Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association

ISSN: 0002-2470 (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uawm16

Chemical Industry Report

Revised Informative Report No. 1

To cite this article: (1963) Chemical Industry Report, Journal of the Air Pollution Control
Association, 13:10, 496-507, DOI: 10.1080/00022470.1963.10468211

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CHEMICAL INDUSTRY REPORT
Revised Informative Report No. i*
Introduction
The chemical industry uses raw mate-
rials from mine, forest, sea, air, and
farm; from oil, brine and gas wells;
and from by-product materials of many
other industries. It converts these
widely diversified raw materials into
more than 8,850 compounds, called
"end chemicals," in more than 12,000
plants operated by hundreds of chemical
manufacturers.1
Since World War II the chemical in-
dustry has become so diversified that it
is difficult even to classify it accurately.
Today, petroleum producers are now
important chemical manufacturers;
paper companies, rubber companies,
even manufacturers of electrical ma-
chinery and farm equipment are chemi-
cal producers.
The TI-2 Committee, to define the
scope of its activities has used the
category known as "Chemicals and
Allied Products."2 (See Appendix A
for details of this list.) In all future
TI-2 reports, the term "Chemical In-
dustry" will apply to the plants which
make the products in this list, and no
others. Many chemical operations
cause no air pollution at all, and inclu-
sion in this list does not mean that all
these plants release potential air pol-
lutants.
Aside from its extreme diversity an-
other outstanding characteristic of the
chemical industry is the strenuous com-
petition found at several levels. Be-
sides the usual competition among com-
panies, there is competition between
products for similar markets, competi-
tion between processes making the same
materials, and competition between raw
materials. This causes the chemical in-
dustry to be ever changing. Because so
many processes are used in the chemical
industry and the processes are con-
stantly changing, it is practically im-
possible to completely describe the air
pollution problem of the chemical in-
dustry. This report will discuss in
* Initial report published in / . Air.
Poll. Control Assoc, 10: 2, 169-71 (April
1960).
496
This report, published as Informa-
tive Report No. 1 of the Air Pollu-
tion Control Association's TI-2
Chemical Committee, began to
move through the 14-step approval
procedure as outlined in the March
Journal on August 20, 1962. In-
formative Report No. 1 is a revised
report and was initially published
in the April 1960 Journal. In ac-
cordance with the latest procedures
adopted at the Technical Council
Meeting of December 10, 1962, and
approved by APCA's Board of
Directors, it is now published as
representing the "best thinking of
the Association." It is an ex-
tremely timely and informative
report.
general terms some of the characteristics
of emissions from certain kinds of opera-
tions and the relation of the plant opera-
tors to the Air Pollution Control Of-
ficials. Future reports by the Commit-
tee will discuss some common types of
chemical operations in more detail.
The TI-2 Committee intends that
this report present information useful to
persons in the following categories:
(1) Chemical plant managers,
(2) Air Pollution control officials,
(3) Abatement equipment engineers,
(4) Other groups seeking such in-
formation in APCA publications.
The Nature of Atmospheric
Emissions from the Chemical
Industry
The diversity of the industry is such
that the individual air contaminants
that are emitted cover a broad spectrum
as to physical and chemical nature.
Following is a list of some of the con-
taminant types that may be emitted
from chemical plants (as well as other
kinds of sources) along with some brief
discussion on their importance.
Solid Particulates
Large Particles
This class includes particles larger
than 10 microns (1 micron—1/25,000
TI-2 CHEMICAL COMMITTEE
inch). Their settling velocity is such
that they tend to deposit out on hori-
zontal surfaces within short distances
(never more than a few miles) of the
emission point and are responsible,
therefore, only for localized problems.
This type of particle is usually generated
by crushing, grinding, attrition, or the
burning of solid fuels. Particles in this
size can be effectively removed by
rather simple, inexpensive equipment
such as cyclone separators and simple
scrubbers.
Intermediate Particles
Solid particles in this arbitrary class
range in size between 1 and 10 microns.
They are discussed separately only be-
cause particles on either side of this
range are quite different with respect to
source, ease or cost of collection, and
their effects. There is no specific par-
ticle size in this range that can represent
a clean-cut dividing line for any of these
differences. Particles in this size range
are emitted from a wide range of opera-
tions including those mentioned above.
A dryer handling granular material and
which uses low efficiency cyclone col-
lectors could be expected to emit the
bulk of its particulate air contamination
in this size range. Particles at the upper
end of this range settle out reasonably
close to the source, while those at the
lower end carry for miles even in a gentle
breeze.
Fine Particles and Fume
Particles smaller than 1 micron have
extremely low settling velocities and as a
result travel for great distances, often as
highly visible plumes. This high visi-
bility results from the fact that particles
in a range around 0.5 micron are usually
the most efficient size for scattering
light. In addition to reducing visi-
bility, particles of this size are respon-
sible for many types of soiling.
Particles less than 1 micron are the
most difficult and expensive to collect.
Mechanical collectors and many types of
scrubbers will not collect them ade-
quately. Bag filters, electrostatic pre-
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
cipitators or high energy scrubbers are
usually needed.
Particles in this size range are often
formed in high temperature processes.
Fume particles formed by the condensa-
tion of solids from the vapor state are of
this size. High temperature furnaces
and kilns are examples of processes
forming this sort of material.
Liquid Droplets
Much that has been said above about
solid particulate matter in air pollution
is also true of liquid droplets; however,
their origins are quite different. Rela-
tively large droplets of contaminated
water can sometimes be emitted from a
scrubber with inadequate mist elimi-
nators. Depending upon temperature,
humidity, stack height, and other fac-
tors, droplets can settle out quite close
to the source, causing soiling or corrosion
problems, or evaporate leaving small
concentrated liquid droplets or small
solid particles from the solid residues in
the original droplet. The reverse of this
process also occurs. For example,
hygroscopic materials such as SO3 or
P2O5, if released to the atmosphere, ac-
cumulate water from the air to form
droplets which grow to a size determined
by atmospheric relative humidity.
Gaseous Contaminants
Contaminants in the form of gases or
vapors are emitted from many chemical
processes. Some are relatively in-
nocuous. Examples are carbon dioxide
and methane. Some may cause damage
to vegetation. Examples are hydrogen
fluoride, sulfur dioxide, and ethylene.
Others may be significant largely be-
cause they produce undesirable physio-
logical effects such as odor and eye,
nose and throat irritation. Examples
are hydrogen sulphide, amines, mer-
captans, ammonia and hydrogen chlo-
ride.
Odor problems are especially difficult
to handle because there are no objective
standards for judging odors as to type
and intensity. In addition, there is con-
siderable difference among human sub-
jects in their response to odors. Very
often concentrations of odorous gases
which are sufficient to cause annoyance
to humans are too low to be measured by
simple analytical techniques. Odor
thresholds for a number of gases and
vapors have been published by the
Manufacturing Chemists' Association
(MCA).3 In spite of the difficulties in
measuring odors, considerable progress
has been made and several interesting
techniques have been devised.4
Potential air pollutant gases can be
controlled in a variety of ways, depend-
ing on their nature, concentration, etc.
The MCA Air Pollution Abatement
Manual5 discusses a number of these
methods in some detail. When dif-
October 1963 / Volume 13, No. 10
ficult-to-control gases are present in a
stack in such low concentrations that it
is out of the question to remove them,
ground leve Concentrations can usually
be lowered effectively by increasing the
effective height of the stack by stack
extensions and by increased velocity
and temperature. Equations are avail-
able for helping to predict maximum
ground level concentrations of stack
emissions depending on the conditions of
release,6 but they must be used with ex-
perienced judgment which includes the
recognition that the equations do not
cover all conditions.
Reactive Contaminants
Many of the contaminants emitted
from chemical plants are highly reactive
and would be able to react in the
atmosphere with other contaminants to
form compounds with effects completely
different from the parent materials.
For example, ammonia released from
one source might mix with hydrochloric
acid or sulfur dioxide from a different
source to produce a visible haze although
these gases separately are invisible.
An interesting case was described by
Adams7 in which styrene vapor and
halogen gas in the atmosphere reacted
to produce a severe lachrymator.
The best documented situation in-
