See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/274714923

. Tectonic evolution of the Sagaing fault

Conference Paper · August 2012

CITATIONS READS
0 681

1 author:

Hla Hla Aung

Myanmar Engineering Society
38 PUBLICATIONS   22 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Myanmar Earthquakes History View project

Paleo-Tethys suture zone View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Hla Hla Aung on 29 October 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

AOGS Conference Paper 2012

DYNAMIC EVOLUTION OF THE SAGAING FAULT

Hla Hla Aung
Myanmar Earthquake Committee
MES Building, Hlaing University Campus,Hlaing Township
Yangon, Myanmar
Email: hhlaaung@gmail.com

Abstract

The Sagaing fault is one of the largest right-lateral strike-slip faults and a major lithospheric
fault in SE Asia. The Sagaing fault is an active fault as indicated by epicentral location of
earthquakes along the fault. The interpretation of remote sensing images, regional
topographic and geomorphic analysis are able to trace the geometry of the Sagaing Fault in
detail. In satellite images , the Sagaing Fault can be divided into several fault segments
based on the geometry of the rupture zones, geomorphic and structural features of the
Sagaing Fault Zone. This geometry of the segments produced by strike-slip faulting or thrust
faulting during repeated earthquakes, which also produced multiple segments separated by
discontinuities that appear as step-overs or bends in map view. Along the trace of the
Sagaing Fault Zone, both right-steps and left-steps occurred indicating the active strike-slip
nature of the Sagaing Fault Zone. Motion is transferred across the gaps between the fault
segments resulting in zones of localized extension and compression. These fault segments
are easy to find when the individual earthquake struck on each fault. The Sagaing Fault is a
plate boundary between Burma and Sunda plates and composed of numerous fault segments
that represents a system in which earthquakes occurred. To improve the understanding of
the geodynamics and evolution of the plate boundary, detailed studies of geomorphic
features and geologic structures grow by repeated seismic events are conduted across the
Sagaing Fault Zone. Geomorphic observations and previous documentation suggest that
such kind of investigation are key for a better understanding of active tectonics and seismic
hazards of the Sagaing Fault. Displacement on the fault is dominantly strike-slip, although
in places it is associated with localized transpression and transtension. The geomorphic
features developed by transtension ( Late Miocene) and transpression (Pliocene-Recent)
appear to reflect two episodes of strike-slip deformaion as a result of change in motion from
strike-slip to transform.
Key words: strike-slip fault, transtension, transpression, pull-apart basin, pressure ridges,
motion, deformation.

1
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

Tectonic Setting
Myanmar is composed of two different evolving continental blocks: the Burma plate
and the Sundaland plate. The Sagaing Fault is interpreted as a recent dextral strike
slip fault and a continental transform plate boundary that separates the Burma plate
from the Sundaland plate (Curray et al., 1979; Le Dain et al., 1984; Yeats et al.,
1997; Curray, 2005). The Sagaing fault is linked with Central Andaman spreading
center to the south (Curray et al., 1979). The Andaman Sea has been formed by
seafloor spreading along short ENE-striking spreading center that is offset by NNW-
striking transform faults (Curray et al., 1978; Eguchu et al., 1979). Extension and
rifting in the Central Andaman Basin began at around 11Ma and extension and sea
floor spreading has been ongoing since 4-5 Ma (Khan & Chakraborty, 2005).
Consequently this is the most possible age for the initiation of the Sagaing fault.
Spreading in a 335°(N 25° W) direction, relative to present N, is at an average rate
of 30 mm/yr the northward component is 27 mm/yr (Curray,2005). The rate of
motion of the Burma plate with respect to the Sunda plate is 18-25mm/yr towards
the north (Soquet et al.2006). The average trend of the Sagaing Fault is 351°
(N9°W). The Sagaing fault accommodates part of the motion while the remainder of
the motion is distributed on other faults within the fault zone (Vigny et al., 2003).
These faults are located at short distances to the west of the Sagaing Fault in the
Central Myanmar Basin. The NW-SE-oriented seafloor spreading direction agrees
with the average trend of the Sagaing Fault. Moreover, the Sagaing Fault is a
transform plate boundary with a right-lateral motion. The NW-SE-oriented spreading
ridge segments in the Gulf of Mottama, are rifting the Burma Plate northward with
respect to the Sunda plate. Further north, the Sagaing Fault System is essentially
parallel to the relative motion so is largely a transform fault. Most of the motion is
accommodated by faults that form a series of en echelon step-overs within a narrow,
(3) to (11) km wide transform valley. At some places, the Sagaing Fault differs from
the direction of plate motion, so that dip-slip faulting occurs. Rhomb-shaped
grabens, elongate pull-apart basins, steep normal faults have formed where the fault
segment steps to the right. One of the largest of these extensional features is
Indawgyi Lake (26) km long (5) km wide. The pull-apart basins and normal faults
along the Sagaing fault resemble those that characterize intracontinental rift basins in

