Heat Transfer from Flames in a Rotary Kiln

J. P. GOROG, T. N. ADAMS, and J. K. BRIMACOMBE

Heat flow in the flame zone of a direct-fired rotary kiln has been modeled mathematically. The flame
has been assumed to be cylindrical in shape, backmixed radially, and moving axially in plug flow. The
length of the flame and the rate of entrainment of secondary air have been characterized by empirical
equations reported in the literature. It has been shown that the axial component of radiation can be
reasonably neglected since it is relatively small compared to the radial component. The resulting
one-dimensional model is capable of predicting the axial temperature profiles of the flame and wall
and the axial profiles of heat flux to the solids bed and refractory wall. The model has been employed
to study the influence on heat flow to the bed of the following variables: fuel type (fuel oil, natural
gas, producer gas), firing rate, temperature of secondary air, pet primary air, and oxygen enrichment.
Of the three fuels, combustion of fuel oil gives the longest flame and the greatest heat input to the
solids in the flame zone. Raising the secondary-air temperature increases the flame length significantly
but has a small effect on the maximum flame temperature and heat flux to the solids. Increasing percent
primary air decreases the flame length and increases the peak values of flame temperature and solids
heat flux but reduces the quantity of heat received by the solids in the flame zone. Oxygen enrichment
results in a shorter flame, higher maximum flame temperature, and increase in the heat transferred to
the solids in the flame zone.

I. INTRODUCTION II. PREVIOUS WORK

IN a direct-fired rotary kiln, two distinct regions of heat
transfer may be identified as shown in Figure l ( a ) - - t h e
flame zone (I) and nonflame zone (II). In both zones heat is
transferred to the upper surface of the solids bed by radiation
and convcction and to the lower (covered) surface by the
regenerative action of the rotating kiln wall. However, in the
flame zone (Figure l(c)), the radiating gases in the free-
board are found largely within the confines of the visible
flame in contrast to the nonflame region (Figure l(b)),
where the radiating gases occupy the entire freeboard vol-
ume. Thus, in the flame zone the solids and exposed wall
receive heat primarily by radiation from a well-defined
flame; and owing to the high flame temperatures both con-
vection and regenerative heat flow play only a minor role in
the overall heat transfer process.
Previous papers in this series ~'2 have addressed the
problem of mathematically modeling heat transfer in the
nonflame region of a rotary kiln. Therefore, the primary
objective of the present study is to describe mathemati-
cally the overall heat-transfer process in the flame zone of
a kiln. The work may be divided into two major sections:
(1) The development of a model to predict temperatures and
heat flows in the presence of a freeboard flame;
(2) Application of the model to examine the flame charac-
teristics and heat flows as a function of kiln variables.
In completing this work, a framework has been developed
for the prediction of heat flows within a rotary kiln at any
position along its axis.
J.P. GOROG, formerly Graduate Student, University of British
Columbia, is now with Bacon, Donaldson & Associates Ltd., 2036
Columbia Street, Vancouver, British Columbia V5Y 3El. T.N. ADAMS
is with Weyerhaeuser Technology Center, Tacoma, WA 98422. J.K.
BRIMACOMBE is Stelco Professor of Process Metallurgy, Department
of Metallurgical Engineering, The University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, British Columbia V6T IW5, Canada.
Manuscript submitted January 18, 1983.
A large number of flame-related studies concerned with
fluid flow, mixing, and heat transfer in furnaces has been
reported previously, but most are beyond the scope of the
present investigation. Much of this work has been reviewed
in several publications over the last two decades. 3-8
In comparison, few studies have been undertaken recently
on flame characteristics in rotary kilns. Rhuland 9 has studied
flame length in a full-size cement kiln and has used a small
cold-flow model made of plexiglas to investigate mixing and
combustion processes in the kiln. In the model experiments
the gas streams were simulated by dilute acid and alkali
solutions with thymolphthalein used as an indicator. In the
zone of mixing, a blue color, which had the essential appear-
ance and characteristics of a flame, was produced. From the
laboratory and plant measurements Rhuland was able to
deduce a general equation for flame length in a rotary kiln
as a function of the dimensions of the burner and kiln, and
burner momentum.
In a similar study, Pearce :~ developed a heat-transfer
model of the flame zone of a kiln based on the following
flame characteristics: well-stirred, constant temperature,
constant emissivity, and length equal to 2.5 to 3 kiln di-
ameters. Average values for both flame temperature and
emissivity were obtained from measurements on kiln-type
flames. The success of this approach has never been tested
in that the author was unable to collect a comprehensive set
of temperature or heat-flux distributions from a production
kiln against which to test the model. However, the model
was partially validated using a small laboratory simulator.
Applying the techniques of partial modeling, Moles
e t a l . ll also used both isothermal air and water models to
examine the flow patterns at the hot end of rotary kilns. In
an attempt to verify the model results the authors collected
and analyzed a considerable amount of industrial kiln data.
The findings of this study indicate that the flame character-
istics are significantly influenced by the secondary air path
which is largely determined by the shape or design of the

METALLURG[CALTRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 14B. SEPTEMBER 1983--411

