load resistance we can use and still have a stiff source Risin) = 100Rs a2) In words, the minimum load resistance equals 100 times the source resistance Equation (1-2) is a derivation. We started with the definition of a stiff voltage source and rearranged it to get the minimum load resistance permitted with a stiff voltage source. As long asthe load resistance is greater than 100Rs, the voltage source is stiff, When the load resistance equals this worst-case value, the calculation error from ignoring the source resistance is | percent, small enowgh (o ignore in a second approximation, Figure 1-3 visually summarizes a stiff voltage source. The load resis- tance has to be greater than LOOR for the voltage source to be sill. Example 1-1 ‘The definition of a stiff vollge source applies to ac sources as well as to de sources. Suppose an ac voltage source has a source resistance of 50 0. For what Joad resistance isthe source stiff? SOLUTION Multiply by 100 to get the minimam load resistance: Ry = 100R; = 100(50 9) = 5x02As long as the load resistance is greater than 5 kQ, the ac voltage source is stiff and we can ignore the internal resistance of the source. ‘A final point. Using the second approximation for an ac voltage source is valid only at low frequencies. Ar high frequencies, additional factors such az lead inductance and stray capacitance come into play. We will deal with these high-frequency effects in a later chapter, PRACTICE PROBLEM 1-1 Ifthe ac source resistance in Example 1-1 is (600 0, for what load resistance is the source stiff? 1-4 Current Sources A de voltage source produces a constant load voltage for different load resis- ces. A de current source is different, It produces a constant load current for different load resistances. An example of a de current source is a battery with a large source resistance (Fig. 1-4a).In this cireuit, the source resistance is 1 MO. and the load current is Vs NR GOOD TO KNOW When Re is 1 in Fig. 1-4a, the load curent is: At the output terminals of a tov constant current source, the 1 Tw +7 = OHA load voltage V; increases in direct proportion to the load In this calculation, the small load resistance has an insignificant effect on the load current resistance Figure 1-40 shows the effect of varying the load resistance from 1 01t0 1 MQ. Tn this case, the load current remains constant at 10 A over a large range. Itis only when the load resistance is greater than 10 KO that a noticeable drop-off ‘occurs in load current. Figure 1-4 (o} Simulated current source with a de voltage source and a large resistance: (load currents constant for small load resistances. 10 way fs Ma Re 1a-1Ma L Too uA] mM, 1 woo STOR «100k IM resistance (Ohms) (a) w Chapter 1Stiff Current Source Here is another definition that will be useful, especially with semiconductor cir- cuits. We will ignore the source resistance of a current source whien it is at least 100 times larger than the load resistance. Any source that satisfies this condition is a stiff current source. As a definition: Stiff current source: Rs > 100R, as) “The upper boundary is the worst case. At this point Rs = 100R, Solving for load resistance gives the maximum load resistance we can use and still have a stiff current source: Riso) = O.01R a4 In words: The maximum load resistance equals Yo. of the source resistance. Equation (1-4) is a derivation because we started with the definition of a stiff current source and rearranged it to get the maximum load resistance. When the load resistance equals this worst-case value, the calculation error is percent, small enough to ignore in a second approximation. Figure 1-5 shows the stiff region, As long as the load resistance is less than 0.017, the current source is stiff Schematic Symbol Figure I-6a is the schematic symbol of an ideal current source, one whose source resistance is infinite. This ideal approximation cannot exist in nature, but it can exist mathematically. Therefore, we can use the ideal current source for fast cxeuit analysis, as in woubleshooting. Figure 1-6a is a visual definition: It is the symbol for a current source. When you see this symbol, it means that the device produces a constant current J. It may help to think of a current source as a pump that pushes out a fixed number of coullombs per second. This is why you will hear expressions like “The current source pumps 5 mA through a load resistance of | KO.” Figure 1-6b shows the second approximation. The internal resistance is in parallel with the ideal curtent source, not in series as it was with an ideal voltage source. Later inthis chapter we will discuss Norton's theorem. You will then see wiy the internal resistance maust be in parallel with the current source. Summary Table 1-1 will help you understand the differences between a voltage source and a current source Figure 15 Sti region occurs when load resistance is small igure 1-6 {c) Schematic symbol of a current enough. source; () second approximation of a current [>-—— sti region Losd current (ai wo Lap Doras Load resistance Introduction uCee a SAL) pooiiaiial dicen ‘Quantity Voltage Source Current Source Typically low Typically high Greater than 1008, Less than O.01R, Constant Depends on &, 1 Depends on R, Constant Example 1-2 Accurrent source of 2 mA has an internal resistance of 10 MQ. Over what range of load resistance is the current source stiff? SOLUTION _ Since this is a current source, the load resistance has to be small compared to the source resistance. With the 100:1 rule, the maximum load resistance is 01(10 MO) = 100 kA ‘The stiff range for the current source isa load resistance from 0 to 100 k0. Figure 1-7 summarizes the solution. In Fig. 1-7a, a current source of 2 mA is in parallel with 10 MQ and a variable resistor set to 1 02. The ammeter measures a load current of 2 mA. When the load resistance changes from 1 £210 1 M22, as shown in Fig. 1-7b, the source remains stiff up to 100 kA. At this point, the load current is down about 1 percent from the ‘deal value, Stated another way, 99 percent of the source curtent passes through the load resistance, The other | percent passes through the source resistance. As the load resistance continues to increase, load current continues to decrease. Rigouns Figure +7 Soliton ma) 2.00] 195 im 1.90} od Rs 19-10Ma. 2mA 10 Ma, 188) Stitf region 1.80! iF PRACTICE PROBLEM 1-2 Whats the load voltage in Fig, 1-7a when the load resistance equals 10 kA? 2 Chapter 1Figure 4-8 (0) Black box has @ Inear ct creut itinside of ANY CIRCUIT WITH DC SOURCES AND LINEAR RESISTANCES. (a ) Thevenin A Bow oo Introduction Application Example 1-3 When you analyze transistor circuits, you will visualize a transistor as a current source. In a well-designed circuit, the transistor will act like a stiff current source, so you can ignore its internal resistance. Then you can calculate the load voltage. For instance, if a transistor is pumping 2 mA through a load resistance of 10 KO, the load voltage is 20V. 1-5 Thevenin’s Theorem Every once in a while, somebody makes a big breakthrough in engineering and carries all of us to a new high. A French engineer, M. L. Thevenin, made one of these quantum leaps when he derived the eizcuit theorem named after him: The- venin’s theorem, Definition of Thevenin Voltage and Resistance A theorem is a statement that we can prove mathematically. Because of this, it is not a definition or a law, So, we classify it as a derivation. Recall the following ideas about Thevenin’s theorem from earlier courses. In Fig, 1-8a, the Thevenin voltage Viz is defined as the voltage across the load terminals when the load resistor is open, Because of this, the Thevenin voltage is sometimes called the open-circuit voltage. As a definition: ‘Thevenin voltage: Vri = Voc as) ‘The Thevenin resistance is defined as the resistance that an obmmeter ‘measures across the load terminals of Fig. 1-8a when all sources are reduced t0 zero and the load resistor is open. As a definition: ‘Thevenin resistance: Rr = Roc a6) With these two definitions, Thevenin was able (o derive the famous theorem named after him, ‘There is a sublle point in finding the Thevenin resistance. Reducing a source to zero has different meanings for voltage and current sources, When you reduce a voltage source to zero, you ate effectively replacing it with a short be- cause that’s the only way to guarantee zero voltage when a curzent lows through the voltage source. When you reduce a current source to zer0, you are effectively replacing it with an open because that's the only way you can guarantee zero ccurrent when there isa voltage across the current source. To summarize: To zero a voltage source, replace it with a short. To zero.a current source, replace it with an open. The Derivation ‘What is Thevenin’s theorem? Look at Fig. 1-8a. This black box can contain any circuit with de sources and linear resistances. (A. linear resistance does not change with increasing voltage.) Thevenin was able to prove that no matter how BExample 1-4 Figure 4-9. (o) Original creutt (b) open-load resistor to get Thevenin voltage; (¢ reduce source to zero to get Thevenin resistance, (a) a R oko aka a f 3k 0 4 complicated the circuit inside the black box of Fig. 1-8a was, it would produce exactly the same load current asthe simple circuit of Fig. 1-86. As a derivation: Ven "> Rig + Re an Let the idea sink in, Thevenin’s theorem is a powerhouse tool. Engineers and technicians use the theorem constantly. Electronics could not possibly be ‘here itis today without Thevenin’s theorem. It not only simplifies calculations, it enables us to explain circuit operation that would be impossible to explain with only Kirchhoff equations ‘What are the Thevenin voltage and resistance in Fig. 1-9a SOLUTION First, calculate the Thevenin voltage. To do this, you have to ‘open the load resistor. Opening the load resistance is equivalent to removing it from the circuit, as shown in Fig, 1-98. Since 8 mA flows through 6 k0 in series with 3 kA, 24°V will appear across the 3 kO, With no current through the 4 KO, 24 will appear across the AB terminals. Therefore: Vin = 24 Second, get the Thevenin resistance, Reducing a de source to zero is equivalent to replacing it with a short, as shown in Fig. 1-9c, If we connect an cohmmeter across the AB terminals of Fig. 1-9c, what will it read? Itwillread 6 k02. Why? Because looking back into the AB terminals with the battery shorted, the olmmeter sees 4 k0? in series with a parallel connection of 3 kM and 6 k02, We can write KO x 60, Rr 4+ S505 ORD xa. ‘The product over sum of 3 kfP and 6 Ki is 20, which, added to 4 KO, gives 6 KA. Again, we need a new definition. Parallel connections occur so often in electronics that most people use a shorthand notation for them. From now on, we will use the following notation: ‘Whenever you see two vertical bars in an equation, it means in parallel with. In the electronics industry, you will see the foregoing equation for Thevenin resist- ance writen like this in parallel with Ko. Ry = 40. + 3 kO|)6KA) Most engineers and technicians know that the vertical bars mean in parallel with, s0 they automatically use product over sum or reciprocal method to ealeulate the equivalent resistance of 3 kM and 6 kO. Figure 1-10 shows the Thevenin circuit with a load resistor. Compare this simple circuit with the original cixcut of Fig. 1-94, Can you see how much easier Chapter 1Figure #40. Thevenin circuit fer it wil be to calculate the load current for diferent load resistances? If not, the next ‘example will drive the point home. Fig 180 Rm PRACTICE PROBLEM 14 Using Thevenin's theorem, what is the load Vy current in Fig. 1-9a for the following values of Ry: 2k, 6 kQ, and 18k? 1 you really want to appreciate the power of Thevenin's theorem, ty fn, caleulatng the foregoing currents sing the original ciruitof Fig. 19a and any E oer method. 2 Application Example 1-5 NM aattisim A breadboardis a circuit often buill with solderless connections without regard to the final location of parts to prove the feasibility of a design. Suppose you have the circuit of Fig. 1-11a breadboarded on a lab bench. How would you measure the ‘Thevenin voltage and resistance? SOLUTION Siar by replacing the load resistor with a multimeter, a8 shown in Fig. 1-11b. After you set the multimeter to read volts, it will indicate 9 V. This is the Thevenin voltage. Next, replace the de source with a short (Fig. 1-11c). Set the suultimeter to read ohms, and it will indicate 1.5 kQ2. Thisis the Thevenin resistance ‘Are there any sources of error in the foregoing measurements? Yes: The ‘one thing to watch out for isthe input impedance of the multimeter when voltage is ‘measured. Because this input impedance is across the measured terminals, a small, ccurrent flows through the multimeter. For instance, if you use a moving-coil multi- meter, the typical sensitivity is 20 kO per volt. On the 10-V range, the voltmeter ‘has an input resistance of 200 kM. This will load the cixcuit down slightly and decrease the load voltage from 9 to 8.93 V. ‘As a guideline, the input impedance of the voltmeter should be atleast 100 times greater than the Thevenin resistance. Then, the loading error is less than | percent. To avoid loading error, use a digital multimeter (DMM) instead ofa moving-coil multimeter. The input impedance of a DMM is at least 10 MO, which usually eliminates loading error. Loading erzor can also be produced when taking measurements with an oscilloscope. That is why in high-impedance cir- cuits, a 10 probe should be used. Figure 4-11. (@) Cicutt on lab bench; ) measuring Thevenin voltage; (e) measuring Thevenin resistance, Introduction Ry Ra Rs Ry ok 2k Ko 1a 500 Re Ra Re RL 2k 20 20 ir . Ry A oo 1sFigure t41 (continued) Ry Rs Rs Rr A 2G 1K 1K 5008) Ro Re Re Saka ka ako ae SS el w Ri Ry Rs Ry a 2a 7Ko 1K 000 Ro. Re. Re. 2k. KO. KO. 8 ee ae ee ea a 2 wy " ) awees Qa jie) [= te 1-6 Norton’s Theorem Recall the following ideas about Norton's theorem from eatlier courses. In Fig. 1-122, the Norton cuszent Jy is defined as the load current when the load resisor is shorted. Because of this, the Norton current is sometimes called the 16 Chapter 1GOOD TO KNOW Like Thevenin’s theorem, Norton's theorem ean be applied to ac circuits containing Inductors, capacitors, and resistors. For ac circus, the Norton current iy is usually stated as a complex number, In polar form, whereas the Norton impedance Zy is usually ‘expressed as a complex numb In rectangular form, Introduction short-circuite urrent. As a definition: Norton current: fy = Isc a8) ‘The Norton resistance is the resistance that an ohmmeter measures across the load terminals when all sources are reduced to zero and the load resistor is open. As a definition: Norton resistance: Ry = Roc as) Since Thevenin resistance also equals Roc, we can write Ry =Rra (a-10) ‘This derivation says that Norton resistance equals Thevenin resistance. If you calculate a Thevenin resistance of 10 kf, you immediately know that the Norton resistance equals 10 KO. Basic Idea What is Norion’s theorem? Look at Fig. 1-124, This black box can contain any circuit with de sources and linear resistances, Norton proved thatthe circuit inside the black box of Fig. 1-12a would produce exactly the same load voltage a the simple citcuit of Fig, 1-12b. As a detivation, Norton's theorem looks like this: Vz =Iy(Ry| Rt) au In words: The load voltage equals the Norton current times the Norton resistance in parallel withthe load resistance, Earlier we saw that Norton resistance equals Thevenin resistance, But notice the difference in the location of the resistors: Thevenin resistance is always: in series with a voltage source; Norton tesistance is always in parallel with a cur- rent source. Note: If you are using electron flow, keep the following in mind, In the electronics industry, the arrow inside the current source is almost always drawn in the direction of conventional current. The exception isa current source drawn with 1a dashed arrow instead of a solid arrow. In this case, the source pumps electrons in the direction of the dashed arrow The Derivation Norton's theorem can be derived from the duality principle. It states that for any theorem in electrical circuit analysis, there is @ dual (opposite) theorem in which Figure 4-12 {0} Black box has a linear evcuit inside off, fb) Norton eteul A ANY CIRCUIT WITH DC SOURCES AND. A LNeaRREsisTANceS |g ca A ly By A 8 wo "7Figure 4-13 Dually principle. Thevenin’s theorem implies Norton's theorem and vice versa. (¢} Converting Thevenin to Nortan; (6) convering Norton ta Thevenin, fre a ° vo = (4 Pw [___o & tat A a Fy => @ o 18 bn ‘one replaces the original quantities with dual quantities. Here isa brief list of dual quantities: Voltage <> Current Voltage source <> Curent source Series <> Parallel Series resistance <> Parallel resistance Figure 1-13 summarizes the duality principle as it applies to Thevenin and Norton circuits. It means that we can use either circuit in our calculations. As you will see later, both equivalent citcuits are useful. Sometimes, itis easier to use Thevenin, At other times, we use Norton. It depends oa the specific problem. Summary ‘Table 1-2 shows the steps for getting the Thevenin and Norton quantities. Thevenin and Norton be ETT Daly Nanna Process Step step2 step 3 step 4 Thevenin ‘Open the load resistor. Calculate or measure the open-circuit voltage. This 's the Thevenin voltage. Short voltage sources and open current Calculate or measure the open-circuit resistance. This is the Thevenin resistance. Norton Short the load resistor. Calculate or measure the short-circuit current. This is the Norton current, ‘Short voltage sources, open current sources, and open load resistor Calculate or measure the ‘open-circuit resistance. This Is the Norton resistance. Chapter 1Introduction Relationships Between Thevenin and Norton Circuits We already know that the Thevenin and Norton resistances are equal in value but different in location: Thevenin resistance is in series with a voltage source, and Norton resistance is in parallel with a current source ‘We can derive two more relationships, as follows, We can convert any ‘Thevenin circuit to a Norton circuit, as shown in Fig. 1-13a. The proof is staightfor- wad. Short the AB terminals ofthe Thevenin cicuit, and you get the Norton current Vea I= Re a2) “This desivation says that the Norton current equals the Thevenin voltage divided by the Thevenin resistance. Similarly, we can convert any Norton circuit to a Thevenin circuit, as shown in Fig. 1-136. The open-circuit voltage is Ivy (13) “This derivation says that the Thevenin voltage equals the Norton curzent times the Norton resistance. Figure 1-13 summarizes the equations for converting either circuit into the other. Vea Example 1-6 Suppose that we have reduced a complicated circuit tothe Thevenin cireuit shown in Fig. I-14a. How can we convert this to a Norton circuit? Figure 144. Calculating Norton current. 2kn A aka A 2 Sma 2k - a - 8 8 te) to te SOLUTION Use Eq. (1-12) to get: tov TE Figure I-Ie shows the Norton eizcuit, Most engineers and technicians forget Eq, (1-12) soon after they leave school. But they always remember how to solve the same problem using Ohm's law, Here is what they do, Look at Fig. 1-14a. Visualize a short across the AB terminals, as shown in Fig. 1-14, The short-circuit current equals the Norton ‘current: mA. y= 20. WZ This is the same result, but calculated with Ohm’s law applied to the Thevenin circuit, Figure 1-15 summarizes the idea, This memory aid will help you calculate the Norton current, given the Thevenin circuit mA. 9Figure 445 A memory aid for Norton current. PRACTICE PROBLEM 1-6 If the Thevenin resistance of Fig. 1-14a is 5 KO, determine the Norton current value. 1-7 Troubleshooting ‘Troubleshooting means finding out why a circuit is not doing what itis supposed to do. The most common troubles are opens and shorts, Devices like transistors ccan become open or shorted in a number of ways. One way to destroy any transis tors by exceeding its maximum-power rating Resistors become open when their power dissipation is excessive, But you can get a shorted resistor indirectly as follows. During the stuéfing and sol- ering of printed-circuit boards, an undesirable splash of solder may connect two nearby conducting lines, Known as a solder bridge, this effectively shorts any device between the two conducting lines. On the other hand, a poor solder con- nection usually means no connection at all. This is known as a cold-solder joint ‘and means thatthe device is open. Besides opens and shorts, anything is possible. For instance, temporar- ily applying too much heat to a resistor may permanently change the resistance by several percent, If the value of resistance is critical, the circuit may not work properly after the heat shock. ‘And then there is the troubleshooter's nightmare: the intermittent trou- ble. This kind of wouble is difficult to isolate because it appeats and disappears. It may be 2 cold-solder joint that alternately makes and breaks a contact, or a loose cable connector, or any similar trouble that causes on-again, off-again operation. An Open Device Always remember these (wo facts about an open device: The current through an open device is zero. The voltage across itis unknown, The first statement is tte because an open device has infinite resistance. No ccurrent can exist in an infinite resistance, The second statement is true because fof Ohm's law: IR Oe) Chapter 1Figure 146 Voltage dvider {and load use¢ in voubleshaoting +2v Introduction In this equation, zero times infinity is mathematically indeterminate, You have to figure out what the voltage is by looking at the rest of the circuit. A Shorted Device A shorted device is exactly the opposite. Always remember these two statements about a shorted device: The voltage across a shorted device is zero. The current through itis unknown. ‘The frst statement is true because a shorted device has zero resistance, No voltage can exist across zero resistance, The second statement is true because of Ohm's law: Zero divided by zero is mathematically meaningless. You have to figure out what the current is by looking at the rest of the cgcuit. Procedure Normally, you measure vollages with respect to ground. From these measurements and your knowledge of basic electricity, you can usually deduce the touble, After you have isolated a component as the ‘op suspect, you can unsolder or disconnect the componeat and use an ohmmeter or other instrument for confirmation Normal Values In Fig. 1-16, a stiff voltage divider consisting of Ry and R; drives resistors Ry and Re in series. Before you can troubleshoot this circuit, you have to know what the normal voltages aze. The fist thing to do, therefore is to work out the values of Vx and Vp, The frst is the voltage between A and ground, The second is the voltage between B and ground. Because R; and Rare much smaller than Ry and Rs (10 0 versus 100 kM), the stiff voltage at A is approximately ~6 V. Furthermore, since Ry and Ry are equal, the vollage at B is approximately +3 V. When this circuit is twouble free, you will measure 6 V between A and ground, and 3 V between B and ground, These two voltages ate the frst entry of Summary Table 1-3, R, Open When R) is open, what do you think happens to the voltages? Since no current can flow through the open Ry, no current ean flow through R:. Ohm's law tells us the voltage across Rp is zero. Therefore, V4 = 0 and Vy = 0, a8 shown in Summary ‘Table 1-3 for Ry open, R2 Open When Ris open, what happens to the voltages? Since no current can flow through the open Ry the Voltage at A is pulled up towatd the supply voltage. Since Ry is ‘much smaller than Ry and R,, the voltage at A is approximately 12 V. Since Ry and Rg are equal, the voltage at B becomes 6 V. This is why V4 = 12 V and Va ~ 6V, as shown in Summary Table 1-3 for an R; open. aST aL ee Ll lackey Trouble Va Ve Chreut OK ev av Reopen ° ° Reopen av ev Ry open ev ° Ryopen ev ev Copen av ev Dopen ev ev Ri shorted nv ev Rz shorted ° ° Ra shorted ev ev Ry shorted ev ° Remaining Troubles If ground Cis open, no current can pass through R,. This is equivalent to an open Ry, This is why the trouble C open has Vs ~ 12 V and Vp = 6 V in Summary Table 1-3, ‘You should work out all of the remaining entries in Summary Table 1-3, ‘making sure that you understand why each voltage exists for the given trouble. Example 1-7 In Fig. 1-16, you measure V4 = O and Vy 0. What isthe trouble? SOLUTION Look at Summary Table 1-3. As you can see, two troubles are possible: R; open or R; shorted. Both of these produce zero voltage at points A and B. To isolate the trouble, you can disconnect Ry and measure it If it measures ‘open, you have found the trouble. If it measures OK, then Ry isthe trouble, PRACTICE PROBLEM 1-7 What could the possible troubles be if you measure Vj = 12 Vand Vp = 6 V in Fig. 1-16? Chapter 1Summary SEC. 1.4 THE THREE KINDS OF SEC. 14 CURRENT SOURCES current equals the load current FORMULAS ‘An deal current source has an infintte hen the load is shorted. Norton [A definition is a formula invented for internal resistance, The second ap-_reved that @ Norton equivalent cit- ‘anew concept A law isa formula for proximation of a current source has ult produces the same load voltage a telation inneture. A derivation is a alarge intemalresistance in paraliel_ 98 ay other circuit with sources and linear resistances. Norton current formula produced with mathematics, wlth the source. A stif current source a Ncetned as one whose internal tes eauels Thevenin voltage divided by SEC.12 APPROXIMATIONS sistance is more han 100 times tne Thevenin resistance Approximations ere widely used in load resistance. SEC. 1-7 TROUBLESHOOTING the electronics industy Theideal SEC. 4.5 THEVENIN’STHEOREM The most common troubles are approximation is useful for trouble fe hereon Shootng. The second epproxmation The Thevenin voltage is defined as Shotts, opens, and intermittent trou. iusefulfor prelmnary cireut caleu. the Voltage across an open load. The Sles. Ashort always has zero vokage luone Higherappronmationsare, Thevenin resistance is defned as acrossit the current through a short dae vithocmenters se resistence an ahmmotorwould Must be calculated by exemining ° * measure with an opentoad and all the Fest ofthe circu. An open ab SEC.4-3 VOLTAGE SOURCES — sources recuced to zero, Thevenin _ W2YS has zero current through it ‘An ideal votege source has no inter eved that a Thevenin equivalent the Volage across an open must be palresistance. The second approvime-_€Vcuit will procuce the same load eur. Celculeted by examining the rest of tion ofa votlage source has an internal rentas any other circutwith sources the circu. An intermittent rouble is fesistance in series with the source. A and linear resistances, an on-again, offegain vouble that etvotage sourceisdemedacone’ ece.ve womron's THEOREM (Swures Palen anc logical touble- ‘whose internal resistance is less than shooting to isolate it sees eaten The Norton resistance equals the ‘Thevenin resistance. The Norton Definitions (H)_Stttvottage source (48) Thevenin resistance: }—o Rs rs AL Rs <0.01R, circu foc Rr = Roe = — (13) Stff current source: (18) Norton current NEAR se y= ad) FL Rs > 1008, cincurr nese (19) Norton resistance: (45) Thevenin voltage }—o ° near [Ong unear [—y, cmcurt a crcurr |_“ [— -— Derivations (12) Stifvoltage source: (44) Stif current source Rs Ramin) Rugnet = 100R5 Q § Fmd — Raina Introduction 23(1-7) Thevenin's theorem Vie (110) Norton resistance Jo Fn [0 LINEAR. circu Ry = Br Norton's theorem: Self-Test 41. An ideal voltage source has 2a, Zero internal resistance » Infinite internal resistance © Aload-dependent vokage A load-dependent eurrent . Areal voltage source has a, Zero internal resistance » Infinite internal resistance © Asmal 4. Alarge Internal resistance internal resistance . Ifa load resistance is 100.0, a stiff voltage source has a resistance of fa Less than 1 b Atleast 10% ©. Mare than 10 K®d Less than 10 kf An ideal current source has a. Zero inte » lnfinte Internal resistance «¢ A loadudependent vokage A load-dependent current nal resistance 10. Areal current source has a. Zero » lnfinte Internal resistance ¢ Asmall internal resistance cemal resistance 4 Alarge internal resistance ”. Ifa load resistance is 100 0, ‘stiff current source has a resistance of a, Less than 1 b.Less than 1 . The Thevenin resistanc ay (3) (RO ce Less than 10 kf Move than 10 K. ‘The Thevenin voltage is the same as the ‘a Shorted-oad voltage , Openfoad voltage ¢ Ideal source voltege Norton voltage ‘equal in value to the 2, Load resistance Half the load resistence Internal resistance of a Noron creuit 4 Open-toad resi 3. To get the Thevenin voltage, yeu have to Short the load resistor Open the load resistor Short the vokage source Open the vokage source To get the Norton current, you have to 1. Short the load resistor b. Open the load resistor ‘c Short the vokage source Open the current source ‘The Norton current is some- times called the 1 Shorted-load current . Opentoad current «e Thevenin current d.Thevenin vokage Norton current Bow ty ty Thevenin ve Vie Rees 1 toe 2. 3 14. 45. 16. ”. Asolder bridge a. May produce a short b. May cause en open «¢ Is usefulin some cicuts Always has high resistan Acold-solder joint 18 Always has lov resistance ». Shows goodsoldering ecnnique Usually produces an open Wil eause a short ct ‘An open resistor has 2, Infinite current though it b.Zero voltage across it « Ifinte vohage across it Zero current through it A:shorted resistor has 2, Infinite current though it b.Zero voltage across it Infinite voltage across it Zero current through it An ideal voltage source and ‘an internal resistance are ‘examples of the 2. Ideal approximation b. Secone approximation € Higher approximation Exact model ‘Treating a connecting wire as a conductor with zero resistance is an example of the 4, Ideal approximation b. Second approximation €. Higher approximation Exact model Chapter 1418, The voltage out of an ideal 20. Thevenin’s theorem replaces b. Ideal current source and paral: voltage source a complicated circuit facing a lelresistor aiszero fond with an € Ideal vottage source and series bls constant 2 Ideal voltage source and parel- resistor € Depends on the value of load lelresistor 4 Ideal current source and series resistance b. ldeal current source and paral resistor Depends on the internal lelresistor 22. One way to short a device is resistance & Ideal voltage source and series, With a cole-solder joint resistor b With a solder bridge 19. The current out ofan idea! 4: gal current source and series «By cisconnectng & ats zero reson d By opening it bts constant 21. Norton's theorem replacesa 23: Derivations are € Depends on the value of loed complicated circuit facing @ 2, Discoveries resistance toad with an b Inventions Depends on the internal a. Ideal voltage source and «© Produced by mathematics resisiance parallel resistor Always called theorems Problems SEC. 13 VOLTAGE SOURCES 44 Aaiven voltage source has an ideal vokage of 22 V ‘and an internal resistance of 01 0. For what valves Cfload resistance wil the voltage source appear sti? A load resistance may vary from 270 £2 to 100 KA. For a stif voltage source to exist, what's the larg fest internal resistance the source can have? The intemal autput resistance af a function genera tor fs 50M. For what valves of load resistance Goes the generator appear sti? ‘Acar battery has an internal resistance of 0.04 For vihat velues of load resistance does the car battery appear sit? The Intemal resistance of a voltage source equals 0.05 0. How much voltage is dropped across this Internal resistance when the current through it equals 2.8? In Fig, 117, the ideal voltage Is 9 V and the internal resistance Is 0.4 9. IFthe load resistance is 260, What is the loae current? 2 ey 1s 16 A SEC. Ww ‘444 CURRENT SOURCES Suppose a current source has an ideal current of 10 mA ang an internal resistance of 10 MQ. For what values ofload resistance will the current soutce appear stif? A toad resistance may vaty from 270 02 to 100 KA Ira stif current source drives this load resistance, What is the internal resistance of the source? 18 49° Acurent source has an internal resistance of 100 Ik What is the lergestloac resistance ifthe cur- Fent source must appear stiff? Introduction 140 aro SEC. 2 13 14 5 SEC. 146 In Fig. 18, the Ideal current is 20 mA and the in- ternal resistance is 200 kM? If'the load resistance: equals zero, what does the load current equal? Figure 118 6) Sm gm In Fig. 118, the ideal currents 5 mA and the intemal resistance 's 250 KAD. Ifthe load resistance is 10 kA, ‘what isthe load current? Is this a sf current source? 1.5 THEVENIN’S THEOREM What s the Thevenin vokage In Fig, +192 The Thevenin resistence? Figure 119 ea. 38V. aKa a Use Thevenin’s theorem to calculate the load current in Fig. 19 for each of these load resis- tances: 0,140, 2 KM, 3M, 4 KD, 5 KA. and 6 kA. ‘The voltage source of Fig. }19 is decreased to 18 V. What happens to the Thevenin voltage? To the Thevenin resistance? Allresistances are doubled in Fig, 118, What happens to the Thevenin voltage? To the Thevenin resistance? 146 NORTON’S THEOREM ‘A circuit has a Thevenin voltage of 12 V and a Thevenin resistance of 3 kf. What Is the Norton 284T Acreuit has @ Norton current of 10 mA and @ Norton resistance of 10 kf. What is the Thevenin circut? 4B What is the Norton eireut for Fig. F197 SEC. 1-7 TROUBLESHOOTING 4649 Suppose the load voltage of Fig. H19 s 36 V. What Is wrong with Ri? Critical Thinking 4123 Suppose we lemporarly short the load terminals ofa voltage source. the Ideal voltage is 12 V and the shorted load current is 150 A, what isthe inter- nal resistance of the source? 4/24 In Fig. #17,the ideal votage is 10 V and the load resis lance is 75 0. Ifthe load voltage equals 8 V, wha: does the internal resistance equal’ Is the voltage source sti? ‘Somebody hands you a black box with @ 20 resistor connected across the exposed lead termi- nals. How can you measure the Thevenin voltage? The black box In Pro’. 1-25 hes a kno’ on itshat allows you to reduce all internal vokage ane Current sources to zero, Hew can you measure the Thevenin resistence? 128 126 4.27 Solve Prob. 113. Then solve the same problem without using Thevenin’s theorem. After you are finished, comment on what you have learnec about Thevenin’s theorem You are in the laboratory looking at a circult Ike the cone shown in Fig. -20. Somebody challenges you tofing the Thevenin ercult driving the load resistor Deserve an experimental procedure for measuring the Thevenin voltage and the Thevenin resistance. Design a hypothetical current source using a battery and a resistor. The current souree must meet the following specifications: t must supply a sti? mi of current to any load resistance between O and 1 Ka Design 2 volage diver similar to the one in Fi. HIS that meets these specifications: ideal source voltage '$ 30 V, open-load vokage is 15 V, and Thevenin resistance is equal to or less than 2 kA. Design 2 voltage divicer lke the one in Fig. H19 so. that produces a stiff 10 V to all load resistances greater than | MQ. Use an ideal voltage of 20 V. 128 129 130 +31 Troubleshooting 4.38. Using Fig. 1-22 and its troubleshooting table, find the clrcut troubles for conditions 110 8. The twoubles are one of the resistors open, one of the resistors shorted, an open groune, or he supp voltage. v 420. The load voltage of Fig. 119s zero. The battery and the load resistance are OK. Suggest two pos- sible troubles, 421 the load voltage Is zer0 In Fig, M9 and all resis- tors are normal where daes the trauble le? Ih Fig. 148, Ris replaced with a voltmeter to mea- ‘sure the votage across Rz, What input resistance must the voltmeter have to prevent meter loading? 122 Figure +20 4482, Somebody hends you a D-cell flashlight bettery and a DMM. Yau have nothing else to work with Describe an experimental method for finding the Thevenin equivalent circuit o” te flashlight Battery, You have a D-call flashlight battery, @ DMM, and 2 box of different resistors, Describe a method that uses one of he resistars to fine the Thevenln resistance of the battery, Calculate the load current in Fig, 4-21 for each of these load resistances: 0, 1k, 2K, 3k, 4 KO, ko, and 6 ki 133 134 Figure 1-21 xn 4k tka dak pou fom fo ‘ ; Figure 22, Troubleshootng wy Chapter 1