volving atmospheric reaction of con-
taminants is the production of smog in
Los Angeles and other areas in this
country. The oxidation of hydro-
carbons, by the products of photo-
chemically reacted nitrogen oxides, is
significant and is accompanied by eye
irritation, aerosol production, vegetation
damage and ozone production. There is
increasing evidence that small amounts
of sulfur dioxide have pronounced effect
on these reactions—at least those re-
sponsible for aerosol production.8
The Relationship of the Chemical
Plant Operator to Air Pollution
Control Activities
There can be many kinds of relation-
ships between a chemical plant and an
air pollution control effort in the sur-
rounding community. At one extreme
there is no formal air pollution control
agency in existence in the area of the
plant. At the other extreme there is an
active air pollution control agency in
existence with a staff of inspectors and
engineers which is backed up by rules
and regulations specifically designed to
control air pollution emissions. Be-
tween these extremes there can be an
infinite number of relationships, but for
purposes of brevity only the two ex-
tremes will be discussed. In any case,
the management of the chemical plant
should be prepared to cooperate with
those outside parties and agencies in at-
tempting to obtain acceptable com-
munity air quality.
No Air Pollution Control
Agency in Existence
Under these conditions the only oc-
casions a given chemical plant is asked
for information on its emissions is when
it is suspected of creating a nuisance, or
when the management goes before the
planning commission to request a use
permit for an addition to the plant.
The codes under which most city,
county or state health departments
operate contain provisions for bringing
enforcement action against operations
which create a public nuisance. It is
difficult for a health officer to prove
legally that emissions from a plant are a
nuisance to a significant number of
citizens, and at the same time the com-
pany accused (rightly or wrongly) of the
nuisance suffers in the eyes of the public.
Therefore, it is important that the plant
management get together as early as
possible with the parties who claim
there is a nuisance, whether they be
health department personnel or repre-
sentatives of a citizen group, to (a)
determine the nature of the nuisance;
(b) determine the source (s) and cause of
the nuisance; and (c) agree on a reason-
able course of action to abate the
nuisance if the plant in question is re-
sponsible.
For the manager of any chemical
plant wishing to avert potential nui-
sance situations there is much published
information to assist him in the form of
air pollution control codes used in other
areas, information from control equip-
ment manufacturers, and published
.technical literature. To assist him with
the more complex problems there are
engineering, consulting and research
organizations with experience in air pol-
lution control.
An Active Air Pollution Control
Agency with Jurisdiction
over the Plant
The relationship with the community
will be quite different for the plant
located in an Air Pollution Control
District. For the most part all air pol-
lution control matters will in some way
involve this one agency. The Air Pol-
lution Control Officer (APCO) will not
only be concerned with whether or not
the plant creates a nuisance, but will also
require that the plant comply with any
emission or air quality standards in-
corporated in the code under which his
agency operates. The emission levels
spelled out in such codes are felt by the
agency's governing body to represent
standards that will result in air quality
that will be acceptable to the com-
munity. In addition to these emission
limits, many air pollution control codes
give the APCO the authority to issue or
deny permits for new installations which
may emit air contaminants. Many air
pollution codes empower the APCO to
obtain information from all potential
497
sources of air pollution as to the nature
and degree of their emissions. Such in-
formation may be used for enforcement
purposes or for estimates by the control
agency of total emissions into the at-
mosphere within the agency's area of
control. Such information may be re-
quested by means of forms in the follow-
ing categories:
(/) Emission rates of air contami-
nants (lb/hr)
(a) Solid particulates (dust,
smoke, fumes, etc.)
(b) Liquid droplets
(c) Gases and vapors
(2) Physical data on contaminants
(particle size, color, appearance)
(3) Are emissions continuous or inter-
mittent?
(4) Importance of emissions (odorous,
soiling, corrosive, irritating,
damaging to vegetation, etc.)
(5) How are emissions released?
(a) Tall stack
(6) Rooftop
(c) Ground level
(d) Velocity
(e) Temperature
(6) Do emissions react with other
materials present in the at-
mosphere to produce different
classes of contaminants and
different effects?
(7) What control equipment is used
to reduce emissions, and how
efficient is it?
Some Suggestions
for the Management
of a Chemical Enterprise
The management of a chemical enter-
prise can avoid air pollution problems
by:
Careful Plant Site Selection—No
longer is it possible for a plant site to be
picked only on the basis of economic
factors such as proximity of raw mate-
rials, labor force, cheap transportation
and markets. The impact of any emis-
sions from the plant on the surrounding
area must also be considered. This in-
cludes detailed knowledge of the overall
weather of the region of the proposed
site as well as the microclimate of the
specific site as influenced by local factors
such as topography. Best locations are
usually in flat, windy areas. Deep val-
leys which may be subject to periods of
stable air and low wind speed should be
avoided. Although winds blow from all
directions, each location has a prevailing
wind direction. As a general rule, plant
locations upwind (assuming this pre-
vailing direction) of residential areas
should be avoided, although other
weather features, such as low wind speed
and high air stability may co-exist with
other directions, making them more
critical than the prevailing direction.
In any event, a chemical plant, regard-
less of how clean it is, should not be
located too close to a residential area,
498
since such a plant is a ready target for a
wide variety of complaints. In addition
to working closely with planning and
zoning authorities, management should
have the advice of a competent
meteorologist.
Process and Plant Design—As in the
case of the plant site selection, the proc-
ess used for producing a given end
product cannot be selected on the basis
of economic factors alone. The relative
amounts of emissions and the relative
cost of control for each process must be
weighed against the other economic fac-
tors in selecting the process and raw
materials. The design of the plant
should incorporate all of the safeguards
necessary to avoid air pollution prob-
lems. A thorough study should be
made of each point where contaminants
are likely to escape. Closed systems, re-
cycling gas streams and recovery of es-
caping materials should be used to the
maximum. Where this is impractical,
the necessary abatement equipment
(filters, scrubbers, absorbers, etc.)
should be provided in sizes that will not
have to be operated at the limit of their
capacity in the foreseeable future.
Even in cases where a contaminant
stream is felt to be insignificant, space
should be provided in the plant layout
for later addition of control equipment
if needed. It is always much cheaper to
install adequate control equipment when
the plant is built than to add it later,
and it is better for community relations
to avoid air pollution than to create it
and then have to control it.
Operation—Management has a direct,
day by day responsibility to operate its
plant to avoid air pollution. Operators
must realize it is as important to operate
pollution abatement equipment prop-
erly as it is to operate the production
equipment. Maintenance of pollution a-
batement equipment is as important and
necessary as maintenance of production
equipment. Supervisors, foremen and
operators will quickly learn how the
Plant Manager feels about air pollution
and will give him the performance he
demands.
In addition to good operation, it is
desirable to patrol a plant and its vicin-
ity regularly for odors and other effects
of pollution. By this practice, manage-
ment can find out about problems due to
leaks, spills or equipment failure and
correct the condition before it causes
complaints. The records of such a
patrol can be very useful if there is a
community air pollution problem.
Community Relations—The plant
manager will find that even with a well
run plant he must do more to keep good
community relations. He should be
ready to listen to air pollution com-
plaints from the neighbors and in-
vestigate them. If his plant is the cause,
he should explain what went wrong and
how it will be corrected. If equipment
failure is the cause, he should notify the
community authorities.
The Manager, by being honest and
aboveboard with respect to air pol-
lution, can have his plant accepted as an
asset to the community.
Sources of Information
For the air pollution control official
wishing specific information on emis-
sions from a chemical plant in his area,
the best source of information would be
the personnel of the plant in question.
The APCO hardly ever requires infor-
mation that would tend to divulge
trade secrets. Much valuable informa-
tion is available in the technical litera-
ture on air pollution control applicable
to the chemical industry. The APCA
Abstracts, Library of Congress, U. S.
Public Health Service, and special air
pollution libraries at several locations
throughout the country are excellent