 Zone I
Slope~ 'L~ =
Z o n e "1-
JII
x)
(c)
Fig. l - - S c h e m a t i c diagram of a rotary kiln showing flame and nonflame zones. (a) Axial cross section,
(b) major heat flow paths in nonflame zone (II), and (c) major heat flow paths in flame zone (I).
kiln firing hood through which the secondary air is intro-
duced. Consequently, the authors have shown that accurate
model predictions only can be obtained from a test carried
out on a correctly scaled geometric model of the particular
system under investigation. Hence, the generalized use of
the equations derived by Rhuland may yield incorrect results
under some operating conditions since no allowance was
made for the firing-hood configuration.
Based on the observations of Moles et al., Jenkins and
Moles 12recently have developed a heat-transfer model for a
large enclosed flame in a rotary cement kiln. The model is
based on the zone method of Hottel and Sarofim )3 modified
to take into account the specific firing conditions common
to a large cement kiln. With this model, both temperature
and heat-flux distributions along the kiln wall were predicted
and then compared with reasonable success to values mea-
sured in a full-size operating kiln. The major drawback of
this approach results from the approximations used in de-
fining the zone structure. To avoid complex flux-geometry
calculations, Jenkins approximated the kiln system by use of
an annular grid, thereby eliminating the presence of the
solids burden. Hence, the model may not be utilized to
estimate the heat-flux distribution of the solids.
412--VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983
~Zone 17
Gas
I
I
Solids
I
'
(a)
Zone "IT
all
0
(b)
Young and C r o s s 14 employed a one-dimensional model of
a flame in an overall mathematical model of an induration
kiln. The flame zone was divided axially into discrete slices,
and the heat-release pattern of the flame was estimated using
a gamma distribution that was based on experimental obser-
vations of a similar kiln-type flame. The validity of this
approach is difficult to assess because further details of the
heat-release distribution are not given.
III. MODEL DEVELOPMENT
In this study, a one-dimensional approach has been taken
to estimate both temperatures and heat flows within the
flame zone of a rotary kiln. This technique involves the
subdivision of the flame zone axially into a number of slices
each of which has a uniform temperature. A heat balance is
written for each slice; and then using the Be6r equation, 6
which is given later, to determine the heat-release pattern for
the flame, the heat balances are solved for successive slices
to yield flame temperatures and heat flows to the solids.
Implicit in the use of this technique is the assumption that
radiative heat transfer axially amongst neighboring slices
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B
 I -Zone

@
| "l
I
I - - T9 = 1 7 7 3 K
I o
I

I
E
!
~r T I = 1173 K
I
(!) Distance
(a)

16--Zone

I
I
I I _..=:::::::~..--------"~I~ 9 = 1773 K
r

| |174
I

?7o:| !

E
X... A T
AZ
lw,.--Ti = II 7 3 K
@ I
I
!
I
I
I I-
!

Distance

(b)
Fig. 2 - - Z o n a l configuration and temperature distributions used for the ( a ) o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l and
(b) zone models.

can be ignored. To check the validity of this assumption, El Ji E9

heat flows predicted by the one-dimensional model were ill : - 9 III
compared to values computed using the more robust zone i-E~ i
method which allows for radiative exchange among adjacent El Ai FIgA i
elements. For these preliminary calculations a simplified
kiln geometry was assumed in which the flame and sur- (a)
rounding wall were approximated by two concentric cylin-
ders. For both models the inner cylinder, approximately a
flame of constant diameter, was assumed to be black
(e = a = 1) while the outer cylinder, or wall, was taken to
be gray (e = c~ = constant). The gas occupying the annular .=
L
region between the cylinders was assumed to be transparent E9 F89A 8 E8
I
to radiation. The zonal configuration and temperature distri- FgN A 9 A~f'~,tt.l

bution adopted for the two models in these calculations are

..
shown in Figure 2. As can be seen, the wall temperature
used for both models is 1173 K; the flame temperature of the I I
FIgA i
one-dimensional model is 1773 K, while in the zone model FzsA2
/ I
it varies linearly in the axial direction but is identically /
1773 K at Zone 9. In this way heat flows predicted by the
zone model for Zone 9 are directly comparable to those
F2NA2
predicted by the one-dimensional model and the influence of FINAl Jl I I J2
the downstream radiation in the presence of an axial flame- FI2AI
I-CI 1--(2
temperature gradient can be evaluated. Subject to these
conditions, the radiative heat flow received by the wall was
E2
calculated for the one-dimensional and zone models using
the resistive networks shown in Figure 3(a) and (b), re-
spectively.* The comparison was made for different values (b)
*The view factors needed to solve the resistor networks in Figure 3 are
Fig. 3 - - R e s i s t i v e analogs for (a) one-dimensional model and (b) multi-
given in Reference 15.
zone model.

