1.

List four functions of the cell membrane

- Retains cytoplasm, separates it from surroundings

- Selective permeable barrier
- Active transport (NUTRIENTS, WASTE)
- Site of metabolic processes ( respiration , photosynthesis, enzymes, lipid synthesis)

2.What is the unique structural component of the bacterial cell wall and list its two
subcomponents.

The bacterial wall contains peptidoglycan or murein

This rigid structure of peptidoglycan, specific only to prokaryotes, gives the cell shape and
surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane.

It contains 2 subcomponents: polymer of N-acetylglucoseamine acid and N- acetylmuramic

acid + amino acids

3.List two advantages and two disadvantages associated associated with bacteria

advantages of bacteria
They are essential to supporting life, with benefits related to digestion, preventing the
invasion of disease-causing bacteria, and the synthesis of essential nutrients and vitamins

Disadvantages of bacteria
Some bacteria cause infections or produce toxic substances that are a threat to life and/or
health. Bacteria cause spoiling of food so that it does not keep as long as we may desire.
Some bacteria may cause infections of plants, threatening our food supply or ornamental
plant.

4Give an account of the bacterial cell wall structure of :

Gram positive bacteria:

- Thick homogenous wall (20-80nm)

- Consists of peptidoglycan & teichoic acids (polymers of glycerol of ribitol)
Gram negative cells:
Layered structure
Outer membrane (7-8nm)
Periplasmic space filled with gel like substance ( proteins and enxymes) (1-71nm)
Peptidoglycan layer (2-7 nm)

5.List five functions of the bacterial glycolyx (capsule )

Functions :
1. Resist phagocytosis
2. Help exclude viruses
3. Protect against desiccation
4. Protect against antimicrobial agents
5. Assist in attachment to surfaces
6.Give a brief account of the following inclusion bodies found in bacterial cells

Organic bodies
Storage granules e.g. glycogen, poly-β-hydroxybutyrate

Inorganic bodies
Polyphosphate granules, volutin granules (reserve of phosphate
for cell constituents, e.g. nucleic acids or energy reserve)
Magnetosome – used by some bacteria to orient in earths
magnetic field (Fe as magnetite)

Gas vacuoles
Enclosed cylinder impermeable to water, permeable to gases
Function – regulate buoyancy (float to opt conditions)

7.What are plasmids

a genetic structure in a cell that can replicate independently of the chromosomes, typically a
small circular DNA strand in the cytoplasm of a bacterium or protozoan. Plasmids are much
used in the laboratory manipulation of genes
ADANTAGES
plasmids Often, the genes carried in plasmids provide bacteria with genetic advantages,
such as antibiotic resistance.

8.List the three subunits of the bacterial flagellum

Filament –cell surface to tip

Basal body – embedded in cell

Hook –flexible coupling linking filament &

basal body

9. What is the main function of bacterial spores

Spores are agents of asexual reproduction, whereas gametes are agents of sexual
reproduction. Spores are produced by bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants. They help in the
survival of the organisms during adverse environmental conditions; they do not have a role
in reproduction

Name two spore forming bacteria

Bacillus, Clostridium

10. Explain the sexual reproduction of Rhizopus

Short branches from two hyphae of different mating
types (+ & -)(i.e. no morphological difference of male
& female) contact each other at their tips.

Cross walls form just back of the tips of these hyphal

branches → formation of gametangium

Two gametangia fuse → large zygospore surrounded by thick dark wall–

Zygospore enters period of dormancy
At germination nucleus undergoes meiosis & a
hyphae emerges → sporangium → typical vegetative
mycelium

11. give an account of the viral lytic cycle

12. List two prion diseases, their hosts and sites of infection
Host Sheep
Site of infection CNS
Disease Scrapie spongiform encephalopathy

Host Humans
Site of infection CNS
Disease Kuro spongiform encephalopathy

13. What are psycrophiles? Give two examples of psycrophilic environment

Psychrophiles are extremophilic organisms that are capable of growth and reproduction in
low temperatures, ranging from −20 °C[1] to +10 °C. They are found in places that are
permanently cold, such as the polar regions and the deep sea.
Arctic & antartic habitats
Fridge

14. Classify microorganisms with respect to their pH preferences

Acidophiles
Growth opt pH 0 – 5.5

Neutrophiles
Opt pH 5.5 – 8

Alkalophiles
Opt pH 8 – 11.5

15. With respect to mould, explain the terms septet and aseptate hyphae

Hyphae – septate or aseptate

•
(i) Septate
–Hyphae separated into compartments by crosswalls – central pore→ protoplasmic
streaming
-Septum adds rigidity
ii) Aseptate
–Whole mycelium is a single multinucleated cell
–Crosswalls only formed at reproductive structures or to detach dead portions of mycelium
16. What are prions? List two examples