sources for the latest published informa-
tion on specific air pollution control
problems in the chemical industry.
The Air Pollution Abatement Manual
published by the Manufacturing
Chemists' Association, 1825 Connecticut
Avenue, NW, Washington 9, D. C,
is the most useful general reference for
those interested in air pollution control
in the chemical industry. It consists of
11 chapters, each dealing with a dif-
ferent aspect of air pollution. The 12th
chapter is a bibliography which is of
limited usefulness since it lists articles
published only through 1954.
There are a number of handbook type
reference books available on air pollu-
tion:
(1) Air Pollution Handbook, edited by
Paul L. Magill, Francis R. Holden
and Charles Ackley, McGraw-
Hill (1956).
{2) Air Pollution Control, W. L.
Faith, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
(1959).
(3) Air Pollution, World Health Or-
ganization, Columbia University
Press (1961).
(4) Air Pollution—A Comprehensive
Treatise, edited by Arthur C.
Stern, to be published by Aca-
demic Press.
Useful information on the chemical
process industry and the unit operations
and processes it uses can be found in:
(1) Chemical Engineer's Handbook,
edited by John H. Perry, Mc-
Graw-Hill (1950).
(2) Chemical Process Industries, R.
Norris Shreve, McGraw-Hill
(1956).
(3) Industrial Chemicals, W. L. Faith,
D. B. Keyes, R. L. Clark, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1957).
Future Reports
The TI-2 Committee is preparing a
series of Informative Reports on Specific
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
Chemical Processes. It is the intent of
these reports to describe some of the
more common, typical, chemical proc-
esses, for the information of control
officials who may have such plants
within their jurisdiction and others con-
cerned with air pollution problems.
The reports will include a description of
the process, emissions and their control,
and the toxicity of the chemicals in-
volved.
In these reports, the committee will
deliberately avoid giving quantitative
data on the amount of the various con-
taminants released by the plants de-
scribed, since every chemical plant is
different. The amounts of emissions can
vary greatly between plants making the
same final product. The differences can
be caused by different starting materials
or feed stocks, use of by-products at one
site and not at another, temperature and
quantity of cooling water available, cost
and types of fuel available and many
other factors.
The control official needs to know
what plants in his jurisdiction are put-
ting out what contaminants. This can
best be done by asking each plant for a
list of its emissions! The information
obtained this way will be much more
accurate than any estimate based on
generalized data published in the techni-
cal literature.
The reports also will not describe in
detail the various types of scrubbers,
filters, etc., which are used to reduce
atmospheric emissions. The best type
for one plant is not necessarily the best
type for another. The optimum system
is determined by the cost and avail-
ability of power and services, volumes
and concentrations of effluent streams,
and degree of reduction needed. In
some instances the plant operator can
reduce the contaminants released by
changing operating conditions instead
of adding control equipment at the end
of the operation.
This should not reduce the usefulness
of such reports to the control official.
Chemical companies generally have
competent engineers who can select or
design whatever equipment is necessary
to reduce an emission to an acceptable
level. The plant should be free to use
any type of equipment it chooses as long
as the desired results are obtained. The
Control Official should be concerned
with the results, not how they are ob-
tained.
REFERENCES
1. The Chemical Industry Facts Book,
3rd Edition, Manufacturing Chemists'
Association, Inc., Washington, D. C.
2. Standard Industrial Classification Man-
ual, 1: Manufacturing Industries, U. S.
Bureau of the Budget.
3. Air Pollution Abatement Manual, Chap-
ter 5, Manufacturing Chemists' Asso-
ciation.
4. (a) "Odor Measurement and Con-
trol," Air Pollution Abatement Manual,
Chapter 13, Manufacturing Chemists'
October 1963 / Volume 13, No. 10
Association; (&) 'The Air Over Louis-
ville," Special Air Pollution Study,
PHS Community Air Pollution Pro-
gram; (c) J. F. Mateson, "Olfactom-
etry: Its Techniques and Apparatus,"
31: 1, Proceedings, Air Poll. Control
Assoc. 48th Annual Meeting (1955);
(d) H. H. Hueg, et al, "Objective
Odor Pollution Control Investiga-
tions," / . Air Poll. Control Assoc. 10:
6, pp. 441-446 (December 1960).
5. Air Pollution Abatement Manual, Chap-
ter 10, Manufacturing Chemists' Asso-
ciation.
6. (a) Air Pollution Handbook, edited by
Paul L. Magill, Francis R. Holden and
Charles Ackley, Section 5, McGraw-
Hill (1956); (b) Air Pollution Abate-
ment Manual, Chapter 8, Manufactur-
ing Chemists' Association.
7. E. M. Adams and E. J. Schneider,
"Eye Irritants Formed by the Inter-
action of Styrene and Halogen in the
Atmosphere," Presented at the Air
Poll. Control Assoc. 45th Annual
Meeting, Cleveland, Ohio (June 9,
1952).
8. "The Photochemistry of Polluted At-
mospheres," Report 31, Air Pollution
Foundation, San Marino, California,
(December 1960).
Appendix A
Chemicals and allied products in-
clude the following:
Industrial Inorganic Chemicals
Sulfuric Acid Manufacture, Report No. 2
Alkalies and chlorine
Inorganic chemicals, not elsewhere
classified, include sulfuric acid;
inorganic acids, such as boric,
hydrochloric, nitric and phos-
phoric; inorganic salts of sodium,
magnesium, potassium, calcium,
aluminum, chromium, mercury,
nickel, silver and tin; inorganic
compounds such as alums, cal-
cium carbide, sodium silicate,
ammonium compounds and an-
hydrous ammonia; elemental
bromine and iodine.
Industrial Organic Chemicals
Coal tar crudes
Synthetic resins and plastics mate-
rials
Synthetic rubber, Synthetic fibers
Explosives
Organic chemicals, not elsewhere
classified-intermediates, dyes,
color lakes, toners; organic acids
such as acetic, tartaric, formic
and their metallic salts; solvents;
synthetic perfume and flavoring
materials; rubber accelerators
and anti-oxidants; plasticizers;
synthetic tanning materials;
chemical warfare materials.
Soap and Related Products
Soap and glycerin
Cleaning and polishing prepara-
tions
Drugs and Medicines
Biological products
Botanical products
Inorganic and organic medicinal
chemicals
Pharmaceutical preparations
Paints and Allied Products
Paints and varnishes
Inorganic color pigments
Fertilizers
Gum and Wood Chemicals
Hardwood distillation products
Softwood distillation products
Naval stores (turpentine and resin)
Natural tanning and dying mate-
rials
Vegetable and Animal Oils
Cottonseed oil
Linseed oil
Soybean oil
Grease and tallow
Fatty acids
Miscellaneous Chemical Products
Printing ink
Toilet preparations
Glue and gelatin
Carbon black
Compressed and liquified gases
Insecticides and fungicides
Herbicides
Chemical products not elsewhere
classified
* Source: "Standard Industrial Classi-
fication Manual," Vol. 1, Manufacturing
Industries, U. S. Bureau of the Budget.
This report, published as In-
formative Report No. 2 of
the Air Pollution Control Associa-
tion's TI-2 Chemical Committee
began to move through the 14-step
approval procedure as outlined in
the March Journal on August 20,
1962. In accordance with the
latest procedures adopted at the
Technical Council Meeting of De-
cember 10, 1962, and approved by
APCA's Board of Directors, it is
now published as representing the
"best thinking of the Association."
It is an extremely timely and in-
formative report.
Introduction
Of all the chemicals made in the
United States, sulfuric acid is probably
produced in the greatest quantity. In
1961 the U. S. Department of Commerce
reports production of 17,847,812 short
tons. Commerce also reports that 90%
of this production was made by the con-
tact process. The great majority of
sulfuric acid produced is made from
sulfur. In 1961 U. S. consumption of
sulfur was approximately 6,000,000
short tons. While some sulfur is used
for other purposes, the great bulk of it
goes into the production of sulfuric acid.
Inasmuch as one ton of sulfur produces
nearly three tons of sulfuric acid, the
very large proportion coming from sul-
fur is readily apparent. This fact has
also been important in determining the
location of sulfuric acid producing
plants, since obviously these are at or
near points of consumption, it being con-
499
 Table I—Materials Associated With H2SO4 Manufacture
Material Physical State Odor Toxicity
Sulfur Yellow solid None Nontoxic
MP 112-120°C,
BP444.6°C
Sulfur dioxide Colorless gas Acrid Corrosive, in high concentrations, to skin and mucous mem-
branes; causes tearing and upper respiratory irritations
which tend to prevent inhalation. MAC for eight hours
of continuous exposure in the work environment 5 ppm
BP—10°C The nose can detect SO2 at Sensitive plants are bleached with 1 ppm. Corrosive
about 3 ppm
Sulfur trioxide Solid Acrid, choking (Free SO3 almost never exists in the atmosphere since it com-
MP-0-17°C 0
bines with water to form a mist or fog of H2SO4)
Sulfuric acid Liquid Acrid, choking Corrosive to skin and mucous membranes in high concentra-
tions, irritations to upper respiratory tract. MAC for eight
hours of continuous exposure in the work environment 1
mgm/cu M—for fumes or mist
Dec 330°C Detectable at 0.1 to 0.7 Corrosive
ppm
Nitrogen dioxide Red gas Sharp, acrid Irritating to upper respiratory tract. MAC for eight hours of
BP21°C continuous exposure in the work environment. 5 ppm
Liquid sulfuric acid is practically odorless. The odor and toxicity refer to fumes or mists in the air.