2
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

Central Myanmar Basin, but have different tectonic settings. Both types of basin
typically are bounded by border faults and display strike segmentation.

1. Geometry of the Sagaing fault

The Sagaing Fault is the primary plate boundary between the Burma Plate and the
Sundaland Plate. It is the boundary along which most of the relative motion has
occurred and will continue to occur for the geologic future. Rather than being a
single major fault along which the plates move smoothly past one another, the plate
boundary shares motion between fault segments that form a series of en echelon
step-overs. To understand the complexity of the plate boundary system, first
consider the geometry of the present day the Sagaing Fault. The crust is undergoing
extension, a process by which the crust is slowly stretching and thinning as a by
product of the long episode of subduction that defines the plate boundary before the
Sagaing Fault came into existence.
The Sagaing Fault is a major right-lateral strike-slip fault which has long and straight
traces for 1000km along the entire length of Myanmar. This fault is the most
conspicuous feature that can be seen on Landsat imagery of Myanmar. The fault is
distinct between Mandalay and Thabeikyin, but southwards, where it crosses the
lowlands of the Central Myanmar is much more difficult to observe on satellite
images. Large-scale topographic maps, SRTM-DEM-based shaded relief maps and
Landsat 7 band combination 742 as RGB (2003) and 1:24,000 scale aerial
photographic maps are used for interpretation of morphological features of the
Sagaing Fault and related tectonic structures. Numerous small fault segments have
been indentified in map view which convey an impression of enechelon pattern.
Most of the segments along its length, have ruptured recently, generating historical
earthquakes.
Individual fault segments are continuous along their trace until a small offset to one
side, separates one segment from the next. The intervening gap between the two
segments creates small zones of extension or compression depending on whether the
step is to the right or to the left. Such zones of compression or extension also exist at
fault bends in the fault zone. These faults are easy to find when the individual
earthquakes struck on each fault. Fault geometry known as en echelon faulting leads
to interesting consequences when faults rupture (Hough, 2004). Along the trace of

3
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

the Sagaing Fault Zone both right-steps and left-steps occur indicating the active
strike-slip nature of the Sagaing Fault Zone
These segments are designated as the Indawgyi, Indaw, Htichaing, Thabeikkyin
,Singu,Yega, Yemethin, , Pyinmana, Swa, Phyu, Shwedan, Zwedeik, Kabauk and
coastal segments. Where fault segments overlap, extensional forces have created
linear depressions between them. Along the Sagaing Fault, Lake Indawgyi, Indaw
lake, a sag pond near Hti-chaing, another sag pond near Singu, Yega In, Shwedan In,
Zwedaik In and Kabauk In, Bagan In, and more sag ponds are tectonic lakes. Small
linear zones of uplift called pressure ridges typically indentified compressional fault
step to the left. The localized pressure ridges such as Pale, Desunpa, Magyigyin,
Sagaing and Tagaung ridges in the Sagaing Fault Zone, have been uplifted in
response to a combination of dextral motion and compression across the different
parts of the Sagaing Fault (Fig.1).

4
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

Fig.1. In large-scale topographic maps, SRTM-DEM-based shaded relief maps and Landsat 7
band combination 742 as RGB (2003) and aerial photographic maps, morphological features of
the Sagaing Fault and related tectonic structures such as restraining bend, releasing bend, fault-
bounded lens-shaped basin, en echelon strike-slip fault segment are well-recognized and
observed clearly. The tectonicgeomorphic features that can be observed on Landsat image of
the nortern part of the Sagaing fault are created by lateral movement of the fault. The fault
created a series of tectonic lakes:Lake Indawgyi, Indaw lake, Singu sag pond and Yega In and
many other features in the northern part of Myanmar.

Within the neotectonic framework of Myanmar, the longitude of the Sagaing Fault is
96° 30’E (following the coastline in the south), 96°E (from Pyinmana to Tagaung)
and 96°45E to the north. In other words, the fault is more westerly (NNW-SSE) in
the south N-S in the central part, between Pyinmana and Thabeikyin, a distance
estimated to be 300 km and then swings easterly (NNE-SSW) again north of
Thabeikyin. When the trend of the Sagaing Fault differs from the direction of plate
motion, dip slip faulting occurs and the plate motion becomes complex. Most of the
NNW-striking faults that dominate the area appear to be presently active, as shown
by recent seismicity, including historical earthquakes.

5
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

Fans or Horsetail splays

To the north of Thabeikyin between lat.26°N and 27°N, the Sagaing Fault branches
into various splays to form a 200-wide compressive horse-tail structure from east to
west. At the same time, the Indian Plate pushes the Burma Plate northeastwards.
This fault connects the Himalayan the Main Boundary Thrust in the north (Maurin,
2011).
To the south at the latitude of Nyaunglebin-Bago( latitude 17°30’N), the Sagaing
Fault branches into two main fault a few kilometers apart. In Mottama Gulf, the
fault terminates as a horse-tail extensional system (Charmot-Rooke et al.2001).
Extensional horsetail structures are also found in the Mottama Gulf with a recorded
extensional deformation zone 250km wide from north to south (Rangin et al., 1999).
The western branch of the fault, the West Sagaing Fault terminates southwards in a
cluster of normal faults separated by a series of pull-apart basins and a system of
oblique transform faults that connect southwards with the Andaman spreading centre
(Curray et al.2005). The fault branch located immediately to the east, the East
Sagaing Fault, is apparently covered by deep marine terraces and could be inactive.

6
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

Fig. 2. The Sagaing fault runs through Myanmar

region. Topographic map of Myanmar showing the
epicenters of historical earthquakes. Black stars
indicate the earthquakes of M7.0 that struck the whole
region during eighty-two years prior to the 2012
Thabeikyin earthquake.

7
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

Step-over/ Pull-apart basins

The most striking feature of the fault zone is perhaps that it is remarkably
straight and distinct on the satellite image extending for 1000 km along the entire
length of Myanmar. For most of its course the fault zone is clearly defined by both
tectonic and topographic features.
At about latitude 25°N a fault segment step to another segment on the right forms an
extensional pull-apart basin called Indawgyi Lake. At 24°N, north of Hti-chaing,
there is another fault segment forming a sag pond called Indaw Lake. At 23°N-96°E,
west of Htichaing there is a sag pond. Further to the south, at 22° 35’N, the Singu
basin with 1.5 km wide and 2 km long, near Singu is observed. At latitude 21°
58’N, at 10km north of Sagaing there is a right-stepping fault segment forming an
elongated basin called Yega In. Yega In is one of pull-apart basin with 1 km long
and 500m wide, formed within the Sagaing Fault Zone.
The Shwedan In is a tectonic depression or sag pong on the down-thrown side of the
fault. The height of the fault scarp near the northern end of the Shwedan In is about
2.8m. A clear west-facing fault scarp extends south of Shwedan Village. North and
south of the Paingkyun Chaung, an elongated linear depression about 10 m wide and
l m deep extends along the fault. Farther south, the Sagaing fault bounds the eastern
margin of the Zwegaik In. The Kabauk In is a pull-apart basin located at a right
step of the Sagaing fault (Tsutsumi et al., 2009). These basins characterize a step-
over where the intervening region has been thrown into tension. A large earthquake
tends to nucleate from the tip of the fault segment and then propagate along the
fault plane where the accumulated stress is high enough to cause slip on the fault
plane. The pattern of seismicity is consistent with the transfer of slip on one fault
within the fault zone onto another fault segment to the right (Hla Hla Aung, 2011)

Laterally offset surface features

Near the vicinity of Sagaing, the fault has brought Pegu sandstones on the west
against the Irrawaddy Sandstone on the east, and in the north near West Taungnyo
village, the fault brings sheared metamorphic rocks on the eastern side against the
Pegu sandstones on the west, indicating lateral displacement of the fault. Between
Kebwet and Thabeikkyin, the Sagaing fault forms a boundary between the older
8
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

Mogok Series in the east and the Plio-Pleistocene sandstone of the Irrawady
Formation on the west. A straight narrow, north-south trending fault trace can be
observed between the main Sagaing fault and the Min Wun ridge just north of
Sagaing.
Immediately north of Mandalay, at latitudes between 22°35’N and
22°45’N, the Singu lava plateau is dextrally displaced by the Sagaing Fault.
In the central part of the Sagaing fault, the trace of the fault is rather linear
and simple along a line of low hills from Kyaukse to Thazi-Pyawbwe area. Detailed
study also show late-Cenozoic dextral slip along the NNW-SSE trending trace of the
Sagaing fault. For example, the Sinthe Chaung (chaung means stream in Myanmar)
is an offset stream channel that can be found along the Sagaing fault between
latitude 20°00’ N and 20°10’ N. Seismic profiles for Swa (MOGE) show typical
tectonic inversion feature which is normal faulting in deeper part and reverse
faulting in the near surface. These ranges have been uplifted in response to a
combination of dextral motion and compression across Sagaing Fault. An
unconformity between the Pegu Group (Late Miocene) and the Irrawaddy Formation
(Pliocene-Quaternary) separates an earlier transtensional regime from later
transpressional regime. Miocene extension in NNW-SSE direction is dominated by
predominantly NE-SW striking normal faults and Pliocene-Quaternary compression
in ENE-WSW is NW-SE to NNW-SSE thrusting and folding.

9
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig.3 a, c, In 2D seismic profiles in E-W direction, with a scale of 1 inch=0.5km from MOGE, it
is clearly visible that Sagaing Fault bifurcated into splay faults in the Swa region and line drawings
of seismic profiles showing active reverse faults and positive flower structures (b) at NW of Swa
and (d) at SW of Swa. These seismic profiles show typical tectonic inversion feature which is
normal faulting in deeper part and reverse faulting in the near surface. These ranges have been
uplifted in response to a combination of dextral motion and compression across Sagaing Fault. An
unconformity between the Pegu Group (Late Miocene) and the Irrawaddy Formation (Pliocene-
Quaternary) separates an earlier transtensional regime from later transpressional regime. Miocene
extension in NNW-SSE direction is dominated by predominantly NE-SW striking normal faults
and Pliocene-Quaternary compression in ENE-WSW is NW-SE to NNW-SSE thrusting and
folding.

Releasing / restraining bends

Pull-apart basins, zones of subsidence and deposition, and normal faults characterize
releasing bends whereas restraining bends display thrust faults, folds, and push-ups.

10
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

These zones are similar to those that form in step-over situations. At diverging
bends, a localized area is uplifted in response to a combination of dextral motion and
compression across a portion of the fault that strikes more westerly than the general
strike of the fault system. At a converging bend, a localized zone of subsidence
occurs due to a combination of extension and dextral motion. These structures can be
found on satellite images near Pyinmana and Phyu in the central part of the Sagaing
Fault Zone. Releasing/restraining bends are located also at latitude 18° 30’N to 19°
35’N and latitude 17° 05’N to 17° 20’N.

Linear fault scarps

There are many linear fault scarps and localized pressure ridges in the Sagaing Fault
Zone, such as Desunpa, Magyigyin, Khendangyi, Sagaing ridge, Minwun ridge and
Tagaung ridges. In the Bago area, the Sagaing Fault is identified by continuous west-
facing fault scarps. Fresh west-facing scarps exist for a 2.5 km along the stretch
between Kanbe Chaung and Wagadok Chaung (Tsutsumi et al.,2009). Fault scarp
(Triangular faceted spurs) along splay faults of the Sagaing Fault Zone. GPS
location N19 12.634’, E 96 14.374’ (Fig.5).
The best location to observe pressure ridges within the Sagaing Fault Zone is the
Mandalay region, just north of Sagaing township. Here, the Sagaing fault is
highlined by two N-S trending parallel pressure ridges, the Minwun ridge on the
west and the Sagaing ridge on the east. Shutter ridges (Sagaing ridge and Minwun
ridge) are common tectonic landforms near Sagaing through which the Sagaing fault
pass (Fig.3).
.
Dynamic Evolution of the Sagaing Fault
Detailed structural analysis along the Sagaing Fault reveal several folds and faults,
in varied directions along the fault, of which the NNW-direction is the most
prominent. Dsplacement on the fault is dominantly strike slip, although in places it
also is associated with localized transpression and transtension. The Sagaing Fault
Zone is a major shear zone in Myanmar, by evidence like localized basins and uplifts
and other geomorphic features such as releasing / restraining bends and flower
structure.

11
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

Fig.8. Fault scarp (Triangular faceted spurs) along splay faults of the Sagaing Fault Zone. GPS
location N19 12.634’, E 96 14.374’

Fig.9. Shutter ridges (Sagaing ridge and Minwun ridge) are common tectonic landforms near
Sagaing City through which the Sagaing fault pass.

Tectonic deformation has occurred from the Miocene to the present. From studies of
fault characteristics within the Sagaing Fault Zone, the faults record both strike-slip
deformation and dip-slip displacements that appear to reflect two episodes of strike-slip
deformation. The first involved a combination of strike slip motion and extension on
north-northwest trending faults, leading to the formation of localized pull-apart basins.
The second involved strike-slip motion and compression forming folds, possibly as a
result of a change in the direction of motion along the transform. On the basis of
geomorphic investigations and kinematic elements discussed previously, it has been
possible to reconstruct the large scale evolution of the Sagaing Fault.
The Burma sliver plate is bounded eastward from the Sunda plate, by the right-
lateral strike-slip Sagaing Fault (Curray et al. 1979, Le Dain et al., 1984; Guzman
Speziale and Ni, 1996 ). The sliver plate results from the India/Sunda plate’s
oblique convergence. Within this geodynamic framework, strain partitioning is

12
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

responsibe for the individualization of a sliver plate (Jarrard, 1986; McCaffrey,

1992). The Sagaing Fault is interpreted as a recent dextral strike slip fault and a
continental transform plate boundary that separates the Burma plate from the
Sundaland plate The Sagaing fault is linked with Central Andaman spreading
center to the south. The Andaman Sea has been formed by seafloor spreading along
short ENE-striking spreading center that is offset by NNW-striking transform faults.
Extension and rifting in the Central Andaman Basin began at around 11Ma and
extension and sea floor spreading has been ongoing since 4-5 Ma (Khan &
Chakraborty, 2005). Consequently this is the most possible age for the initiation of
the Sagaing fault. Prior to 5 Ma, there is a contact between the Burma plate and
Sunda plate and form a plate boundary between them. The complex three-
dimensional geometry of the plates gave rise to a lateral relative motion rather than
subduction. The Sagaing fault was born. The Sagaing Fault originated as a single
fault strand produced within the context of oblique subduction of the India, beneath
the Sunda Plate. It then developed several fault branches simulating the formation of
a dextral duplex system through time, with the faults to the east developing earlier
than those to the west. The Sagaing fault was a single fault strand along which the
plates moved clearly pass one another and relative plate motion resulted mostly
strike-slip movement on the fault. Right lateral strike-slip motion along the Sagaing
fault resulted in brittle deformation of the upper crust and ductile deformtion at
depth. Then the crust is undergoing a process known as extension since Late
Miocene, by which the crust is slowly stretching, leading to the formation of pull-
aprt basins within the fault zone. The two plates cannot slide pass one another
smoothly so that the plate boundary is essentially shearing or grinding, giving rise to
folding and faulting, by a component of compression or squeezing since Plio-
Pliestocene to Recent. The first deformation is by a combination of strike slip motion
and extension on north-northwest trending faults, leading to the formation of
localized pull-apart basins. The second deformation is by a combination of strike-
slip motion and compression forming folds, possibly as a result of a change from
strike-slip to transform motion. Evidence for this 5-My-old shift in plate motion is
folding, thrusting and uplifting of crustal blocks, characterized by an ENE-WSW
dominant stress direction. Stress orientation, determined from focal mechanism
solution of earthquakes (Engdahl, 1998) and tensor plots of structural orientation of

13
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

faults in the fault zone, indicate a maximum stress axis in ENE-WSW direction and
minimum stress axis in NNW-SSE direction (Pivnik et al., 1998). These
relationships illustate how large strike-slip faults like the Sagaing Fault typically
evolve over timescales measured in millions of years.

Conclusion
Earthquakes that occurred along the Sagaing Fault and some sub-parallel faults
are caused by the movement of huge crustal blocks of the earth’s crust. Although
detailed historic account of earthquakes exist, many questions regarding the mode
of deformation from the point of view of the plate tectonics remains unresolved. The
author gathered the information by reinterpretation of the historical earthquakes and
add to the previous understanding and provides a fresh perspective on seismogenic
zones. To improve the understanding of the geodynamics and evolution of the plate
boundary, detailed studies of geomorphic features and geologic structures grow by
repeated seismic events are conducted across the Sagaing Fault Zone. From satellite
investigation, well- defined tectonic geomophic features have been indentified along
the fault zone including fault scarps, tectonic depression and pressure ridges. The
Sagaing Fault Zone illustrates many of the physiographic and structural features that
are common to extensional step-overs and a series of contractional step-overs. These
segments , each 50-180 km long and a half kilometer -5 km wide are linked by step-
overs or bends with 125 km long. Tectonic-geomorphic features and seismic activity
along the Sagaing fault characterize the fault segments. Many localized pull-apart
basins and localized areas of uplift occur between these faults segments within the
Sagaing Fault Zone. The Sagaing Fault Zone is a major shear zone in Myanmar.
These studies of local tectonic geomorphic features and local geological structures
show that all the historical earthquakes were associated with seismic amplification
by small-scale topographic features such as localized scarps and localized basins.
The seismic lines show typical tectonic inversion feature in Swa area, which is
normal faulting in deeper part and reverse faulting in the near surface. These ranges
have been uplifted in response to a combination of dextral motion and compression
across Sagaing Fault. An unconformity between the Pegu Group (Late Miocene) and
the Irrawaddy Formation (Pliocene-Quaternary) separates an earlier transtensional
regime from later transpressional regime. The active deformation and tectonic

14
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

evolution of the plate boundary between the Burma and Sunda plates is important
in the sense that it may generate large earthquakes along the Sagaing Fault Zone.
Detailed mapping of the Sagaing Fault reveals physiographic features such as linear
fault scarps, laterally offset surface features, offset streams, step-over, push-ups and
pull-apart basins, releasing/restraining bends and flower structures. These, and other
observations, testify that the Sagaing fault is a major continental strike-slip fault and
a continental transform fault and these relationships illustrate how large strike-slip
faults typically evolve very rapidly on timescales of tens to hundreds of thousand
years.

Data and Resources

All data used in this article were obtained from published sources listed in the
refrences and some from limited field investigations.

Acknowledgements
I acknowedge anonymous reviewers for their comments, suggestions and
criticism on the manuscript. Comments on an early version of the manuscript by
these reviewers greatly improved the manuscript. Toe Win Thein prepared shaded
relief maps and provide Landsat images. The seismic sections are shown in the
manuscript with the permission of U Lin Myint (MOGE).

References
1. Bender, F. (1983). Geology of Burma, Gebruder Borntraeger, Berlin, Stuttgart,
293 pp.
2. Bannert, D., Helmcke, D. (1981). The Evolution of the Asian Plate in Burma,
Geol. Rhundschau 70, 2, 446-458.
3. Bertrand, G., C. Rangin, R.C. Maury, Hla Myo Htun, H. Bellon, J-P. Guillaud,
(1998). The Singu basalts (Myanmar): new constraints for the amount of recent
offset on the Sagaing Fault. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris, Sciences de la terre et des planets/
Earth & Planetary Sciences 327, 479-484.
4. Bertrand, G., C. Rangin, H. Maluski, T.A. Han, M, Thein, O. Myint, W. Maw, S.
Lwin, (1999b). Cenozoic metamorphism along the Shan scarp (Myanmar):

15
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

evidences for ductile shear along the Sagaing fault or the northward migration of the
eastern Himalayan syntaxis. Geophysical Research Letters 26, 7, 915-918.
5. Bonilla, M.G., (1979), Historic Surface Faulting—Map Patterns, Relation to
Subsurface Faulting, and relation to Preexisting Faults. USGS Open – File Report
79-1239, 36-65.
6. Chhibber, H. L. (1934). The Geology of Burma Macmillan and Co., London, 538
pp.
7. Chamot-Rooke, N., C. Rangin, C. Nielsen, (2001). Timing and kinematics of
Andaman basin opening. Eos Transactions Supplement 82 (20).
8. Curray, J.R. (2005). Tectonics and history of the Andaman Sea region, J. Asian
Earth Sci. 25, 187-232.
9. Curray, J.R.,D.G. Moore, L.A. Lawver, F.J. Emmel, R.W. Raitt, M. Henry, and
R. Kieckhefer (1979). Tectonics of the Andaman Sea and Burma, in Geological and
Geophysical Investigations of Continental Margins, J.S. Watkins, L. Montadert, and
P.W. Dickerson (Editors), American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir,
29, 189-198.
10. Curray, J.R., F.J. Emmel, D.G. Moore, R.W. Raitt, (1982). Structure, tectonics
and geological history of the northeastern Indian Oceanan. In: Nairn, A.E.M., Stehli,
F.G. (eds.), the Ocean Basins and Margins. The Indian Ocean, vol.c. Plenum Press,
New York, 399-450.
11. Dey, B.P. (1968). Aerial photo interpretation of a major lineament in the
Yamethin-Pyawbwe quadrangles, Union of Burma J. Sci. Tech. 1, 431-443.
12. Engdahl, E.R.,R.D. Van der Hilst, and R.P.Buland, (1998) Global teleseismic
earthquake relocation with improved travel times and procedures for depth
determination, Bull. Seism. Soc. Amer., 88, 722-743.

13. Fitch, T.J., (1970) Earthquake mechanisms in the Himalayan, Burmese and
Andaman regions and continental tectonics in Asia, J. Geophys. Res., 75, 2699-
2709.
14. Gorshkov, G.P., (1959). Problems of Seismotectonics & Seismicity Zoning of the
T erritory of the Union of Burma. Unpublished report. Department of Geological
Survey & Mineral Exploration, Rangoon. P.