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983--413

of axial flame-temperature gradient (AT/Az), relative flame flame to kiln diameter is normally greater than 0.5, and the
diameter (r~/r2), and wall reflectivity (p[,,). wall reflectivity ranges between 0.2 and 0.5. Thus, use of
Figure 4 shows the results of the calculations expressed as the one-dimensional approach in modeling flames should be
the fractional difference between the wall heat fluxes pre- accurate to within 20 pct relative to the zone method.
dicted by the two models relative to that of the zone model.
Turning to Figure 4(a), an axial flame-temperature gradient A. Model Assumptions
of up to 300 K / m is seen to introduce only a 20 pct error in
the one-dimensional approximation as compared to the zone The following assumptions have been made in developing
method. Figure 4(b) indicates that for a relatively long thin the one-dimensional flame model:
flame, r~/rz = 0.25, use of the one-dimensional model does (1) Both the kiln solids and wall are taken to be radiatively
not result in excess of 25 pct error. Finally, Figure 4(c) gray because the spectral emissivities of the solid materials
shows that for a highly reflective wall, p', = 0.75, the error and wall refractories are not well known. This assumption
in applying the one-dimensional model is again less than is thought to introduce only a small error.
25 pct. But in an operating kiln, the maximum flame- (2) The flame is taken to be radiatively gray and of constant
temperature gradient rarely exceeds 300 K / m , the ratio of emissivity at any position along the kiln axis. Depending on
the operating conditions, the emissivity of the flame lies
between the emissivity of clear gases and a high value of
I I I 0.95. The peak emissivity exists over a short section on the
flame axis as shown schematically in Figure 5 which repre-
sents a typical relationship between distance from the burner
and flame emissivity. Trinks 3 has suggested this relationship
El= 1.0 may be approximated by taking the flame emissivity to be
a constant value of two-thirds times the maximum emis-
O
N
Ez--- o.8 sivity based on the C / H ratio of the fuel. This is shown by
0.5 D
a dashed line in Figure 5. Aside from fuel composition, the
E:3
emissivity of a flame is also a function of other variables, the
I most important of which are: fuel-to-air ratio, temperature
CT of fuel and air, rate of mixing of the fuel and air, and the
I thickness or shape of the flame. Thus, for a given set of
== operating conditions, the final shape of the emissivity curve
o
N is best estimated with the advice of the burner manufacturer.
o"
v However, within the context of this study, the flame emis-
I I I sivity is chosen solely on the basis of composition using the
0 method outlined by Trinks. 3 The error associated with an
0 200 400
Axial temperature gradient,AT/L~Z (K/m)
(a) I I I I I

67t-- 1.0
I I I I
~= t.O
t-
O
~2 = 0.8 N
O"

,.- 0.5
0 Q
N I
(3"

Q
0.5-- I
I c
O
N

I
G)

0
N
CT
0
0 0.4 0.8

I 1 I I Wall r e f l e c t i v i t y , P'w
0
0 O.4 O.8 (c)
Fig. 4-- Fractional differencebetween the predictions of wall heat flux by
Relative flame size , rI / r 2 the zone and one-dimensional models plotted as a function of: (a) axial
flame-temperature gradient, (b) relative flame diameter, and (c)wall
(b) reflectivity.

414--VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

 (6) The specific heat of the fuel-jet mixture is taken to be a
constant at any axial position. The value used in the present
study was that of the combustion products at the adiabatic
flame temperature. The error associated with an approxi-
mation of this type is thought to be less than 10 pct.

B. Model Formulation and Solution

The overall flame length, FL, is obtained from the follow-
E
O ing equation of Be6r 6

'B Ft = 6d0(1 + AF*)\-fi~p/ ~ [ll

where for a double coaxial-type burner

the + rhp~
hi P~ = 9 [2]
mr + mp,,
Pr P~

do = (,nF + ~h~) [3]

Distance from end of burner
Fig. 5 - - S c h e m a t i c diagram showing variation of flame emissivity with
distance from burner.
approach of this type is thought to be small and may easily
be changed as more information becomes available or to suit
a specific set of operating conditions.
(3) The flame is taken to be of constant diameter so that its
shape is cylindrical.
(4) The level of recirculation within the flame region is
thought to be small, ~ and therefore the gas surrounding the
flame is composed primarily of O2 and N2 from the supply
of secondary air. The presence of gases which are given
off by the reacting solids into the freeboard volume has
been ignored.
(5) Air entrained by the fuel/gas jet is instantaneously
mixed and burns a stoichiometric amount of fuel.
[(GF + G,,.)~-p.] ''~
D
and AF* = (AY)rnF - rhp. [4]
The term (pJp,~)xl~2 in Eq. [1] is taken from the work of
Ricou and Spaulding t6 and accounts for the influence of
secondary-air temperature on the overall flame length. The
predictions of Eq. [1] are in broad agreement with flames
measured by previous investigators 9J~ and are thought to be
accurate to within 20 pct of actual values.
The heat flows within the flame zone are characterized by
the resistive network shown in Figure 6. This analog is very
similar to that developed earlier z for the nonflame region of
a rotary kiln. The only differences are that in Figure 6 the
emissive power of the flame, Ej, rather than that of the gas,
Eg, is used and there are two parallel paths, rather than one
path, tbr radiative heat flow between the exposed wall and
solids: direct and via the flame.

h~cvf-w Aw
2
In (Ro/Rz)(Tw +Tsh)(TwZ + Tsh )CT
27rKw
dw Ew Eo
9 = '11-tll
Esh I
! ~wAw h'out Ash
, J
fAf T t ~s ACOV hout = hevsh~a+ hRsh~a
.'ou, = hoo,. ,,T.. +To ,O- ]

I --E'~ ]" IHll

I h~Cvw--s=hcvws
~f FsfAs
~ As / "'~, s = h c v f - s / [ (T2+ TsZ)(T' + Ts)O-]
I

h~vf - s As
Fig. 6 - - R e s i s t i v e analog used to predict heat flows within the flame zone of a rotary kiln.