siderably cheaper to transport the sulfur
rather than the sulfuric acid. A few
plants produce sulfuric acid from sulfur-
bearing materials but this is usuaUy
under special circumstances such as
those that prevail at Coppers Hill,
Tennessee, and Trail, B. C.
The sulfuric acids of commerce are:
Chamber acid—60° Baume (78%
H2SO4)
Oil of Vitriol—93.19% H2SO4
Sulfuric acid—98-99%
Oleum—20—45% free SO3( in 100%
H2SO4)
As has already been mentioned, the
contact process produces by far the
greatest proportion of sulfuric acid.
The older process, the chamber process,
is still used in some few locations,
notably adjacent to acid phosphate
fertilizer plants which do not require a
high strength sulfuric acid. In the case
of all processes, the first step is to burn
the sulfur or sulfur-bearing materials to
produce a gas containing sulfur dioxide.
This is then oxidized to sulfur trioxide
and recovered as sulfuric acid. The
potential pollutants are sulfur dioxide,
sulfur trioxide, sulfuric acid mist, and
the oxides of nitrogen as explained in
what follows.
Processes
Contact Process
The straight sulfur burning plants
commonly melt sulfur and burn it in a
stream of dried air. The reaction is
S + O2 -> SO2. Temperatures of from
1000° to 1500°F are encountered. The
gas stream is then cooled to close to
ambient temperature. In most cases in
which sulfur-bearing materials are the
source of sulfur (ores and acid sludges
such as those; from oil refineries)
ordinary atmospheric air is used and the
resultant sulfur dioxide-bearing gases
are cooled to close to ambient tempera-
ture and subsequently dried. The dry-
ing agent in all cases is sulfuric acid,
since this is readily and economically
available.
The dried gas mixture comprising
chiefly nitrogen, sulfur dioxide (SO2),
oxygen (and carbon dioxide in the case
of sludge burning plants) is passed over
a catalyst (usually vanadium) and
about 96 to 98% of the SO2 converted
(in equipment called converters or con-
verting systems) to sulfur trioxide (SO3).
The reaction temperature used is from
770° to 840°F at the point of final con-
tact with the catalyst. The SO3 so
formed after cooling is contacted with
high strength (99%) sulfuric acid which
absorbs it (circa 230°F). The residual
gases pass to the atmosphere.
Chamber Process
SO2 is generated as described above
under "Contact Process" except that
there is no air or gas drying. The hot
gases pass through a Glover tower where
their heat concentrates the weak sul-
furic acid from the lead chambers to

7 7 % GAY-LUSSAC ACID 6 357.8 LB H 2 0 841.5 LB

3 6 % HNO3 18.9 LB

DRY PYRITES 1441,0 LB

AH i+13,483 BTU
MOISTURE 29.4 |_B A H = - 4 7 , 9 6 5 BTUI (D
© GAY-LUSSAC SPENT GAS
TOWER 6,095.4 LB
LEAD CHAMBERS
(DRY BASIS)
PYRITE BURNER 1.4 MOLE PER CENT
DRY AIR 7,291.6 LB SOZ(DRY BASIS)
WATER VAPOR 45.5 LB
©

CINDER 1,026.0 LB
A H = +125,488 BTU f-AH =+855,588 BTU ,H»+101.374 BTU

78% H 2 S0 4 2,565.0 LB I 78%H-,SO 4 8,242.5 LB

(100% H2S04 = 2,000 LB)

© COMBUSTION OF PYRITES - 3,694,842 BTU © HEAT EVOLVED IN FORMING H2S04 = - 1,685,352 BTU
(D HEAT LOSSES + 2,11 1,746 BTU © HEAT EVOLVED IN DISSOLVING H2S04 = - 364,012 BTU
(3) HEAT EVOLVED IN FORMATION OF H 2 S0 4 - 326,868 BTU © HEAT LOSSES = + 2,569,097 BTU
(4) HEAT ABSORBED IN CONCENTRATION OF ACID + 62,226 BTU © HEAT EVOLVED IN DISSOLVING H20 = - 13,483 BTU
(5) HEAT ABSORBED IN DECOMPOSITION OF NITRIC ACID + 7,000 BTU © HEAT LOSSES FROM PIPELINE = • 13,483 8TU
<6) HEAT LOSSES t 107,334 8TU © HEAT LOSSES = t 164,894 BTU

Materials and heat balance of a chamber plant. (Courtesy of Texas Gulf Sulphur Co.)
Fig. 1. Materials and heat balance of a chamber plant. (Courtesy of Texas Gulf Sulfur Company.) (This photo is reprinted from ACS Monograph 144,
"Manufacturer of Sulfuric Acid," by permission of Reinhold Publishing Corporation.)

500 Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association


Fig. 2. Flow diagram of a typical "Type SM" sulfur-burning contact sulfuric acid plant. (This photo is reprinted from ACS Monograph 144, "Manufacturer of
Sulfuric Acid," by permission of Reinhold Publishing Corporation.)
final strength of 60° Baume and also
strips out oxides of nitrogen gases from
the Gay Lussac tower return acid. The
gases then enter chambers constructed
of lead or other suitable materials where
they react with nitric oxides. The SO2
is thus converted to liquid sulfuric acid
to the extent of 98%. The gases then
enter the aforementioned Gay Lussac
tower for recovery and recycle of the
oxides of nitrogen, the residual gases
passing to the atmosphere.
Acid Recovery Processes
Some years ago weak sulfuric acid
was concentrated either in evaporators
heated by steam, submerged com-
bustion, or some other means. Few if
any of these plants remain. Those that
do can be expected to emit sulfuric acid
mist probably containing small amounts
of SO2. The principal acid recovery
process today is the regeneration of
sulfuric acid from refinery sludges.
These sludges are burned in a combus-
tion chamber along with fuel oil for pur-
poses of heating. In most instances
sulfur is also burned in this combustion
chamber to increase the SO2 content of
the gas stream. The most common
method of burning these sludges is to
atomize them into a combustion cham-
ber which has previously been heated
by the burning of oil. The mixture of
gases so formed is then cooled and
subjected to a very thorough cleaning
process and dried through contact with
sulfuric acid. From this point on, the
processing is as described above under
"Contact Process."
Air Pollution Control Aspects
Contact Process
The contaminants from the contact
process are SO2, SO3, and H2SO4 (sul-
furic acid) mist.
As noted above, conversion of SO2
to SO3 is accomplished to the extent
of from 96% to 98%. 100% conversion
of SO2 to SO3 is not economically pos-
October 1963 / Volume 13, No. 10
CONVERTERX
4f*SS \
sible because of the physical chemistry
of this exothermic reaction. The
equilibrium 2SO2 + O2 -*• 2SO3 is
temperature sensitive, lower tempera-
tures favoring the formation of more
SO3. However, the rate of the reaction
is also temperature sensitive but in the
opposite direction, so if the reactor tem-
perature is too low the reaction goes too
slowly to be economically feasible. The
concentration of SO2 entering the con-
verters can be expected to vary from
572% in the sludge-burning plants to
10% in certain sulfur-burning plants.
This means that the gases going to the
atmosphere may contain from 0.19% to
0.47% SO2 by volume.
Equipment to remove the relatively
low concentrations of SO2 released is not
economically feasible, and it is generally
adequate to vent the exit gases through
a tall stack so that diffusion into the
atmosphere can dilute them to an ac-
ceptable level. Height of stack required
will depend upon several factors, in-
cluding mass emission rate of the con-
taminant, temperature of exit gas, exit
stack velocity, local meteorological con-
ditions, topography, and area land uses.
Applicable diffusion formulae, such as
variations of the Bosanquet and Sutton
equations, are available as guides for
determining stack height necessary to
maintain ground-level concentrations of
SO2 sufficiently low to present no prob-
lems in the area. (Detailed informa-
tion may be found in reference 6.)
SO3 emissions occur when through ab-
normal operation absorption of SO3 is
incomplete. This may be due to feed of
an inadequate amount of sulfuric acid
to the absorber or too high temperature
in the absorber. Upon emission to the
atmosphere SO3 immediately forms a
mist of H2SO4 which is clearly visible as a
white plume. Under abnormal condi-
tions or when making high strength
oleum (fuming sulfuric acid) a faint to
moderate plume appears. Control of
H2SO4 mist emission is best achieved by
improving the operation of the absorber,
EXIT GAS
STACK
since the mist, once formed, is very dif-
ficult to remove.
Chamber Process
As noted above, 98% conversion can
be expected. This means that in a
typical chamber plant to which a 7.5%
SO2 gas is fed, the emitted gases would
contain 0.17% SO2. The quantity of
nitrogen oxides vented is best controlled
by careful control of process conditions.
Acid Recovery Processes
Variable amounts of sulfuric acid mist
can be expected from concentrators.
Comments above under "Contact Proc-
ess" apply to regeneration from refinery
sludges.
Raw Material Storage and Handling
Some dusting may occur during un-
loading, storage, and handling of brim-
stone (solid sulfur). Any such dusting
is usually quite localized and does not
carry off the plant property. In case of
outside storages, "capping" of the piles
is often effected to minimize dust losses
during windy weather. This "capping"
usually consists of molten sulfur sprayed
over the pile to form a thin, solid crust.
Handling of brimstone is normally car-
ried out in enclosed conveying and
elevating equipment which presents no
particular dust problems.
REFERENCES
1. Industrial Chemicals, Faith, Keyes
Clark, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, pp. 743-751.
2. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology,
Kirk-Othmer, The Interscience En-
cyclopedia Inc., New York 13: 458-
505.
3. Chemical Process Industries, Shreve,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, pp. 353-386.
4. "Current Status of Sulfur Dioxide and
Sulfur Trioxide," Louis C. McCabe,
President, Resources Research, Inc.,
Washington, D. C, Presented at
National Petroleum Assn., Cleveland
(April 19,1961).
5. The Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid,
ACS Monograph No. 144, West-
501
 FUEL GAS FEED

ALKYLATION ' ' ' .TIOW

iiinrtF Ann ALKYLATION
si-uuoc Mttu Ann a IMDQ
STORAGE TANK fiCID P U M P S

COMPRESSOR AND AIR RECEIVER

WEAK ACID COOLERS

WATER
(NOT RECIRCULATEO)

PRODUCT ACID
STORAGE TANK

PUMP SUCTION PIT n

Fig. 3. Flow diagram of sludge acid recovery by direct combustion. (Reproduced from Chem. Met. Eng., 43: 146, July 1 946, by permission of Chemical
Engineering and McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc.)

Duecker, Reinhold Publishing Corp-
oration, New York.
6. "Evaluation of Weather Effects," Air
Pollution Hand Book, Magill, Holden,
and Ackley, Published by McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York.
Section 5.
Hydrochloric Acid Manufacture, Report
Introduction
Hydrochloric acid, commonly referred
to as muriatic acid, is a solution of
hydrogen chloride (HC1) in water.
This acid is commercially marketed in
(1) Reaction of salt and sulfuric acid
resulting in production of hydro-
gen chloride gas and sodium sul-
fate (salt cake).
{2) Burning chlorine in a slight excess
of hydrogen.
(8) As a by-product from the chlorin-
ation of organic compounds.

No. 3
various strengths as follows:1
Specific
°Be Gravity %HC1
This report, published as In-
formative Report No. 3 of the 18 1.142 27.92
Air Pollution Control Associa- 20 1.160 31.45
tion's TI-2 Chemical Commit- 22 1.179 35.21
tee began to move through the
14-step approval procedure as out- In addition, some anhydrous hydrogen
lined in the March Journal on chloride gas is produced, usually for im-
August 20, 1962. In accordance mediate consumption in nearby plant
with the latest procedures adopted
at the Technical Council Meeting of processes.
December 10, 1962, and approved The manufacture of hydrochloric
by APCA's Board of Directors, it is acid involves the generation of hydrogen
now published as representing the chloride gas and its absorption in water
"best thinking of the Association."
It is an extremely timely and in- for the aqueous solutions. There are
formative report. three principal processes used to pro-
duce hydrogen chloride:
Up until the early 1930's only a very
small proportion of the total hydro-
chloric acid produced in the United
States resulted from other than the salt-
acid process. In 1935, 86% of the acid
produced for sale was derived from the
salt reaction and 14% from chlorine-
hydrogen combustion, by-products, and
other sources. In 1947, only 53% of the
acid production for sale was salt acid;
4% was from chlorine-hydrogen, and
43% from by-products and other
sources. In the same year, the per-
centages relative to total production
were 39%, 20%, and 4 1 % respectively.
Total production in 1933 amounted to
200,000 N. T. (net tons) hydrochloric

502 Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association


Physical
Name Properties
Hydrogen chloride Colorless gas Acrid. Irritating at Corrosive in high concentrations, 10 ppm for several hours causes plant
BP -84°C 35ppm
Sodium sulfate White solid None
Sodium acid sulfate White solid None
Hydrogen Colorless gas None
BP -253°C
Chlorine Yellow gas Strong, pungent
BP -34°C detectable at 3
ppm
acid (basis 20° Be) as compared to
1,350,000 N. T. (same basis) in 1947.3
In 1961, this production had increased
to 2,938,330 N. T. (basis 20° Be) with
only 10% from salt; 13% from chlorine-
hydrogen; and 77% from by-product.4
Actual production of hydrochloric acid
by the salt-acid process less than
doubled from 1933 to 1961 whereas total
hydrochloric acid production increased
almost 15-fold during the same period.
This emphasizes the impact of the
rapidly expanding field of halogenated
organics. It is interesting to note that
in 1961, more acid was made by the
hydrogen-chlorine process than by the
salt-acid process.
The Processes
Mannheim Process
In this process, common salt (NaCl)
and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in slight excess
are continuously charged to the muf-
fle of a Mannheim furnace where the
reacting mass is heated by indirect heat
to 1400 to 1600°F. At some locations
where sodium acid sulfate (NaHSO4,
also called niter cake) is available as a
by-product from nitric acid manu-
facture, the acid sulfate is used instead
of sulfuric acid. Formulas for chemical
reactions are as follows:
Salt-acid: 2NaCl + H2SO4 = Na2SO4
+ 2HC1
Salt-niter cake: NaCl + NaHSO4
= Na2SO4 + HC1
Hydrogen chloride evolved from the re-
action passes through dust collecting,
cooling, purifications, and condensing
systems to an absorber. The process is
operated under a minus pressure
actuated by exhaust fan or ejector lo-
cated at the exit of the absorption sys-
tem.3 Pressure in the muffle is main-
tained slightly below atmospheric (0-0.5
inches of water vacuum).
A Mannheim furnace2 consists of a
refractory (or cast iron) hearth, 11 to
18 feet in diameter, with a silicon car-
bide (or cast iron) cover separated by a
October 1963 / Volume 13, No. 10
Table I—Data
Odor Toxicity
irritating to skin and mucous
membranes. MAC for continu- Corrosive to aluminum and steel.
ous 8-hour exposure in the work
environment 5 ppm
Nontoxic
Nontoxic
Nontoxic
Strong upper respiratory system ir- Bleaches some dyes and colors.
rilant; irritant effects on eyes,
nose, and throat. Single, very
high, or prolonged, exposure re-
sults in pulmonary edema. MAC
for 8 hours of continuous ex-
posure in work environment 1
ppm (3 milligrams per cubic
meter)
cylindrical mantle. This muffle is en-
closed in a firebrick furnace suspended
on steelwork. The furnace is force draft
fired above the muffle and hot flue gases
circulated around it, with the major
portion of the heat being transmitted
through the cover or arch and radiated
to the charge on the hearth. The com-
bustion gases are discharged to the
atmosphere through an elevated stack.
The feed materials are charged to the
center of the hearth and the reacting
mass slowly pushed around by rabble
arms, underdriven by a shaft extending
up through the bottom section of the
furnace into the muffle. The reacting
mass is gradually moved by the rotating
rabbles towards the periphery of the
muffle during which time the reaction is
completed and the salt cake is then dis-
charged continuously through a chute
to conveying equipment which carries
it to storage.
Dust collecting systems are sometimes
used for removal of solids entrained in
the reaction gases leaving the furnace.
This solids removal from the gas stream
may be effected in settling chambers,
cyclones, or similar type equipment.
The gas cooling system3 may employ
a series of silica S-bends through which
the reaction gases, containing approxi-
mately 30% to 70% HC1, pass with
cooling water being circulated over the
outside of the tubes. Shell-and-tube
heat exchangers of nonporous graphite
are also used in this service. Tempera-
ture of the gas leaving this cooling sys-
tem approximates 100°F. In some
cases packed towers are used to accom-
plish this gas cooling. Strong acid is
recirculated over the tower and the acid
recirculation system is provided with
coolers.
In the purification system, coke filters
are employed for removal of sulfuric
acid mist present in the gas stream, as
well as any fine solids which may have
reached this stage of the process. These
filters are usually relatively large vessels
packed with graded coke.
Absorption facilities may comprise a
Other Effects
injury
particularly at high humidity
Corrosive to some metals in moist
atmosphere
packed tower system or a cooled ab-
sorption tower followed by a packed
tail tower.
The packed tower system3 usually in-
cludes a connected set of S-bend tubes
followed by one or more packed towers
in series. Gas flows from the purifica-
tion system through the S-bend tubes
then through the towers. Independent
acid cooling and circulating facilities
are provided for each tower and tower
acid strengths decrease successively
from first to last tower. Fresh water is
added at the last tower (tail tower) and
make overflows to the previous tower
(stronger acid) etc. Overflow from the
first tower passes through the. S-bend
tubes where the final step in acid con-
centration to product strength occurs.
Water is circulated over the tubes to
provide cooling.
The cooled absorption tower3 sys-
tem has proved to be a more efficient,
economical, and compact unit than the
packed tower system, and is rapidly
supplanting this method for absorption
of hydrogen chloride. Commercial
designs include the use of water-jacketed
packed tantalum towers with acid and
gas in countercurrent flow and im-
pervious carbon "falling film" tower
systems,5 in which the gas and acid
flows are co-current. In this "falling-
film" type system, cooling is carried out
in parallel, vertical, water-cooled,
wetted-wall columns. Gas and weak
acid from the tail tower flow downward
cocurrent in the cooler-absorber counter
to the upwardflowof cooling water in the
shell. Water is fed to the tail tower
(packed) for absorption of residual hy-
drogen chloride in the gas stream.
Weak acid from this tail tower con-
stitutes the feed acid to the "falling-
film" absorber, with this acid being con-
centrated in the absorber to product
strength and drawn off the bottom of
the tower.
After passing through the packed tail
tower, the gas stream is emitted to the
atmosphere through an elevated stack.
In operations where the vent gas is cool,
503
 FLOW SHEETS
Combustion
Gases MANNHEIM PROCESS
Gas
Cooling
(C)
(A) FURNACE - Mannheim Type
(B) DUST REMOVAL - Settling Chambers, Cyclones, Traps
IC) GAS COOLING - Tube Coolers or Packed Towers
(D) PURIFICATION - Coke Filters
(E) ABSORPTION - Cooler-Absorbers or Packed Towers
CHLORINE-HYDROGEN COMBUSTION
HC1
Combustion Gas
Chamber Cooling
Hydrogen
I
Chlorine
this vent gas may form a slightly visible
white plume on days of moderate to high
relative humidity. This vented gas is
primarily nitrogen and oxygen from air
leaks into the system and contains a
very small amount of unabsorbed hy-
drogen chloride and a trace of chlorine.
Comparative volume of exit gas stream
is small.
Chlorine-Hydrogen Process
This process3 for hydrogen chloride
generation is used in cases where chlo-
rine and hydrogen are available as by-
products from other nearby plant opera-
tions, such as electrolysis of alkaline
chlorides (caustic cells).
Chlorine is burned in a slight excess of
hydrogen to produce hydrogen chloride.
The facilities consist of a combustion
chamber, chlorine burner, necessary con-
trol and safety devices, and hydrogen
chloride processing equipment. The
process operates under a slight positive
pressure. The chlorine burner is similar
to a gas burner with the chlorine being
introduced through the gas jet and
hydrogen replacing the inlet burner air.
Since hydrogen and chlorine form an ex-
plosive mixture, safety provisions must
be incorporated in the system. These
may include automatic gas shut-offs in
case of failure of either gas supply,
flame monitors with automatic shut-offs,
liquid seals in the gas lines to prevent
504
Exhaust
ion
Purification . & of reactions are usually carried out
Absc
Sulfuric Acid
Drip-Process
Hydrochloric
Acid Product
Exhaus t
i" Water
Hydrochloric
Acid Product
"suck-back" of mictants, and explosion
diaphragms in the combustion chamber.
Purging of the: system with an inert gas
such as CO2 after an interruption in
operation is an additional precautionary
measure.
Because of the high temperature
(2200°F) of the product gas from the
chlorine hydrogen reaction, the mate-
rial of construction of the combustion
chamber is critical. Water cooled
graphite or steel combustion chambers
have proved satisfactory. Silica or
brick-lined vessels are sometimes used.
If hydrogen chloride gas is the desired
product from these facilities, gas-cooling
equipment only is included. If aqueous
hydrochloric acid is to be the end
product, gas-cooling and absorption
facilities as described for Mannheim
operations are provided but without gas
purification units.
By-Product Hydrogen Chloride
The manufacture of chlorinated or-
ganic chemicals by the reaction of
chlorine and an organic compound often
results in the formation of hydrogen
chloride as a by-product. For ex-,
ample, methane (CH4) from natural gas
can be chlorinated to give methyl chlo-
ride (CH3CI) methylene chloride
(CH2C12), chloroform (CHC13), and
carbon tetrachloride (CCI4) with the
simultaneous production of hydrogen
chloride. There are also industrial
processes involving the reaction of a
chlorinated organic compound with
hydrofluoric acid to form fluorinated
organics which similarly give hydrogen
chloride as a by-product. These types