Prions are misfolded proteins with the ability to transmit their misfolded shape onto normal
variants of the same protein.
Scrapie and Kuru spongiform disease

17. Classify microorganisms with respect to their temperature preferences

Psychrophiles
Mesophiles
Thermophiles

18. What are obligate anaerobic microorganisms? Give an account of an anaerobic

microorganism and an anaerobic environment.
Obligate anaerobes are microorganisms killed by normal atmospheric concentrations
of oxygen (20.95% O2).
Anaerobic microorganism Clostridium
Anaerobic environment Soil

19. List four (4) functions of the bacterial cell membrane

Functions of Cell wall

– Strength, shape, protect from osmotic lysis
– Protection from toxic substances
– Contributes to their pathogenicity
– Site of action of several antibiotics
E.g. penicillin

20. List two traits that the Archae have in common with bacteria and two traits similar
to Eucaryotic cells

No nuclear envelope
No mitochondria

No peptidoglycan cell wall

21. List two beneficial aspects of fungi and two disadvantages associated with them

Degradation of env. waste

Biogeochemical cycles (N,P,C cycles)
Fermentations
Beer, wine (Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Agents of disease (mycoses)

Mycotoxins

22.What are the two main structural components of viruses

All viruses contain the following two components: 1) a nucleic acid genome and 2) a
protein capsid that covers the genome. Together this is called the nucleocapsid.

Give an account of two methodologies for laboratory cultivation of viruses

 Host animal cells or embrionated eggs
Fertilized chicken eggs (incubated 6-8 days after laying)

23. Write an account of mesophilic microorganisms and their environments.

A mesophile is an organism that grows best in moderate temperature, neither too hot nor
too cold, with an optimum growth range from 20 to 45 °C
Wide range of m/os
Environment Some live on or in warm blooded animals

Give examples of two mesophiles

Some pathogenic (human 37C)
Examples:
Salmonella, E.coli

24.Classify microorganisms with respect to their pH preferences

Acidophiles
Growth opt pH 0 – 5.5
Neutrophiles
Opt pH 5.5 – 8
Alkalophiles
Opt 8 – 11.5

25. What are bacterial gas vacuoles, and give a function for them

Enclosed cylinder impermeable to water, permeable to gases

Function – regulate buoyancy (float to opt conditions)

26. List three (3) commercial applications of yeast

 Bread. The most common use of yeast has been in the making of bread. ...
 Alcoholic Drinks. Brewing wine and beer has also used yeast for centuries to ferment the
mixture to make it alcoholic. ...
 Non-Alcoholic Drinks. ...
 Scientific Research. ...
 Biofuel. ...
 Probiotics. ...

27. iii)Explain the terms facilitated diffusion and active transfer

Facilitated diffusion is a form of facilitated transport involving the passive movement of

molecules along their concentration gradient, guided by the presence of another molecule –
usually an integral membrane protein forming a pore or channel

active transport is the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration—against the concentration gradient.
28. What is Aw (water activity) is the partial vapor pressure of water in a substance divided
by the standard state partial vapor pressure of water.

Define the terms osmophilic are microorganisms adapted to environments with high
osmotic pressures, such as high sugar concentrations

Osmotolerant Bacterial osmotolerance is usually defined as the osmolality range of the

media that support bacterial survival and growth

29. Write accounts on the three classifications of microorganism with respect to

temperature.

Psychrophiles
Range temperature -3 - 25E.g. some Pseudomonas,Vibrio, Alcaligens,Photobacterium

Mesophiles
6 – 45
Examples: Salmonella, E.coli

Thermophiles
30-65
Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus delbrueckii and Lactobacillus helveticus,
Include examples in each case.

30. Define the terms barotolerant and barophilic

Barotolerent
Withstand high pressure
•
Barophilic
Grow more rapidly at high pressure

31. Describe microbial nutrient uptake by facilitated diffusion

Nutrient Uptake
Passive diffusion
Molecules move from high to low conc.
Small molecules e.g. H2O, O2, CO2, glycerol
Facilitated diffusion
Carrier proteins in plasma membrane
E.g. sugars, AAs
Active transport
Transport of molecules against conc gradient
Requires energ

32 Define the term amphitrichious

Having a single flagellum on each of two opposite ends

33. a)List the three components of the bacterial flagellumGive two functions of the bacterial
flagellum

Filament –cell surface to tip

Basal body – embedded in cell
Hook –flexible coupling linking filament &
basal body
Function
1. Movement – filament helix rotates, like
propeller on boat
2 attachment

34. Differentiate between the functions of bacterial spores and fungal spores

An endospore is a dormant, tough, non-reproductive structure produced by a small number

of bacteria from the Firmicute family. The primary function of most endospores is to
ensure the survival of a bacterium through periods of environmental stress.