ME'I'AI.LURG|CAL TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983--415

 L I
I- FL ~Z "I
I I I ~ I
I . I I I r -\
I 1
I I I I
i I I I P I
Fuel : . ~ ~ ~ p ~ Z
+ ~ i I Flame I ~ ~;i
- ' ~I
Primory air _ I ~~ Z ; " I !
~i,f.,.._...l_jl
I I I i I I
I I l I I

Secondary air I 'I I t

I Z~ II ~1 I
IsOhds ~. #

do6(Pe)I/215 )'/2
Pc. P,=o
(a)
I

I
| :
i
Flame I Qz. AZ
Qz i= a I "-Ip

I ~ I
, '
I I

Iu Solids i'

(b)
Fig. 7 - - Schematic diagram of rotary kiln showing (a) zonal configuration for one-dimensional flame model and
(b) the major heat flows within each section.

As shown in Figure 7 the flame zone was divided into n ~.a: = [mr.:Cp, p ( ~ - 298)
slices of equal size. In this study n was chosen such that
each slice was approximately 0.5 m thick; dividing the + (rn ..... ~ - m,..z) g d l
n

HL)
flame into thinner slices offered no significant improve- AF*
ment in the final solution. A heat balance over a slice of the A~E~
flame zone yielded the following equations: - A,hho,,(Tsh - 7",) - (J, - E,)
P,
I Q: 1 + [ Qg,. ] = [Q, + Q,h + Q:+ a: I [5] + ,hr.:+a=C, cp298]/(rhr.;+a;Cp, ,) [11]
heat in heat generated heat out
within slice which may be used to calculate Tz+a= given the value of T=
for any slice. To solve Eq. [11 ] both the rate of entrainment,
where rh,,, and the total mass flowrate of the fuel-gas jet, rhr, must
be determined. Based on Eq. [1], the entrainment of air by
Q: = rhr,.. f 2 Tz Cp~, d T [6] the fuel-gas jet is taken to be a linear function of axial
98 distance as follows:
9 ,HF(I - HL)
Qg,, = (rh~..z,a~ - m~,,~) [7]
AF*

Ase, where
a s = --=-~, (J., - E,) [8]
P,
the = rhr + rhpa [13]
Q,h = Ashho,t(T~h - T,) [9] and
and

Qz,az = thr.z~a~ ~ 'z . Az

98
Cec d T [10] \P~p/ \P,./
Like flame emissivities the actual flame lengths and rates of
Combining Eqs. [5] through [101 and rearranging yields the entrainment are influenced by operating conditions. Al-
following equation: though within the context of the present study Eqs. [1] and

416--VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

 Based on the initial fuel and air temperatures at the kiln
discharge together with Eqs. [12] and [15], Eq. [111 may be
Read input dataj~ used to determine the flame temperature consecutively for
each slice. The radiosity of the solids, J,, needed to solve
Eq. [11] together with the solids and outer shell heat flows
may be determined using the resistive network of Figure 6.
Following these steps a computer algorithm was written
and utilized to solve for both the axial flame-temperature
profile and distribution of heat flux to the solids bed.
The flow diagram for the computer algorithm is shown in
Calculate flame length Figure 8.
using Eq (I)
IV. MODEL PREDICTIONS
The mathematical model was run to study the influence
on heat transfer in the flame zone of the following variables:
[i] fuel type
Divide flame into axial slices [ii] firing rate of fuel
of equal size [iii] temperature of secondary air
[iv] amount of primary air
[v] oxygen enrichment
To investigate the effect of fuel type, natural gas, No. 6 fuel
oil and producer gas, having the combustion properties
shown in Table I, were considered. The burner for these
Consecutively solve for flame fuels was assigned an equivalent diameter of 0.16 m. The
influence of the other variables was examined only for the
temperatures using Eqs(ll),(12) case of natural gas being fired with the burner shown in
and (15) Figure 9. This burner basically consists of two concentric
annuli which are 8.7 and 101.6 mm wide, respectively. The
natural gas passes through the inner annulus at an angle of
15 deg to the kiln axis, and primary air is introduced through
the outer annulus. For this configuration, Eqs. [2] to [4] take
the following form:
Solve for heat flows using
211 + Ppa(aF*)] [16]
Kirchoff's Law d o~-
[(o,~ + o,o)~p,] ''~
where
[Pp~(AF*)]2
GF -b Gp. = 1414 + [171
1 - Po, Po, }-10.065
+ 1.308
Print results
1 + Pp,,(AF*)
Pe = [181
1 + (1 - Po,)Pp,(AF*) Po~Pp,(AF*)

C
Is,o ") and
0.67 1.224 1.308

[AF - (1 - Po,)Pp~(AF) - 4.31Po,Pp,,(AF)]

Fig. 8 - - C o m p u t e r flow-diagram used to determine temperatures and heat
flows within the flame zone of a rotary kiln.
[12] are adequate, they can be altered easily to match more
closely a specific kiln/burner configuration as the need dic-
tates. Finally, by extension of Eq. [ 12], the total mass flow
of the fuel gas jet is given by
= ,h,~ + = ,,7,
AF * = F ~- + -~ ~ ~ ~)) + ~ [19]
0.67 1.224 "1.308 J
The other input conditions for the calculations are sum-
marized in Table II. Thus, the inside diameter of the kiln
under study was held constant at 3.04 m while the solids
temperature was maintained at 1200 K which is a typical
value for the calcination zone of a lime kiln. Convective
heat-transfer coefficients were kept constant because in the
flame zone, convection contributes less than 10 pct to the
overall heat flow to the solids. The conditions presented in
,ho [15]
Table II are, for the most part, typical of those found in