16
AOGS Conference Paper 2012

15. Guzman-Speziale, M., J. Ni, (1993). The opening of the Andaman Sea.
Geophysical Research letters 20, (2949-2952).
16. Hla Maung, (1983). A new reconstruction of Southeast Asia and Gondwanaland:
Its relation to mantle plumes or hotspots. SEAPEX Proceedings, 6, 66-70.
17. Harding, T.P., (1985). Seismic characteristics and identification of negative flower
structures, positive flower structures, and positive structural inversion. American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, Bulletin 69, 582-600.
18. Hla Hla Aung, Reinterpretation of Historical Earthquakes for the period (1929-
1931), Myanmar, Advances in Geosciences, vol.31, Solid Earth Section, (2011).
www.asiaoceania.org
19. Hough,S.E.,(2004), Finding Faults in California: an earthquake tourist guide,
Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula, Montana
20. Hurukawa, N., (2011(, Two seismic gaps on the Sagaing fault,Myanmar, derived
from relocation of historical earthquake since (1918), Geophysical Research
Letters,vol.38, pp.1-5.
21. Jarrard, R.D. (1986), Terrane motion by strike-slip faulting of forearc shivers,
Geology,14,780-783,doi:10.1130/0091-7316(1986)14<780:TMBSFO>2.0. CO;2.
22. Kearey, P.(2009). Global Tectonics, John Wiley & Sons, TheAtrium, Southern Gate,
Chichester,West Sussex, PO 198SQ, UK
23. Khan P.K.&Chakraborty P.P.,(2005) Two-phase opening of Andaman Sea:A new
seismotectonic insight.Eart and Planetry Seience letters 229,259-71
24. Le Dain, A. Y., P. Tapponnier, and P. Molnar (1984). Active faulting and tectonics of
Burma and surrounding regions, J. Geophys. Res. 89,453-472.
25. Mark Van der Meijde and Muhammad Shafique (2010), The Importance of Topography
in seismic Amplification, ITC News, pp. 2-4, 2010-2.
26. Maurin, T. And C. Rangin. (2010) Structure and kinematics of the Indo-Burmese
Wedge: Recent and fast growth of the outer wedge, TECTONICS, vol.28,TC.
27. McCaffery, R. (1992), Oblique plate convergence, slip vectors, and forearc deformation,
J. Geophys. Res., 97, 8905-8915.
28. Nielsen, C., N. Chamot-Rooke and C. Rangin the ANDAMAN Cruise Team
(2004). From partial to full strain partitioning along the Indo-Burmese hyper-oblique
subduction, Mar. Geol. 209, 303-327, doi: 10.1016/j.margeo. 2004.05.001.
29. Pivnik, D.A., J. Nahm, R.S. Tucker, G.O. Smith, K. Myeni, M. Nyunt, and P.H.
Maung, (1998). Polyphase Deformation is a Fore-Arc/Back-Arc Basin, Salin
Subbasin, Myanmar (Burma), AAPG Bulletin, 82, 10, 1937-1856.
17
 AOGS Conference Paper 2012

30. Satyabala, S.P. (2002), The historical earthquakes in India, in International

Handbook of Earthquakes and Engineering Seismology, Int. Geophys.Ser.,vol.81,
edited by W.H.K.Lee et al., chap.48.3,pp.797-798,Academic, New York.
31. Socquet, A., C. Vigny, N. Chamot-Rooke, C. Rangin, W. Simons, C. Rangin,
and B.Ambrosius (2006), Indian and Sunda Plates motion and deformation along
their boundary in Myanmar determined by GPS, J. Geophys. Res., 111,B05406. doi:
10.1029/2005JB003877.
32. Tankard, A.J., H.R. Balkwill, A. Mehra, Aung Din, (1998). Tertiary wrench fault
tectonics and sedimentation in the central basin of Burma. AAPG bulletin 78, 1165
(Abstr).
31. Seth Stein and Michael Wysession Introduction to Seismology, Earthquake, and Earth
structure, (2003, 2004) Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Victoria 3050, Australia
32. Tsutsumi, H., and T. Sato (2009), Tectonic geomorphology of the sothernmost Sagaing
Fault and Surface rupture associated with the May 1930 Pegu (Bago) earthquake,
Myanmar, Bull. Seisomol. Soc. Am., 99, 2155-2168, doi: 10.1785/0120080113.
33. Utsu,T. (1992), Destructive earthquakes in the world, 1500-1992, in Earthquake
Disaster Reduction Handbook, pp.1-24, Bldg.Res.Inst. Tsukuba, Japan
34. Vigny, C., A. Socquet, C. Rangin, N. Chamot-Rooke, M. Pubellier, M.-N.
Bouin, G. Bertrand, and M. Becker, (2003). Present-day crustal deformation around
Sagaing Fault, Myanmar. J. Geophys. Res., 108 (B11),2533, doi: 10.1029/2002
JB001999.
35. Yeats, R.S.,and C. R. Allen (1997). The Geology of Earthquakes, Oxford
University Press, New York, 568 pp.

18

View publication stats