The role of spores among fungi is somewhat similar to the role of pollen in plants:
contributing to their dispersal in the environment. Spores of fungi also have cell walls, which
is another feature shared with plants. As we may know, plants do not have the ability to
move (contrary to animals) because of the cell wall: this is also the case for fungi. For this
reason, pollen and spores are used by plants and fungi, respectively, for dispersal from one
environment to another, including in the atmosphere of forest areas, inner-city and urban
places, as well as inside buildings and occupational settings.

35. Using Rhizopus as an example, give an account of fungal sexual reproduction

Example : Rhizopus
 Short branches from two hyphae of different mating types (+ & -)(i.e. no
morphological difference of male & female) contact each other at their tips.
 Cross walls form just back of the tips of these hyphal branches → formation of
gametangium
 Two gametangia fuse → large zygospore surrounded by thick dark wall

 Zygospore enters period of dormancy

 At germination nucleus undergoes meiosis & a

hyphae emerges → sporangium → typical vegetative mycelium

36. Write an account on the viral cultivation method

37. Describe the process of Binary Fission
Binary fission ("division in half") is a kind of asexual reproduction. It is the most common
form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. In binary fission, the fully grown parent
cell splits into two halves, producing two pools. After replicating its genetic material, the
parent cell divides into two equal sized daughter cells. The genetic material is replicated,
then equally split. The daughter cells are genetically identical (unless a mutation occurs
during replication).
38. Give an account of the Lag phase of the microbial growth curve

Lag phase

 M/o introduced to new environment

Synthesis of new components

Old cells depleted of ATP
Recovery of damaged cells
Synthesis of cell components
Adaption to new env conditions

 Cells retool, replicate DNA,

mass, divide

39.Classify microorganisms with respect to their oxygen requirements

Obligate aerobes
Absolute requirement for O2
Obligate anaerobes
Do not tolerate O2, die in its presence
Fermentation or anaerobic respiration
E.g. Clostridium (
Cl.botulinum, Cl.perfringens

40. Explain the seven stages of bacterial spore formation

Sporeformation
(Sporulation, Sporogenesis)
Unfavourable env conditions
Stage I
Formation of axial filament of nuclear material
Invagination of cell membrane to enclose part of DNA
Stage II
Forespore septum formation
Stage III
Membrane continues to grow & engulfs immature
spore in a 2nd membrane
Stage IV
Cortex laid down between the 2 membranes
Ca & dipicolinic acid accumulate
Stage V
Protein coats formed around cortex
Stage VI
Maturation of spore
Stage VII
Lytic enzymes destroy sporangium releasing the
spore
41. Describe the budding process of yeast
Reproduction – “budding” (asexual)
 Small outgrowth occurs from mother cell
 Nucleus undergoes mitotic division
 One nucleus migrates into bud
 Formation of transverse wall
 Bud increases in size
 Mother & daughter cells separate

42. Explain the term Water Activity (Aw)

Water activity (Aw) – ratio of soln vapour pressure (P soln) to that of pure water (P water)
Aw = P soln / P water
Aw pure water = 1; Aw solutions <1

Define the terms Osmophilic and Halophilic

Osmophilic organisms are microorganisms adapted to environments with high osmotic
pressures, such as high sugar concentrations.
Hapophilic any organism, as certain halobacteria and marine bacteria, that requires a salt-
rich environment for its growth and survival.

43. What does peritrichous mean

The definition of peritrichous is having flagella (tail like projections) all over its surface. An
example of peritrichous is a bacteria with flagella projections distributed all over the body
surface

44. Give an account of the process of bacterial spore formation

7 stages

45. Describe the yeast reproduction process

46. Give an account of the morphology and the structural components of viruses
Non-cellular m/os (acellular)
Obligate parasites – animals, plants, protists, bacteria
Size : 10-300nm
Structure
 Nucleocapsid core – nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) within a protein coat called a capsid
 Capsid – protection of genetic material, sometimes attachment to host
 Complete virus particle = virion
4 types of structure
Capsid ichsohedral in shape (regular polyhedron
with 20 equilateral triangular faces & 12 vertices) (e.g. poliovirus)
Capsid – helical shape (hollow protein cylinders, rigid or flexible (e.g. tobaco mosaic virus)
Envelope – outer membrane surrounding
nucleocapsid (variable shape, often spherical) (e.g.
human influenza virus, HIV, herpes virus))
Complex viruses – capsid symmetry neither purely
icosohedral or helical. May have tails or mulitlayered
walls surrounding NA (e.g.poxvirus, vaccinia)