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983--417

 Table I. Combustion Properties of Fuels Studied

Adiabatic
Gross Stoichiometric Average Average Flame
Heating Hydrogen* Air-to-Fuel Flame Specific Tempera-
Fuel Composition* Value (J/kg) Loss (Pct) Ratio (kg/kg) Emissivity Heat (J/kg K) ture (K)
Natural gas CH4 97.38 5.521(107) 9.82 16.97 0.25 1550 2327
C2H6 2.17
C3Hs 0.15
N2 0.30
No. 6fuel oil C 86.2 4.221(107) 5.06 13.26 0.85 1400 2417
H 9.70
O 1.58
S 0.60
N 0.72
Producer gas
(Lurgi Air-Blown) CH4 5.0 0.6974(107) 6.61 1.81 0.25 1490 2021
CO 16.0
H2 25.0
CO2 14.0
N2 40.0
*Composition of natural gas and producer gas given in vol pct and that of No. 6 fuel oil in wt pct.
1Hydrogen loss is defined as the difference between the gross and net heating values of the fuels.

QII" / ////"
ff , I
II ,,.,,_ ( (( ,,o,.o...

r ~\\
Fig. 9--Schematic diagram of natural-gas burner used in flame model calculations.

Table II. Input Data Used for Model Predictions industry, but clearly do not encompass all kiln operations.
The purpose of the study, however, is not to make predic-
Variable Value
tions for specific operations but rather to examine the effects
Kiln inside diameter 3.04 m of different combustion variables on heat flows in the flame
Fuel type Natural gas, No. 6 fuel oil, zone and to test, to the extent possible, the utility of the
producer gas mathematical model.
Solids temperature 1200 K
Ambient temperature 298 K
Secondary air temperature 298 to 773 K A. Fuel Type
Fuel temperature 298 K
Primary air 20 to 40 pet stoichiometric To permit direct comparisons amongst the fuel types, the
Firing rate 9.2 to 16 MW gross firing rate was held constant at 14.5 MW, the equiva-
Oxygen enrichment 23 to 39 pct O2 in primary air lent burner diameter was fixed at 0.16 m, and the fuel
Wall emissivity 0.8 temperature was maintained at 298 K. It is recognized that
Solids emissivity 0.8 the latter condition is somewhat artificial for No. 6 fuel oil
Flame-to-solids convective 50 W / m z K because it requires preheating to enhance its flow properties;
HTC but the primary concern in the calculations was to maintain
Flame-to-wall convective HTC 20 W / m 2 K equivalence of firing conditions amongst the three fuels.
Outer shell-to-air convective 10 W / m 2 K
The predicted axial temperature profile of the flame and the
HTC
heat flux to the solids for the three fuels are shown in

418--VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

 2000 I I I 1 I I I Figures 10(a) and (b), respectively. Based on limited indus-
trial data, these model predictions would appear to have
Lurgi pioducerU Natural gas_ some validity. Turning first to Figure 10(a) the maximum
flame temperature for all three fuels compares favorably
oil with values previously reported in the literature) Further-
1500 _ / # 6 Fuel
more, the predicted flame lengths for both the natural gas
and No. 6 fuel oil are in broad agreement with those visually
observed in a lime-sludge kiln operating under similar con-
ditions. ~7Finally, the maximum value of the heat flux to the
solids for No. 6 fuel oil, reaching 280 k W / m 2 at the flame
tip as seen in Figure 10(b), conforms with values ranging
I Firing rote = 14.5 MW
I0 0 0
- =(49,5 X 106BTU/hr)
from 200 to 300 k W / m 2, measured in the flame zone under
TF =298K
cement-kiln conditions) s
o Tpa = 2 9 8 K Comparing flame lengths amongst the fuels, Figure 10(a),
Tsa = 2 9 8 K the fuel oil gives the longest flame because it is most dense,
Ppo = 0 2 and according to Eq. [ 11, is less able to entrain the secondary
deq = 0.160 m air needed for combustion. Additionally, the flame length
500 will be increased as a result of the finite droplet vaporization
time associated with the combustion of No. 6 fuel oil. The
producer gas, on the other hand, has the shortest flame
because its stoichiometric air requirement is much less than
that of the other two fuels (Table I). It also may be noted
1 I I I i I I from Figure 10(a) that the predicted lift-off of the three
2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 flames, i.e., distance from initiation of combustion to
Axial distance from kiln discharge ( m ) burner, is relatively large, particularly for the fuel oil. This
(a) results from the use of Eqs. [12] and [14J which could be
altered empirically to fit more closely the behavior of indus-
trial flames where the lift-off distances are not expected to
300 be so great. However, for the purposes of these calculations,
I I I I [ I
the large flame lift-off is not believed to affect seriously the
/ ";1~6 Fuel oil comparative results of this study.
/
Natural gas // The magnitude of the maximum flame temperature is seen
/ /
in Figure 10(a) to be lower for the fuel oil than for the
Lurgi producer g a s / / / / natural gas. This is a consequence of the latter having a
- / '/,," longer flame, i.e., lower heat generation per unit length of
flame, and a higher emissivity (Table 1). Thus, heat transfer
from the fuel-oil flame is greater than from its natural-gas
E 150-- t
counterpart, as can be seen in Figure 10(b) and Table III.
/ I Firing rate =14.5 M W 6 The latter shows the distribution of energy within the flame
v =(49.5 X I0 B.T.U./hr)
it
zone for the three fuels. For No. 6 fuel oil, 18.2 pct of the
-- / ! TF = 2 9 8 K --
total energy input is transferred to the solids within the flame
B
/ Tpa = 2 9 8 K
/ / Tsa = 2 9 8 K
zone as compared to 10.0 pct for natural gas and 0.4 pct for
o3
.E iI Ppa = 0.2 -- producer gas. On this basis it would seem that fuel oil and
/ I deq =0.160 m natural gas may be interchanged as kiln fuel with relatively
B
little upset in the operating conditions. However, because
o the solids heat flux is significantly higher using fuel oil, care
u)
must be taken to prevent overburning of the kiln product.
Since virtually no heat is transferred from the producer-gas
flame to the solids, it is doubtful that this fuel is completely
interchangeable with either No. 6 fuel oil or natural gas. Be-
!
! cause little information regarding the use of producer gas as
/ -- a kiln fuel is available, further studies must be conducted to
evaluate the overall effect of this fuel on kiln performance.

