INSTRUMENTATION & CONTROL

ENGINEERING
 Instrumentation is defined as the art and
science of measurement and control of
process variables within a production, or
manufacturing area.
 Instrument is a device that measures and/or
regulates physical quantity/process variables
such as flow, temperature, level or pressure.
 Measurement is the set of operations having
the object of determining the value of a
quantity.
 Calibration is the set of operations
establishing under specified condition,
relationship between values indicated by a
measuring instrument or measuring system,
or values represented by material measure,
and its corresponding known values of
measure.
 Metrology is the field of science concerned
with weights and measures which includes
all aspects of measurement in whatever level
of accuracy and in any field of science and
technology.
Measurement System Applications
 Use in regulating trade
 Monitoring functions
 Use as part of automatic feedback control
systems
Elements of a Measurement System
 The sensor gives an output that is a function
of the measurement (the input applied to it).
 Variable conversion elements are needed
where the output variable of a primary
transducer is in an inconvenient form and
has to be converted to a more convenient
form
 Signal processing elements exist to
improve the quality of the output of a
measurement system in some way
Choosing the appropriate instrument
The ff. specifications are important in choosing the
appropriate instrument.
 Accuracy
 Resolution
 sensitivity
 dynamic performance
 environmental conditions that the instrument
will be subjected to
 Instrument choice is a compromise between
performance characteristics, ruggedness
and durability, maintenance requirements
and purchase cost.
Instrument Characteristics
 Accuracy - is a measure of how close the
output reading of the instrument is to the
correct value. In practice, it is more usual to
quote the inaccuracy figure rather than the
accuracy figure for an instrument. Inaccuracy
is the extent to which a reading might be
wrong, and is often quoted as a percentage
of the full-scale reading of an instrument.
 Precision is a term that describes an
instrument’s degree of freedom from random
errors.
 Repeatability describes the closeness of
output readings when the same input is
applied repetitively over a short period of
time, with the same measurement
conditions, same instrument and observer,
same location and same conditions of use
maintained throughout.
 Reproducibility describes the closeness of
output readings for the same input when
there are changes in the method of
measurement, observer, measuring
instrument, location, conditions of use and
time of measurement
 Tolerance is a term that is closely related to
accuracy and defines the maximum error
that is to be expected in some value.
 The range or span of an instrument defines
the minimum and maximum values of a
 quantity that the instrument is designed to  Hysteresis is the amount of error that results
measure when there is a delay between action and
reaction of a measuring instrument.
 Linearity amount of deviation from an
Commonly found in instruments that use
instrument's ideal straight-line performance
spring.
 The sensitivity of measurement is a
 Dead space is defined as the range of
measure of the change in instrument output
different input values over which there is no
that occurs when the quantity being
change in output value. Any instrument that
measured changes by a given amount.
exhibits hysteresis also displays dead space
 Sensitivity is the ratio:
Fixed Points of International Temperature Scale

 Threshold: If the input to an instrument is

gradually increased from zero, the input will
have to reach a certain minimum level before
the change in the instrument output reading
is of a large enough magnitude to be
detectable. This minimum level of input is Common Temperature Scale
known as the threshold of the instrument.
It is sometimes specified as an absolute
value and sometimes as a percentage of f.s.
deflection
 Resolution is the fineness to which an
instrument can be read and it is influenced
by how finely its output scale is divided into
subdivisions.
 Sensitivity to disturbance is the measure
of the magnitude of change in certain Conversion
instrument characteristics due to variations
in ambient conditions.
 Zero drift or bias describes the
effect where the zero reading of an
instrument is modified by a change in
ambient conditions
 Sensitivity to disturbance:
 Sensitivity drift (also known as Liquid-In-Glass Thermometers
scale factor drift) defines the
amount by which an instrument’s Mercury Thermometers
sensitivity of measurement varies as
o Developed by a German based
ambient conditions change. It is
physicist named Daniel Gabriel
quantified by sensitivity drift
Fahrenheit
coefficients that define how much
 Key benefits
drift there is for a unit change in each
 Fast response time
environmental parameter that the
 Good repeatability
instrument characteristics are
 Linear thermal coefficient of expansion
sensitive to
 Wide range of temperature
  Disadvantages
o Mercury is hazardous
o Use of mercury is banned in many
countries
o Range is limited to about 600 C ̊
 Major applications
o Meteorological applications
o ASTM-type is commonly used in
industrial, scientific and commercial
purposes
o Cooking and food processing
applications for temperature
measurement.
Alcohol Thermometers
Temperature measurement range varies
from -115°C to 78.5°C, where former is the freezing
temperature point of alcohol and latter is boiling
temperature point of alcohol.
Thermocouple
Thermocouples operation
 In 1821, the German physicist Thomas
Johann Seebeck discovered that when
different metals are joined at the ends and
there is a temperature difference between
the joints, a magnetic field is observed. At the
time, Seebeck referred to this consequence
as thermo-magnetism. The magnetic field he
observed was later shown to be due to
thermo-electric current.
Thermocouples construction.
 Thermocouples consist of two wire legs
made from different metals welded together
at one end, creating a junction. This junction
is where the temperature is measured. When
the junction experiences a change in
temperature, a voltage is created. The
voltage can then be interpreted using
thermocouple reference tables to calculate
the temperature.
Thermocouples types
1. Type J Thermocouple (Iron/Constantan):
The type J is also very common. It has a
smaller temperature range and a shorter
lifespan at higher temperatures than the
Type K. It is equivalent to the Type K in terms
of expense and reliability.
 Temperature range
o Thermocouple grade wire, -346 to
1,400F (-210 to 760C)
o Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to
200C)
 Accuracy (whichever is greater):
o Standard: +/- 2.2C or +/- .75%
o Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1C or
0.4%
2. Type T Thermocouple (Copper/
Constantan): The Type T is a very stable
thermocouple and is often used in extremely
low temperature applications such as
cryogenics or ultra-low freezers.
 Temperature range
o Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to
700F (-270 to 370C)
o Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to
200C)
 Accuracy (whichever is greater):
o Standard: +/- 1.0C or +/- .75%
o Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.5C or
0.4%
3. Type E Thermocouple (Nickel-Chromium/
Constantan): The Type E has a stronger
signal & higher accuracy than the Type K or
Type J at moderate temperature ranges of
1,000F and lower.
 Temperature range
o Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to
1600F (-270 to 870C)
o Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to
200C)
 Accuracy (whichever is greater):
o Standard: +/- 1.7C or +/- 0.5%
o Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.0C or
0.4%
4. Type N Thermocouple (Nicrosil / Nisil):
The Type N shares the same accuracy and
temperature limits as the Type K. The type N
is slightly more expensive.
 Temperature range
o Thermocouple grade wire, -454 to
2300F (-270 to 392C)
 o Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to
200C)
 Accuracy (whichever is greater):
o Standard: +/- 2.2C or +/- .75%
o Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1C or
0.4%
5. Type S Thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium
- 10% / Platinum): The Type S is used in
very high temperature applications.
Commonly found in the BioTech and
Pharmaceutical industries. Sometimes used
in lower temperature applications because of
its high accuracy and stability.
 Temperature range
o Thermocouple grade wire, -58 to
2700F (-50 to 1480C)
o Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to
200C)
 Accuracy (whichever is greater):
o Standard: +/- 1.5C or +/- .25%
o Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.6C or
0.1%
6. Type R Thermocouple (Platinum
Rhodium -13% / Platinum): The Type R is
used in very high temperature applications. It
has a higher percentage of Rhodium than the
Type S, which makes it more expensive. The
Type R is very similar to the Type S in terms
of performance. It is sometimes used in lower
temperature applications because of its high
accuracy and stability.
 Temperature range
o Thermocouple grade wire, -58 to
2700F (-50 to 1480C)
o Extension wire, 32 to 392F (0 to
200C)
 Accuracy (whichever is greater):
o Standard: +/- 1.5C or +/- .25%
o Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.6C or
0.1%
7. Type B Thermocouple (Platinum
Rhodium – 30% / Platinum Rhodium –
6%): The Type B thermocouple is used in
extremely high temperature applications. It
has the highest temperature limit of all of the
thermocouples listed above. It maintains a
high level of accuracy and stability at very
high temperatures.
 Temperature range
o Thermocouple grade wire, 32 to
3100F (0 to 1700C)
o Extension wire, 32 to 212F (0 to
100C)
 Accuracy (whichever is greater):
o Standard: +/- 0.5%
o Special Limits of Error: +/- 0.25%
Thermocouple Junctions
 Grounded Thermocouples: This is the
most common junction style. A thermocouple
is grounded when both thermocouple wires
and the sheath are all welded together to
form one junction at the probe tip. Grounded
thermocouples have a very good response
time because the thermocouple is making
direct contact with the sheath, allowing heat
to transfer easily. A drawback of the
grounded thermocouple is that the
thermocouple is more susceptible to
electrical interference. This is because the
sheath often comes into contact with the
surrounding area, providing a path for
interference.
 Ungrounded Thermocouples (Or
Ungrounded Common Thermocouples):
A thermocouple is ungrounded when the
thermocouple wires are welded together but
they are insulated from the sheath. The wires
are often separated by mineral insulation
 Exposed Thermocouples (or “bare wire
thermocouples”): A thermocouple is
exposed when the thermocouple wires are
welded together and directly inserted into the
process. The response time is very quick, but
exposed thermocouple wires are more prone
to corrosion and degradation. Unless your
application requires exposed junctions, this
style is not recommended
 Ungrounded Uncommon: An ungrounded
uncommon thermocouple consists of a dual
thermocouple that is insulated from the
sheath and each of the elements are
insulated from one other.
Thermocouple Sheath Comparison.
 316SS (stainless steel): This is the most
common sheath material. It is relatively
corrosion resistant and is cost effective.
 304SS: This sheath is not as corrosion
resistant as 316SS. The cost difference
between 316SS and 304SS is nominal.
  Inconel (registered trademark) 600: This RTD configuration.
material is recommended for highly corrosive
2-Wire Configuration
environments.
 Special Limits of Error: These thermocouples
are made with a higher grade of
thermocouple wire, which increases their
accuracy. They are more expensive than
standard thermocouples.
 Standard Limits of Error: These
thermocouples use standard “thermocouple
3-Wire Configuration
grade” wire. They are less expensive and
more commo
Resistance Temperature Detector
- RTDs are sometimes referred to generally as
resistance thermometers.
- The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) has defined the term 4-Wire Configuration
resistance thermometer as follows: A
temperature-measuring device composed of
a resistance thermometer element, internal
connecting wires, a protective shell with or
without means for mounting a connection
head, or connecting wire or other fittings, or
both
- As the temperature of a metal increases, the
3-Wire (most common). In a 3 wire RTD
metal's resistance to the flow of electricity
configuration, Wires "A" & "B" should be close to
increases. Similarly, as the temperature of
the same length. These lengths are significant
the RTD resistance element increases, the
because the intention of the Wheatstone bridge is
electrical resistance, measured in ohms (Ω),
to make the impedances of wires A and B, each
increases. RTD elements are commonly
acting as an opposite leg of the bridge, cancel the
specified according to their resistance in
other out, leaving Wire "C" to act as a sense lead
ohms at zero degrees Celsius (0oC). (I.e. at
carrying a very small (micro amperage range)
oC the RTD element should demonstrate
current.
100 Ω of resistance.)
RTD components.
Metals used.
1. RTD platinum resistance element: The actual
 Platinum (most common)
temperature sensing portion. Length from 1/8" to
o Because of its chemical inertness
3". The standard temperature coefficient is an
o Nearly linear temperature vs.
alpha of .00385 and the standard resistance is 100
resistance relationship
Ω at 00C
o Large temp. coefficient of resistance
that give readily measurable 2. RTD Outside diameter: Outside diameters range
resistance changes with temperature from .063" to .500“.
o Temperature resistance does not
drastically change with time 3. RTD Tubing Material: 316 Stainless steel is
 Other metals. commonly used for assemblies up to 500 F ̊ .
o Nickel 4. RTD Process Connection: Include all standard
o Copper fittings used with thermocouples (i.e. compression,
o Balco welded, spring-loaded, etc.)
5. RTD Wire Configuration: 2, 3 and 4 wire config. RTD components.
Teflon and fiberglass are the standard wire
insulation materials. Teflon is moisture resistant
and can be used up to 400 F ̊ . Fiberglass can be
used up to 1000 F̊ .
6. RTD cold end termination: RTDs can terminate
on the cold end with plugs, bare wires, terminal
heads and any of the reference junctions common
to thermocouples.
RTD components.
Wire wound element: is the simplest sensor
design. The sensing wire is wrapped around an
insulating mandrel or core. The winding core can be
round or flat, but must be an electrical insulator.
Matching the coefficient of thermal expansion of the
sensing wire and winding core materials will Pyrometer
minimize any mechanical strain.
- A temperature transducer used in high
temperatures and when contact – type
temperature sensors are impractical
- Measures temperature from a distance by
sensing the visible (light) and/ or invisible
Coiled Element: The coiled sensor is a method to electromagnetic radiation emitted by the hot
produce a "strain free” design. A strain free design body
allows the sensing wire to expand and contract free
of influences from other materials in the assembly

Thin Film Element: The thin film sensing element is

manufactured by depositing a very thin layer of
platinum on a ceramic substrate. This layer is usually
just a 10 to 100 angstroms (10-8 centimeters) thick.
The platinum film is coated with epoxy or glass. This
coating helps protect deposited platinum film and
acts as a strain relief for the external lead wires