Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dr Ali Jawarneh
Department of Mechanical Engineering
H h it U
Hashemite University
i it
2
Objectives
• A
Analyze
l vapor power cycles
l iin which
hi h th
the working
ki flfluid
id
is alternately vaporized and condensed.
• Analyze power generation coupled with process
heating called cogeneration.
• Investigate ways to modify the basic Rankine vapor
power cycle to increase the cycle thermal efficiency.
• Analyze the reheat and regenerative vapor power
cycles.
cycles
• Analyze power cycles that consist of two separate
cycles known as combined cycles and binary cycles.
3
10-1:THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature limits but it is
not a suitable model for power cycles. Because:
Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems severely limits the maximum
temperature that can be used in the cycle (374°C for water: triple point)
Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of the impingement
of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear
wear.
Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic compression to extremely high
pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures.
a steady-flow Carnot
cycle executed within 1-2 isothermal heat
the saturation dome addition in a boiler
of a pure substance
2-3 isentropic expansion
in a turbine
3-4 isothermal heat
rejection in a condenser
4-1 isentropic
compression in a
compressor
5
SOLUTION:
6
10-2 RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR VAPOR POWER CYCLES
Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated
by superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the
condenser. The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle, which is the ideal cycle
f vapor power plants.
for l t The
Th ideal
id l R
Rankine
ki cyclel d
does nott iinvolve
l any iinternal
t l
Area under the process curve
irreversibilities. on a T-s diagram represents the
heat transfer for internally
reversible processes, we see
that the area under process
curve 22-3
3 represents the heat
transferred to the water in the
boiler and the area under the
process curve 4-1 represents
the heat rejected in the
condenser. The difference
between these two (the area
enclosed byy the cycle
y curve)) is
the net work produced during
the cycle.
9
SOLUTION:
10
10-3 DEVIATION OF ACTUAL VAPOR POWER
CYCLES FROM IDEALIZED ONES
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle as a
result of irreversibilities in various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings
g are the two common
sources of irreversibilities. Isentropic efficiencies
(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
11
EXAMPLE: Consider a steam power plant that operates on
a simple non-ideal Rankine cycle and has a net power
output of 45 MW. Steam enters the turbine at 7 MPa and
500°C and is cooled in the condenser at a pressure of 10
kPa by running cooling water from a lake through the tubes
of the condenser at a rate of 2000 kg/s.
kg/s Show the cycle on a
T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine
(a) the thermal efficiency of the cycle, (b) the mass flow rate
of the steam, and (c) the temperature rise of the cooling
water.
12
SOLUTION
13
14
10-4 HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF
THE RANKINE CYCLE?
The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency
of a power cycle is the same: Increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average
t
temperature
t att which
hi h heat
h t iis rejected
j t d ffrom th
the working
ki flfluid
id iin th
the condenser.
d
Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
Lowering the operating pressure of the condenser automatically lowers the temp of
th steam,
the t andd th
thus th
the ttemp att which
hi h hheatt iis rejected.
j t d ThThus th
the overallll effect
ff t off
lowering the condenser pressure is an increase in the thermal efficiency of the
cycle. The heat input requirements also increase (represented by the area
under curve 2-2’), but this increase is very small.
To take advantage of the increased efficiencies at
low pressures, the condensers of steam power
plants usually operate well below the atmospheric
pressure. There is a lower limit to this pressure
depending on the temperature of the cooling
medium
Side effect: Lowering the condenser
pressure increases the moisture content of
the steam at the final stages of the turbine.
Moisture decreases the turbine efficiency and erodes the
The effect of lowering the condenser
turbine blades. Fortunately, this problem can be corrected,
pressure on the ideal Rankine cycle. 15
as discussed next.
Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures
(Increases Thigh,avg)
Both the net work and heat input
increase as a result of superheating the
steam to a higher temperature (without
increasing the boiler pressure). The
overall effect is an increase in thermal
efficiency since the average temperature
at which heat is added increases.
Superheating to higher temperatures
decreases the moisture content of the
steam at the turbine exit, which is
desirable.
The temperature is limited by
The effect of superheating the metallurgical considerations. Presently
steam to higher temperatures the highest steam temperature allowed
on the ideal Rankine cycle.
y at the turbine inlet is about 620
620°C.
C.
16
Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
For a fixed turbine inlet temperature, Todayy manyy modern steam p power
the cycle shifts to the left and the plants operate at supercritical
moisture content of steam at the pressures (P > 22.06 MPa) and
turbine exit increases. This side have thermal efficiencies of about
effect can be corrected by reheating 40% for fossil
fossil-fuel
fuel plants and 34%
the steam. for nuclear plants.
18
The single reheat in a modern power
plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to
5% by increasing the average
temperature at which heat is transferred
to the steam.
The averageg temperature
p duringg the
reheat process can be increased by
increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages. As the number of stages is
increased the expansion and reheat
increased,
processes approach an isothermal
process at the maximum temperature. The average temperature at which heat is
The use of more than two reheat stages g transferred during reheating increases as
is not practical. The theoretical the number of reheat stages is increased.
improvement in efficiency from the If the turbine inlet pressure is not high enough, double
second reheat is about half of that which reheat would result in superheated exhaust. This is
undesirable as it would cause the average temperature
results from a single reheat
reheat. for heat rejection to increase and thus the cycle
The reheat temperatures are very close efficiency to decrease. Therefore, double reheat is used
only on supercritical-pressure (P >22.06 MPa) power
or equal to the turbine inlet temperature. plants.
The optimum reheat pressure is about Remember that the sole purpose of the reheat cycle is to
reduce the moisture content of the steam at the final
one-fourth of the maximum cycle stages of the expansion process. If we had materials that
pressure. could withstand sufficiently high temperatures, there
would be no need for the reheat cycle. 19
EXAMPLE: Consider a steam power plant that operates
on a reheat
h t Rankine
R ki cycle l and
dhhas a nett power output
t t off
80 MW. Steam enters the high-pressure turbine at 10
MPa and 500°C and the low-pressurep turbine at 1 MPa
and 500°C. Steam leaves the condenser as a saturated
liquid at a pressure of 10 kPa. The isentropic efficiency
of the turbine is 80 percent,
percent and that of the pump is 95
percent. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to
saturation lines, and determine
( ) the
(a) th quality
lit ((or ttemperature,
t if superheated)
h t d) off th
the
steam at the turbine exit,
((b)) the thermal efficiencyy of the cycle,
y and
(c) the mass flow rate of the steam.
20
SOLUTION
21
22
10-6 THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE
Heatt is
H i ttransferred
f d tto the
th working
ki flfluid
id
during process 2-2’ at a relatively low
temperature. This lowers the average
heat-addition temperature
p and thus the
cycle efficiency.
In steam power plants, steam is extracted
from the turbine at various points. This
steam, which could have produced more
work by expanding further in the turbine, is
used to heat the feedwater instead. The
device where the feedwater is heated by
regeneration is called a regenerator, or a
feedwater heater (FWH).
The first part of the heat-addition A feedwater heater is basically a heat
process ini th
the b
boiler
il ttakes
k place
l att exchanger where heat is transferred from
relatively low temperatures. the steam to the feedwater either by
we look for ways to raise the mixing the two fluid streams (open
temperature of the liquid leaving feedwater heaters) or without mixing them
the pump (called the feedwater) (closed feedwater heaters).
before it enters the boiler.
23
Open Feedwater Heaters
An open
p ((or direct-contact)) feedwater
heater is basically a mixing chamber,
where the steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting
the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the
heater pressure.
The ideal regenerative In an ideal closed feedwater heater, the feedwater is heated to the exit
Rankine cycle with a temperature of the extracted steam, which ideally leaves the heater as a
saturated liquid at the extraction pressure. In actual power plants, the
closed feedwater feedwater leaves the heater below the exit temp of the extracted steam
heater. because a temperature difference of at least a few degrees is
25
required for any effective heat transfer to take place.
The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing network, and thus
they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed feedwater heaters is less effective since the two
streams are not allowed to be in direct contact. However, closed feedwater heaters do not require a
separate pump for each heater since the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different
pressures.
A steam p
power pplant with one open
p Open feedwater
and three closed feedwater heaters.
heaters are simple
and inexpensive
and have good
heat transfer
characteristics. For
each heater,
however, a pump is
required to handle
the feedwater.
27
open fwh
open fwh
28
29
EXAMPLE: A steam power plant operates on an ideal
regenerative Rankine cycle. Steam enters the turbine at
6 MPa and 450°C and is condensed in the condenser at
20 kPa. Steam is extracted from the turbine at 0.4 MPa
to heat the feedwater in an open feedwater heater.
Water leaves the feedwater heater as a saturated liquid.
Show the cycle on a T-s diagram, and determine (a) the
net work output per kilogram of steam flowing through
the boiler and (b) the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
30
31
32
x
EXAMPLE: Repeat the previous example by
replacing the open feedwater heater with a closed
feedwater heater. Assume that the feedwater leaves
the heater at the condensation temperature of the
extracted steam and that the extracted steam
leaves the heater as a saturated liquid and is
pumped to the line carrying the feedwater.
33
x
34
x
35
EXAMPLE:
A steam power plant operates on an ideal reheat–
regenerative Rankine cycle and has a net power output of
80 MW.MW Steam
St enters
t th high-pressure
the hi h t bi att 10 MPa
turbine MP
and 550°C and leaves at 0.8 MPa. Some steam is
extracted at this p pressure to heat the feedwater in an open
p
feedwater heater. The rest of the steam is reheated to
500°C and is expanded in the low-pressure turbine to the
condenser pressure of 10 kPa. kPa Show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation
lines, and determine
( ) the
(a) th mass flow
fl rate
t off steam
t th
throughh
the boiler and
((b)) the thermal efficiencyy of the cycle.
y
36
SOLUTION:
37
38
10-7 SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF VAPOR
POWER CYCLES
Exergy destruction for a steady-flow system
Steady-flow, one-
inlet, one-exit
Stream exergy
A second-law analysis of vaporpower cycles reveals where the largest
irreversibilities occur and where to start improvements.
The ideal Carnot cycle is a totally reversible cycle, and thus it does not involve any irreversibilities. The
ideal Rankine cycles (simple, reheat, or regenerative), however, are only internally reversible, and they
may involve irreversibilities external to the system, such as heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference. A second-law analysis of these cycles reveals where the largest irreversibilities occur and 39
what their magnitudes are.
EXAMPLE: Determine the exergy destruction associated with the
reheating and regeneration processes described in previous example.
Assume a source temperature of 1800 K and a sink temperature of 290 K.
SOLUTION:
40
10-8 COGENERATION
Many industries require energy input in the form of heat, called process
heat Process heat in these industries is usually supplied by steam at 5 to
heat.
7 atm and 150 to 200°C. Energy is usually transferred to the steam by
burning coal, oil, natural gas, or another fuel in a furnace.
Now let us examine the operation of a process
process-heating
heating plant closely
closely.
Disregarding any heat losses in the piping, all the heat transferred to
the steam in the boiler is used in the process-heating units, as shown
in Fig. 10–20. Therefore, process heating seems like a perfect
operation with practically no waste of energy. From the second-law
pointt o
po of view,
e , however,
o e e , tthings
gs do not
ot look
oo so pe
perfect.
ect Thee te
temperature
pe atu e
in furnaces is typically very high (around 1400°C), and thus the
energy in the furnace is of very high quality. This high-quality energy
is transferred to water to produce steam at about 200°C or below (a
highly irreversible process). Associated with this irreversibility is, of
course, a loss in exergy or work potential. It is simply not wise to use
high-quality energy to accomplish a task that could be accomplished
with low-quality energy.
44
EXAMPLE: Steam enters the turbine of a cogeneration plant at 7 MPa
and 500
500°C C. One
One-fourth
fourth of the steam is extracted from the turbine at 600-
600
kPa pressure for process heating. The remaining steam continues to
expand to 10 kPa. The extracted steam is then condensed and mixed
with feedwater at constant pressure and the mixture is pumped to the
boiler pressure of 7 MPa. The mass flow rate of steam through the
boiler is 30 kg/s. Disregarding any pressure drops and heat losses in
the p
piping,
p g and assuming g the turbine and the ppump p to be isentropic,
p
determine the net power produced and the utilization factor of the plant.
45
SOLUTION:
46
47
10-9 COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES
• The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather
innovative modifications to conventional power plants.
• A popular modification involves a gas power cycle topping a vapor power cycle,
which
hi h is
i called
ll d th
the combined
bi d gas–vapor cycle,l or just
j t the
th combined
bi d cycle.
l
• The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle topping
a steam-turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher thermal efficiency than
either of the cycles
y executed individually.
y
• It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very desirable
characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use the high-
temperature exhaust gases as the energy source for the bottoming cycle such as
a steam
t power cycle. l The
Th resultlt is
i a combined
bi d gas–steam
t cycle.
l
• Recent developments in gas-turbine technology have made the combined gas–
steam cycle economically very attractive.
• The combined cycle increases the efficiency without increasing the initial cost
greatly. Consequently, many new power plants operate on combined cycles, and
many more existing steam- or gas-turbine plants are being converted to
combined-cycle power plants.
• Thermal efficiencies over 50% are reported.
48
Gas-turbine cycles typically operate at considerably higher temperatures
than steam cycles. The maximum fluid temperature at the turbine inlet is
about 620°C (1150°F) for modern steam power plants, but over 1425°C
(2600°F) for gas-turbine power plants. It is over 1500°C at the burner exit
off turbojet
t b j t engines.
i The
Th use off higher
hi h ttemperatures
t in
i gas turbines
t bi iis made
d
possible by recent developments in cooling the turbine blades and coating
the blades with high-temperature-resistant materials such as ceramics.
The energy source of the steam is the
waste energy of the exhausted
combustion gases.
heat exchanger
serves as the
boiler.
For air,
air assume constant specific heats at room temp
temp.
50
SOLUTION:
51
52
Summary
• The Carnot vapor cycle
• Rankine cycle: The ideal cycle for vapor power cycles
9 Energy analysis of the ideal Rankine cycle
• Deviation of actual vapor power cycles from idealized ones
• How can we increase the efficiency of the Rankine cycle?
9 Lowering
L i ththe condenser
d pressure (Lowers
L Tlow,avg)
9 Superheating the steam to high temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)
9 Increasing the boiler pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
• Th ideal
The id l reheat
h t Rankine
R ki cycle l
• The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle
9 Open feedwater heaters
9 Closed feedwater heaters
• Second-law analysis of vapor power cycles
• Cogeneration
g
• Combined gas–vapor power cycles
53