-~5c I 1 1 I I i J B. Firing Rate

0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14
Axial distance from kiln discharge (m) The firing rate of natural gas was varied from 9.2 to
(b) 16 MW; and the predicted axial profiles of flame tem-
Fig. 1 0 - - T h e influence o f fuel type on (a) the axial t e m p e r a t u r e profile of
perature and heat flux to the solids are presented in
the f l a m e and (b) the axial profile o f h e a t flux to the solids within the f l a m e Figures l l(a) and (b), respectively. As expected, both the
zone o f a rotary kiln. flame temperature and solids heat flux increase with firing

ME-FALI.URGICAL TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983--419

 Table III. Influence of Combustion Variables on the Energy Distribution (Pct) within the Flame Zone of a Rotary Kiln

Sensible Heat Heat

Combustion Value of Combustion Transferred Heat Loss Hydrogen*
Variable (Type) Products to Solids from Shell Loss
Fuel type Natural gas 76.89 9.96 3.83 9.82
No. 6 fuel oil 70.82 18.23 5.89 5.06
Producer gas 92.26 0.38 0.75 6.61
Firing rate (MW) 9.2 . . . .
16.0 . . . .
Secondary air temperature (K) 298 76.31 9.83 4.04 9.82
523 71.48 14.31 5.14 9.07
778 66.97 18.69 5.98 8.36
Percent primary air 20 76.31 9.83 4.04 9.82
30 79.69 7.31 3.18 9.82
40 82.71 5.08 2.39 9.82
Percent primary air replaced by oxygen 0 76.31 9.83 4.04 9.82
10 75.3 i 11.02 3.85 9.82
20 74.25 12.28 3.65 9.82
*Hydrogen loss is defined as the difference between the gross and net heating values of the fuels.

2ooo I I I I I 250 I I I I I
ISMW(55XI06~~ ISMW(55XIO btu/hr)/

~ 0 6 200 - --

btu/h r )

1500 - - -- I 50 -- --
1.2MW (36 X 106btu/hr)

Fuel type Natural gas

9r
- /] poc= 02
T~P--~
z;~ K N
..E
I00

=.9 / Tp0 = 2 9 8 K ..9

I000-- / Tsa =298 K ~ 50 -- --

E Fuel type :Natural gas

"= Ppa = 0 2 --
=) ~ T r = 298 K
E
__o "-- = 298K
o TP o
" 500'-- m (n --50 - Tsa = 2 9 8 K --

-I00 --

o I I I I I -15o I I I I I
0 4 8 12 0 4 8 12
Axial distance from discharge end (m) Axial distance from discharge end (m)
(a) (b)
Fig. I I - - T h e influence of firing rate of natural gas on (a) the axial temperature profile of the flame and (b) the axial profile of heat flux to the solids within
the flame zone of a rotary kiln.

420--VOLUME 14B. SEPTEMBER 1983 METALLURGICAL

r TRANSACTIONSB
 200C I I I I I I rate, but the flame length is unchanged. These predictions
Tsa = Z98 K are consistent with the observations of Be6r and Chigier. 6
For these conditions the heat transfer to the solids in the
flame zone increases from 1.16 MW to 1.48 MW as the
firing rate is increased from 9.2 to 16 MW. Therefore, be-
yond a certain point, increasing firing rates will tend to
150C / / Fuel type natural gas overburn the solids product while significantly increasing
[ / Firing rote =.14_._5M W6 the backend temperatures in the kiln. Clearly, the firing rate
/ / (49.5 X IO-blu/hr )
/ / Pp~ =012 must be adjusted carefully to suit each operation.
~e
/ / ,F : 29B
C. Secondary Air Temperature
1000 The effect on the flame temperature and solids heat flux
E of increasing the secondary-air temperature from 298 to

/
773 K is shown in Figure 12. It is seen that raising the
secondary-air temperature significantly increases the flame
t/. length but has a minor effect on the maximum values of
flame temperature and solids heat flux. The increase in
5 0 0 --
flame length results from a decrease in the entrainment rate
of the secondary air owing to its lower density, according to
Eq. [1]. The small effect of secondary-air temperature on
maximum flame temperature and solids heat flux is due to
the offsetting influences of: (1) heat transfer from the flame
I I I I I 1 which over a greater length should drop the flame tem-
0
O 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 perature and solids heat flux, and (2) the sensible heat added
Axial distance from discharge end ( m ) to the flame by the preheated air which raises the flame
(a) temperature. From Table III, raising the secondary-air tem-
perature by 475 K is seen nearly to double the heat trans-
ferred to the solids in the flame zone. Since the maximum
heat flux at any position is not increased significantly,
I I I I I
the use of preheated secondary air appears to be a good
250 Tso: 298K / /
method for improving kiln productivity without overburning
"[so =773K the product.