under anhydrous conditions so that the
hydrogen chloride is evolved as a gas.
If hydrogen chloride gas is the desired
product, the reaction products are fed
to a condenser or still to separate the
organic products from the hydrogen
chloride. If aqueous hydrochloric acid
is wanted, absorption equipment like
that described for the Mannheim opera-
tion is used. If the organic product is
low boiling (e.g., trichloromonofluoro-
methane, dichlorodifluoromethane), the
aqueous absorber usually is located just
after the reactor so that the hydrogen
chloride is removed from the reaction
products before the organics are further
treated. If the organic product is high
boiling, it is usually removed from the
reactor stream first, by condensation,
and the hydrogen chloride subsequently
absorbed. By-product acid usually con-
tains organic impurities, and depending
on its end use may require further puri-
fication.
Air Pollution Control Aspects
Hydrogen chloride gas combines
readily with water and its solubility is
relatively high (at 140°Fits solubility is
56.1 parts of HC1 in 100 parts of water).
Its solution in water is accompanied by
the evolution of considerable heat so that
adequate cooling must be provided for
in the design of absorption facilities.
Emissions of hydrogen chloride from
absorption facilities during normal
operations are exceedingly small be-
cause water is the scrubbing medium in
the tail tower at the end of the system,
resulting in practically complete re-
moval of HC1 from the exit gas stream.
Unabsorbed gases that do remain are
vented high in the air so they are very
unlikely to cause any air pollution prob-
lem. Upsets in operating conditions can
occur, however, which may result in
temporary, localized fumigations.
In Mannheim furnace operation, the
pressure maintained in the muffle is very
slightly below atmospheric, just enough
to draw the hydrogen chloride gas being
generated by the reaction from the
muffle through the system to the ab-
sorber. If blockages or leaks occur in
the system, or the exhaust fan at the
exit of the absorber fails, the furnace can
lose its draft and some hydrogen chlo-
ride gas would be emitted to the at-
mosphere through the salt cake dis-
charge and other parts of the furnace.
Pressure points located at various stages
throughout the entire process are
routinely checked and recorded by the
operator. This record pinpoints loca-
tions of any trends in resistance build-
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association
 ups in the process and facilitates planned
shut-downs, co-ordinated with other
maintenance repairs, for cleaning of
equipment. Routine checks by the
plant operator and maintenance man
are made on all equipment in the
process, including the exhaust fan, in
accordance with preventive main-
tenance procedures so that necessary
equipment repairs may be determined
Size or dedust
and effected before failures occur. In
case of operational upsets, feed to the
Mannheim is immediately cut off and
any dry material
with Buellvt classifiers
fuel burners shut down, until the source
of trouble has been determined and cor-
rective measures completed.
It is necessary at times to open the
Mannheim furnace doors to facilitate • Any dry material from 20 mesh to 20 microns
breaking up lumps which form in the • Instant cut point adjustment
furnace and interfere with the rabble
arm action or salt cake discharge. • Operate in series to get several fractions
Some HC1 gassing will occur at these
times for short periods. These occur- • Any size . . . any capacity
rences are minimized by proper control • Low power requirements
of feed rates to the furnace.
On a planned shut-down of a Mann- • Minimum maintenance—no moving parts
heim furnace, feed materials are cut off • Install as original equipment, or replace
first and the plant operated for a short less efficient equipment
time in order to remove essentially all
the hydrogen chloride gas from the
muffle and rest of the system prior to
opening up the furnace or other parts of
the process for necessary repairs.
The by-product salt cake is often
ground and loaded into freight cars for
sale. Some dust is formed in this opera-
tion. The dust particles are relatively
large and settle within a short distance.
In situations where this dusting would
pose a problem, relatively simple dust
control measures are employed which
are quite effective.
Upsets in the absorption system can
result from improper temperature con-
trol and insufficient feed water addition Buell Gravitational-
to the tail tower. Such upsets are Inertial Classifiers
usually minor and adjustments may be gjve extremely high
quickly made to bring the system back separation efficiency for
particles in the 65-200
in line. In case of water supply failure, mesh range. Other Buell
the entire plant would be immediately Classifiers are available for
shut down and remain down until after coarser or finer particles.
the condition has been corrected. Such
occurrences are rare because of the in-
tegrated water supply system in use in
most plant locations. Thermocouple
points are located at various stages in
the system and temperatures are usually
automatically recorded. In the case of
cooled tower absorption systems, water
addition to the tail tower may be auto-
matically controlled using the tempera- Let us know your material, size, and cut points
ture of the tail tower acid exit as the
control point (correlated with strength desired. Write today for complete literature and ap-
of product acid from absorber). In the plication information to Buell Engineering Company,
case of a packed tower absorption sys-
tem manual control of water addition to Department 51-K, Lebanon, Penn-
tail tower is usually practiced using sylvania. U Electric precipitators
product acid strength and tower tem- — cyclones — venturi scrubbers —
peratures as guides.
tubular collectors-bag collectors
REFERENCES — classifiers — combination sys-
1. Products Book, General Chemical
tems—fans—discharge valves.
October 1963 / Volume 13, No. 10 505
 INTERNATIONAL APC
A demonstration of WHEELABRATOR'S ALUES FOR INDUSTRY
TO BE FEATURED
AT 57th ANNUAL MEET
International air pollution control
programs will feature one of the 17
sessions of the Air Pollution Con-
trol Association's Fifty-Seventh Annual / •
Meeting in Houston, Texas, at the
Shamrock Hilton Hotel June 21-25,
1964. This annual meeting has been
designated an International Meeting by
the Association's Board of Directors.
Papers are invited from scientists
throughout the world to present status
reports concerning air pollution control
problems in their countries. Case his-
tories and applications will be featured
throughout the program. Although a
variety of industries are desired to report
on their air pollution control programs,
progress in the petrochemical industry
will be featured. Other special areas
of interest include: instrumentation,
control officials, agriculture, education
at the undergraduate and graduate
levels, health effects, service and ana-
lytical methods, automotive exhaust,
standards, corrosion, meteorology, ad-
ministration, legislation, incinerators,
control equipment, and legal aspects.
James H. Huguet, Ethyl Corporation,
has been appointed Technical Program
Chairman. Mr. Huguet has announced
that the international session is a normal
Wheelabrator turns dusty steam
extension of a primary APCA service—
interchange between cities of experience
gained in handling common air pollu-
into a bag full of profits
tion control problems. It also ac-
cents the vigorous efforts of the Air Filtering carbon black from an air-steam mixture is normally
Pollution Control Association in ex- beyond the scope of a bag-type collector, because of the high
pediting the reciprocal exchange be- moisture content. But Wheelabrator engineering skills adapted
tween cities throughout the world of the economical Dustube system to this unusual requirement
their hard-won knowledge gained in profitably — to the tune of reclaiming some $175.00 in carbon
confronting comparable problems. black daily for a prominent Texas firm.
The formation of an International
Union of Air Pollution Control Associa-
tions will be discussed. In the firm's SBR rubber manufacturing process, a mixture of
Deadlines for submission of titles carbon black and steam is released. The problem ? An economical
and 200 word abstracts has been set dust collector system that could recover the carbon black from
at December 9,1963, to allow for proper the air-steam mixture and prevent air pollution.
organization of program. Titles and
abstracts should be sent to Chairman
of the Program Committee: The solution ? A Wheelabrator Dustube collector system in which
Mr. J. H. Huguet the mixture is heated to 247° F and the collector is insulated.
Ethyl Corporation Another instance where Wheelabrator ingenuity applied the vital
P. 0. Box 341 values of high efficiency at the traditionally low cost of cloth
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70821
bag filtration systems. Write today for Dustube Catalog 372-D.
TI-2 REPORT
(Continued from p. 505)
VITAL VALUES
Division, Allied Chemical Corpora-
2.
tion.
Perry's "Chemical Engineers' Hand-
book," Third Edition, McGraw-Hill
WHEELABRATOR
DUST AND FUME CONTROL
(1950).
3. Kirk-Ortinner's "Encyclopedia of WHEELABRATOR CORPORATION, 330 S. Byrkit St., Mishawaka, Ind.
Chemical Technology," 7, The Inter- FOR INDUSTRY in Canada. WHEELABRATOR CORP. of Canada, Ltd., P.O. Box 490, Scarborough, Ont.
science Encyclopedia, Inc. (1951). A subsidiary of Bell Intercontinental Corp.
4. Bureau of Census, U. S. Department of
Commerce.
5. National Carbon Company, "Karbate
Standard Falling-Film Type Absorber,"
Catalogue Section S-7460 (May 1953). Industrial gas cleaning institute,. Inc.

October 1963 / Volume 13, No. 10 507