200 D. Percent Primary Air

The predicted effect of raising the primary air from 20
to 40 pct of the stoicbiometric requirement is shown in
150 --
Figure 13. Thus, the flame length is seen to decrease with
increasing primary air while the peak flame temperature and
E I00--
solids heat flux increase. From Table III the quantity of heat
received by the solids is decreased from 9.8 to 5.0 pet of the
Fuel type " Natural gas total energy input, as the pet primary air is increased. It
50--
Firing rate ; 14.5 MW follows that the reduction in flame length overrides the
(49.5 X 106btu/hr )
increase in heat flux in the flame zone resulting from in-
Ppo= 0'2
oa~ TF = 2 9 8 K
creased primary air. Hence, if heat transfer to the solids is
0 Tpa = 2 9 8 K to be maximized in the flame zone of a rotary kiln, the
primary air should be set at a low level, just sufficient to
co
maintain the jet characteristics of the flame.
-50

- I O0
/ E. Oxygen Enrichment
In this part of the study, oxygen was substituted for pri-

-15(;
Axial
4
I
distance
I
from
8
I
discharge
I
12
end (m)
I 1 16
mary air on a mass basis such that the fraction of oxygen,
To~, in the enriched primary air is as follows:
To2 = Po2 + 0.23(1 - Po2) [20]
(b) Thus, 20 pct oxygen enrichment is equivalent to 38.4 pct
Fig. 1 2 - - T h e influence of secondary-air temperature on (a)the axial oxygen in the primary stream. The results of the model
temperature profile of the flame and (b) the axial profile of heat flux to the predictions for up to 20 pct oxygen enrichment are shown in
solids within the flame zone of a rotary kiln. Figure 14. It is seen that with oxygen enrichment the flame

METALI.URGICAL
T TRANSACTIONS B VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983--421
 2000 I I I I I 300

Ppo : o 4 / / Ppo = 0.4

Ppo = 0.2
250

Ppa = 0 2
1500
200
Fuel t y p e : N a t u r a l gas
Firing rate =14.5 MW
v ( 4 9 . 5 X 106btu / hr) 150
G)
b.
TF= 2 9 8 K
,e-
Tpo = 2 9 8 K
I000 - - E
Tso = 2 9 8 K I00
E
.e-
Fuel type:Natural gas
E
x
Firing rate =14.5Mw
0 Il-
50--
14.
(49,5 X 106btu/h~
TF = 298 K
l-"
500 - -
Tpo = 298 K
I/I 0--
Tsa = 2 9 8 K
0
O3

-50 --

Co I I I I I
4 8 12
-I00 --
Axial distance from discharge end (m)
(a)
_tso ~ I I I I I
4 8
Fig. 13 - - T h e influence of percent primary air on (a) the axial temperature Axial distance from discharge end (m)
profile of the flame and (b) the axial profile of heat flux to the solids within
the flame zone of a rotary kiln. (b)

is shorter and the maximum flame temperature and peak
solids heat flux are increased. Unlike the previous case of
percent primary air, however, the net effect of these changes
is to increase the heat received by the solids from 9.8 to
12.2 pct of the total energy input (Table III), as the level of
oxygen in the primary air is increased from 21 to 39 pct.
Clearly, the increase in the flame temperature with oxygen
enrichment is sufficient to overcome the reduced heat-
transfer length of the flame. This is in contrast to the use of
increased primary air described in the previous section.
Thus, oxygen enrichment may be employed to increase
solids throughput. This also has been shown experimen-
tally with a pilot kiln used for limestone calcination.~9
V. SUMMARY
A one-dimensional mathematical model has been formu-
lated to estimate the temperatures and heat flows within the
flame zone of a rotary kiln. The importance of axial radi-
ation, which is neglected in the model, has been checked by
comparison with a zone model, and it has been shown that
the one-dimensional approach should be accurate to within
20 pct. The model was employed to study the influence on
heat transfer in the flame zone of several kiln variables, and
the following conclusions have been reached:
1. Compared to natural gas and producer gas, fuel oil
yields the longest flame because it is most dense and
entrains secondary air less rapidly for combustion. The
fuel-oil flame is not as hot as its natural-gas counter-
part because with fuel oil the rate of heat generation
per unit length of flame is lower and the flame emis-
sivity is higher. But overall heat flow to the solids in
the flame zone is highest when firing with fuel oil.
2. Increasing the secondary air temperature for com-
bustion of natural gas lengthens the flame, owing to a
decrease in the air entrainment rate, and also increases
the overall heat transferred to the solids in the flame
region of a kiln.
3. Raising the primary-air rate reduces flame length and
also the heat flow to the solids in the flame zone.
4. Oxygen enrichment of the primary air reduces flame
length and increases both the peak solids heat flux and
the overall heat transferred to the solids in the flame
region.

422--VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B

 I I I I I 350 I I
Pc2= 20
2000 Po 2 = 2 0
300 -

02:0
250 -

1500 -
200 --

Po z : 0

/ Fuel type No t u r ? l , g o s
Q)
150 -
] Firing rate = 14.5 MW

r- [ (49.5 XI06btu/hrl
ID [ Ppa : 0-2
"~ I 0 0 0 - E
E [ T F = 298 K -- I00-
Tpa = 2 9 8 K
Fuel type:Natural gas
Tso = 298 K
x Firing rate = 14.5 M W
E
o 50-- (49.5 X 106btu/hr) -
,4..,
I.i.
o
Ppe = 0.2
ii)
TF: 298 K
500 - 0- Tpo = 2 9 8 K
Tso = 2 9 8 K
o
03

-5C -

o I 1 1 I I --IO0
0 4 8 12
Axial disfance from discharge end (m)
(a)
-15o I I I I 1
Fig. 14--The influence of oxygen enrichment (percent replacement of 0 4 8
primary air by oxygen) on (a) the axial temperature profile of the flame and Axial distance from discharge end (m
(b) the axial profile of heat flux to the solids within the flame zone of a
rotary kiln. (b)

NOMENCLATURE Q Heat flow, W

Ro Outside radius of kiln, m
A Area, m 2
Rr Inside radius of kiln, m
A F Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio, mass basis
T Temperature, K
AF* Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for a double coaxial
To~ Fraction 02 in primary air, mass basis
burner (Eq. [4])
z Axial position relative to burner, m
Cp Specific heat, k J / k g K
a Absorptivity
do Equivalent burner diameter
e Emissivity
E Emissive power, W / m :
p Density, k g / m 3
F View factor
Pe Equivalent fuel-gas density
FL Flame length, m
p' Reflectivity
G Momentum flow rate, kg m / s 2
o" Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( = 5.67(10 -8) W / m 2 K 4)
h Heat-transfer coefficient, W / m 2 K
~" Transmissivity
h,,~ Convective heat-transfer coefficient
He Gross heating value of fuel, k J / k g
HL Hydrogen loss percentage basis Subscripts
J Radiosity, W / m 2 a Ambient
k. Thermal conductivity of kiln wall, W / m K coy Covered
rh Mass flow rate, k g / s cp Combustion products
Pp,, Fraction stoichiometric air as primary, mass basis en Entrained
Po, Fraction of primary air replaced by pure oxygen, mass f Flame
basis F Fuel
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B V O L U M E 14B, S E P T E M B E R 1983 - 423
 gen Generated 4. R.T. Read, ed.: North American Combustion Handbook, North
0 At burner American Mfg. Co., Cleveland, OH, 1978.
5. M.W. Thring: The Science of Flames and Furnaces, Chapman and
pa Primary air
Hall, London, 1962.
s Solids 6. T.M. Be& and M. A. Chigier: Combustion Aerodynamics, Applied
sa Secondary air Science Publishers, London, 1972.
sh Outer shell 7. F.C. Lockwood, J. H. Whitelaw, and A. D. Gosman: "The Prediction
T Total of the Performance of Combustion Chambers and Furnaces", Short
course at Pennsylvania State University, April 1978.
w Wall 8. N.H. Afgan and J. M. Be6r: Heat Transfer in Flames, Scripta Book
z Axial position z Co., Washington, DC, 1979.
9. W. Ruhland: J. Inst. of Fuel, 1973, vol. 40, pp. 69-75.
10. K.W. Pearce: J. Inst. of Fuel, 1973, vol. 46, pp. 363-71.
1I. E D. Moles, D. Watson, and P.B. Lain: J. Inst. of Fuel, 1973,
ACKNOWLEDGMENT vol. 46, pp. 353-62.
12. B.G. Jenkins and F.D. Moles: Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng., 1981,
The authors are grateful to the Natural Sciences and vol. 59, pp. 17-25.
Engineering Research Council of Canada for support of 13. H. Hottel and A. Sarofim: Radiative Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New
this study. York, NY, 1967.
14. R.W. Young and M. Cross: Iron and Steel Making, 1976, vol. 3,
pp. 129-37.
15. J.P. Gorog: Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Metallurgical Engineering,
REFERENCES University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., 1982.
16. F.P. Ricou and D.B. Spaulding: J. Fluid Mech., 1961, vol. 11,
1. J.P. Gorog, J. K. Brimacombe, and T.N. Adams: Metall. Trans. B, pp. 21-32.
1981, vol. 12B, pp. 55-70. 17. T.N. Adams: private communication, Weyerhaeuser Co., Tacoma,
2. J.P. Gorog, T. N. Adams, and J. K. Brimacombe: MetaU. Trans. B, WA, 1982.
1982, vol. 13B, pp. 153-63. 18. R. Graf and R. Payne: International Flame Research Foundation,
3. W. Trinks and M.H. Mawhinney: Industrial Furnaces, John Wiley 1981, Doc. No. F 32/a/42.
and Sons, New York, NY, 1961, vols. I and II. 19. A.P. Watkinson and J. K. Brimacombe: Can. J. Chem. Eng., in press.

424--VOLUME 14B, SEPTEMBER 1983 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS B