UNIT-I

Highway Development and Planning

DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD

Early developments
The oldest mode of travel obviously was on the foot-tracks. Animals were also used
to transport men and materials. Later simple animal drawn vehicles were developed
and this became a common and popular mode of transportation for a very long period after
the invention of wheel.
Roman roads
The main features of the Romans roads are:
(a) They were built straight regardless of gradients

(b) The soft soil was excavated and removed till hard stratum was reached

(c) The total thickness of the construction was as high as 0.75 to 1.2 meters at
some places, even though the magnitude of wheel loads of animal drawn
Vehicles was very low

Macadam Method of Construction

John Macadam (1756-1836) put forward an entirely new method of road construction as compared
to all the previous methods. The first attempt to improve the road condition was made by him in 1815. Macadam
was the Surveyor General of Roads in England and his new concept of road construction became known by theN
ear 1827. The important modifications made in Macadam's method with respect to the older methods and the
main features of the proposed method are given under:
(a) Macadam realized that the soil sub grade being the lowest portion of the pavement should be
prepared properly and kept drained so as to carry the load transmitted through the pavement. Therefore the
subgrade was compacted andwas prepared with a cross slope of 1 in 36
(b) He was the first engineer to suggest that heavy foundation stones are not at all necessary to be
placed at the bottom layer of construction. Macadam suggested that instead of placing
large foundation stones, small size broken stones shall be spread over the prepared soil sub
grade and compacted
(c) Similarly the next layer of the pavement also was constructed above this layer with small
broken stones

(d) Though the total thickness of construction was less than previous methods, this technique could
serve as a carriageway in a better way due to improved load dispersion characteristics of
compacted broken stone aggregates of smaller sizes
(e) The size of broken stones for the top layer was decided based on the stability under animal
drawn vehicles. The pavement surface was also prepared with a cross slope of 1 in 36 for
drainage of surface water
A typical cross section of Macadam's construction is shown in Fig. 2.1. This was the first method
based on scientific thinking. It was realized that the stresses due to wheel load of traffic gets decreased
at the lower layers of the pavement and therefore it is not necessary to provide large and strong boulder
stones as 'foundation or soling course' at the lowest layer of the pavement. This method became very
popular far and wide.
The construction steps are:

(a) Sub grade is compacted and prepared with a cross slope of 1 in 36 upto a desired width
(about 9 meters)

(b) Broken stones of a strong variety, all passing through 5 cm size sieve were compacted to a
uniform thickness of 10 cm

(c) The second layer of strong broken stones of size 3.75 cm was compacted to thickness of 10
cm
(d) The top layer consisted of stones of size less than 2 cm compacted to a
thickness of about 5 cm and finished so that the cross slope of pavement surface was
also I in 36

Roads in Ancient India

Ancient roads
e.',1.
The excavations of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa have revealed the existence of roads in India
as early as 25 to 35 centuries B.C. Old rods reveal that in early periods the roads were
considered indispensable for administrative and military purposes. The ancient scriptures refer to
the existence of roads (hiring the Aryan period in the fourth century B.C. In the beginning of fifth
century A.D., emperor Ashoka had improved the roads and provided facilities for travelers.

Roads in Mughal period

During the Pathan and Mughal periods, the roads of India were greatly improved. Some of the
highways either built or maintained by Mughals received great appreciation from the foreign
visitors who visited India during those periods. Roads were built running from North-West to the
Eastern areas through the Gangetic plains, linking also the coastal and central parts.
Roads in nineteenth century during British rule
The fall of Mughal empire led therefore to the scant attention to the road transportation. The economic and
political shifts caused damage to a great extent in the maintenance of the roads. At the beginning of British rule,
the conditions of roads deteriorated. Prior to the introduction of railway tracks connecting some of the
locations, a number of trunk roads were metalled and bridges were constructed. This was mainly done on
the remains of old roads which existed, under the supervision of the British Military Engineers. In fact these
roads connected important military and business centers.
 Road Development in India during Twentieth Century:
During the second decade of the 20th century, soon after the First World War the motor vehicles using
the roads in India also increased and this demanded better roads. However the roads that existed then
with 'Water Bound Macadam' (WBM) surface and other inferior surfaces were not able to withstand
the mixed traffic consisting of slow moving vehicles and the motor vehicles.
A resolution was passed by both Chambers of the Indian Legislature in the year 1927 for the
appointment of a committee to examine and report on the question of road development in India. In
response to the resolution, a Road Development Committee was appointed by the Government in
1927, with M.R. Jayakar as the Chairman.
Jayakar Committee recommendations

Jayakar Committee submitted its report by, the year 1928. The most important recommendations
made by the committee are:
(a) The road development in the country should be considered as a national interest as this has become
beyond the capacity of provincial governments and local bodies
(b) An extra tax should be levied on petrol from the road users to develop a road development
fund called 'Central Road Fund'

(c) A semi-official technical body should be formed to pool technical know-how

from various parts of the country and to act as an advisory body on various
aspects of roads

(d) A research organization should be instituted to carry out research and

development work pertaining to roads and to be available for consultations
Most of the recommendations of Jayakar Committee were accepted by the
government, and the major recommendations were implemented subsequently. The
Central Road Fund was formed by the year 1929, the semi-official technical body
called the 'Indian Roads Congress' was formed in 1934 and the Central Road Research Institute
was started in the year 1950.

Central Road Fund:

Based on the authority of a resolution adopted by the Indian Legislature, the Central Road
Fund (CRF) was formed on 1st March 1929. At that period the consumers of petrol were
charged an extra levy of 2.64 paisa per liter of petrol to build up this road development
fund.
Central Road Fund Act — 2000 was notified in December 2000 which gave
statutory status to the existing Central Road Fund governed by a resolution of the
Parliament in 1988. The rate of duty on petrol on high speed diesel (HSD) was then fixed
as one Rupee per liter. At present the revised cess collected on petrol and HSD towards
CRF is @ Rs.2/- per liter. The fund accrued is distributed for the development
and maintenance of national highways, state roads, rural roads and for constructing
identified grade separators across railway tracks.
 .Indian road congress:
At the instance of central government a semi-official technical body known as Indian Roads
Congress (IRC) was formed in 1934. It may be recalled that this was one of the main
recommendations made by the Jayakar Committee. The Indian Roads Congress was constituted to
provide a forum for regular pooling of experience, technical knowledge and ideas on all matters
related to the planning, construction and maintenance of roads in India.

Central Road Research Institute

In the year 1950, the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) was started at New Delhi for carrying out
research pertaining to road technology. It may be indicated. that one of the recommendations of Jayakar
Committee report was to set up a central organization for research and dissemination of information.
Motor Vehicle Act
In 1939 the Motor Vehicles Act was brought into effect by Government of India
regulate the road traffic in the form of traffic laws, ordinances and regulations. The Motor Vehicles Act — 1939
was consolidated and revised in the year 1988 and various laws regulating road transport were rationalized. The
Motor Vehicle Act — 1988 came into force from July 1989, replacing the 1939 Act. Subsequently certain
provisions of this Act were amended a few times.
Nagpur Road Conference and Plan (1943-61)
A conference of the Chief Engineers of all the states and provinces was convened in 1943 by the
Government of India at Nagpur, at initiative of the Indian Roads Congress to finalise the first road
development plan for the country as a whole. This is a landmark in the history of road development in
India, as it was the first attempt to prepare a co-ordinate road development programme in a planned manner.
Thus the `First 20-year Road Development Plan' in India was finalized for the period 1943 - 63 at the
Nagpur Road Conference. Therefore this road development plan is popularly known as `Nagpur Road
Plan'. The total target road length aimed at the end of this plan period was 16 km per 100 square km area
of the country.
National Highway Act:
In 1956 the 'National Highway Act' was passed in the country. Some of the main features of the act
include powers:

(a) to declare certain selected highways as 'National Highways', responsibility of development and
maintenance of which to be with the central government
(b) to enter into any land for carrying out surveys
(c) to acquire land and take possession for the development of the national highway
The National Highway Act was subsequently revised and the 'National Highways Authority of India
Act — 1988' was passed by the Parliament of India in 1988. The National Highways Authority of India
(NHAI) started operating in February 1995.
Second Twenty Year Road Development Plan (1961-81)
The second 20 - year Road Development Plan for the period 1961 - 81 was initiated by the IRC and
was finalized in 1959 at the meeting of the Chief Engineers held at Mumbai and the same was forwarded
to the Government of India. The plan gave due consideration to the development that are actually taking
place and developments that have to take place in various regions of the country in different fields during
the plan period. The target road length at the end of this second 20 year road development plan was almost
double that of the Nagpur road plan target i.e. a total road length of 10,57,330 km or about 32 km per
100 sq km area. An outlay of Rs. 5,200 crors for the period ending 1980-81 was envisaged for this
second twenty year plan, based on 1958 price level.

Third twenty year road development plan (1981-2001)

The Third 20 - year road development plan 1981-2001 was prepared by the Roads Wing of the Ministry
of Transport with the active co-operation from a number of organizations and experts in the field of
Highway Engineering and Transportation. This document was released during the 45th Annual Session and
the Golden Jubilee celebrations of the Indian Road Congress in February 1985 at Lucknow. This plan has
been prepared keeping in view the growth pattern envisaged in various fields by the turn of the century.
Some of the points which were given due consideration while formulating the plan are improvement of
transportation facilities in villages, towns and small cities, conservation of energy, preservation of
environmental quality and improvement in road safety.
The third 20 - Year road development plan aimed at increasing the total road length (including urban and
project roads) from 15,02,700 km in the year 1981 to 27,02,000 km by the year 2001. This will result in
an increase in road density from 46 km per 100 sq. km in the year 1981 to 82 km per 100 sq km by the
year 2001. As the development of National Highways fell short of the targets set by the first two
twenty year road development plans, the third road plan of 1981 - 2001 has set the target length of NH to
be completed by the end of seventh, eighth and ninth five year plan periods.
HIGHWAY PLANNING
Objects of highway planning:
Planning is considered as a pre-requisite before attempting any development
programme in the present era. This is particularly true for any engineering project, as planning is
the basic requirement for any new project or an expansion programme. Thus there is a need for
planned development of the road net work and the links. Highway planning is of great
importance when the funds available are limited whereas the total requirement is much higher.
In developing countries like India it is important to utilize the available funds in the best
possible manner by resorting to best planning principles.
The objects of highway planning are briefly given below:
(a) To plan overall road net work for efficient and safe traffic operation, but at minimum
cost. Here the costs of construction, maintenance and resurfacing or strengthening of
pavement layers and the vehicle operation cost are to be given due consideration
(b) To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of roads which
could provide maximum utility and could be constructed within the available
resources during the plan period under consideration
(c) To divide the overall plan into phases and to decide priorities

(d) To fix up date-wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as the
main criterion for phasing the road development programme
(e) To plan for future requirements and improvements of roads in view of anticipated
developments
(f) To work out suitable financing system Phases of highway planning
Highway planning includes the following phases:
(a) Assessment of road length requirement for an area (it may be a district, state or the whole
country)
(b) Preparation of master plan showing the phasing of plan in five year plans or
annual plans
In order to plan the road system in the selected region, state or country, different studies and
surveys are to be carried out to collect the data required. The data collected are to be
processed and analyzed to arrive at the best possible road network and to arrive at the optimum
length of the road system.
 Classification of Roads
Different approaches
Types of roads
The roads are generally classified into two categories, depending on whether they can be
used during different seasons of the year:
(i) All-weather roads and
(ii) Fair-weather roads
All-weather roads are those which are negotiable during all seasons of the year, except at
major river crossings where some interruption to traffic is permissible up to a certain extent,
but the road pavement should be negotiable during all weathers. On 'fair weather roads' the traffic
may be interrupted during monsoon season at causeways where streams may overflow across the
road.
Based on the type of the carriageway or the road pavement, the roads are classified as `paved roads' and
`un-paved roads'. The roads with a hard pavement surface on the carriageway are called 'paved roads'.
The roads without a hard pavement surface on the carriageway are called 'unpaved roads'. Earth
roads and gravel roads may be called unpaved roads.
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, the roads may be classified as `surfaced roads'
and `un-surfaced roads'. Road pavements with any type of bituminous surface or cement concrete are
called surfaced roads. The roads which are not provided with a bituminous or cement concrete surfacing
are called un-surfaced roads.
Methods of classification of roads
The roads are generally classified based on the following:
(a) Traffic volume
(b) Load transported or tonnage
(c) Location and function

The classification based on traffic volume or tonnage has been arbitrarily fixed by different
agencies and there may not be a common agreement regarding the limits for each of classification
group. Based on the traffic volume or flow, the roads are classified as heavy, medium and low
volume roads. These terms are relative and so the limits under each class should be clearly
defined and expressed as vehicles per day or 'annual average daily traffic', etc. Likewise the
classification based on load or tonnage is also relative and the roads may be classified as class L
II etc. or class A, B etc. and the limits may be expressed in terms of tones per day.
 The classification based on location and function should therefore be a more
acceptable classification method for a country as they may be defined clearly.
Road classification based on location and function
Road classification as per Nagpur road plan:
The Nagpur Road Plan classified the roads in India based on location and function into
following five categories and described below:
(i) National Highways (NH)
(ii) State Highways (SH)
(iii) Major District Roads (MDR)
(iv) Other District Roads (ODR) and
(v) Village Roads (VR)
National Highways (NH) are main highways running through the length and
breadth of India, connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of large states
and large industrial and tourist centres including roads required for strategic
movements for the defence of India.

All the national highways are assigned the respective numbers. For example, NH-
I is the national highway connecting Delhi, Ambala, Jalandhar and Amritsar (up to
Pakistan border); NH-4 connects Thane, Pune, Belgaum, Hubli, Bangalore, Chittoor
and Chennai.
State Highways (SH) are arterial roads of a state, connecting the national
highways of adjacent state, district head quarters and important cities within the
state and serve as the main arteries for traffic to and from district roads. These
highways are considered as main arteries of commerce by road within a state
or a similar geographical unit.

Major District Roads (MDR) are important roads within a district serving areas of
production and markets and connecting with other major roads or main highways of a district.
The MDR has lower speed and geometric design specifications than NH/SH.
Other District Roads (ODR) are roads serving rural areas of production and providing
them with outlet to market centres, taluk head quarters, block development head quarters or
other main roads. These are of lower design specifications than MDR

Village Roads (VR) are roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each
other to the nearest road of a higher category. It was specified that these village roads should
be in essence farm tracks, but it was desired that the prevalent practice of leaving such
tracks to develop and maintain by themselves should be replaced by a plan for a
designed and regulated system.
Road classification as per third 20-year road development plan, 1981 - 2001
The road classification system was modified in the third 20-year road development plan. The
roads in the country are now classified into three classes, for the purpose of transport planning,
functional identification, earmarking administrative jurisdictions and assigning priorities on a
road net work.
(i) Primary system
(ii) Secondary system and
(iii) Tertiary system or rural roads
Primary system consists of two categories of highways:
(a) Expressways and
(b) National Highways (NH)
Expressways are a separate class of highways with. Superior facilities and design standards
and are meant as through routes having very high volume of traffic. The expressways are to be
provided with divided carriageways, controlled access, grade separations at cross roads and
fencing. These highways should permit only fast moving vehicles. Expressways may be owned
by the Central Government or a State Government, depending on whether the route is a
National Highway or State Highway. The National Highways form the other main category of
primary system in the country.
The Secondary system consists of two categories of roads:
(a) State Highways (SH) and
(b) Major District Roads (MDR)
The Tertiary systems are rural roads and these consist of two categories of roads:
(a) Other District Road (ODR)
(b) Village Roads (VR)
The definitions of NH, SH, MDR, ODR and VR are the same as given under
classification of roads by Nagpur Road Plan.
Classification of urban roads:
The road systems within urban areas are classified as Urban Roads and will form a separate
category of roads to be taken care by the respective urban authorities. The lengths of urban roads
are not included in the targets of the Third Twenty Year Road
Development Plan 1981-2001.
The urban roads are classified as:

(a) Arterial roads

(b) Sub-arterial roads
(c) Collector streets and
(d) Local streets
 Arterials and sub-arterials are urban roads primarily for through traffic on a continuous
route, but the sub-arterials have a lower level of traffic mobility than the arterials. Collector
streets provide access to arterial roads and they collect and distribute traffic from and to
local streets which provide access to abutting property.

Road Patterns:
The various road Patterns may be classified as follows:
(a) Rectangular or block pattern
(b) Hexagonal pattern
(c) Radial or star and block pattern
(d) Radial or star and circular pattern
(e) Radial or star and grid pattern
The above types of road patterns have been shown in Fig. 2.2 a, b, c, d & e.
Each of these patterns has its own advantages and limitations. There can be a number
of other geometric patterns also. The choice of the pattern very much depends on the locality,
the layout of different towns, villages, industrial and production centres and on the choice of
the planning engineer.

BUILT UP AREA ROAD

•

L
_____ CENTRAL
BUSINESS
AREA

CROSS
ROADS

Rectangular or block pattern

RADIAL ROADS
RECTANGULAR
PATTERN

BUILT UP
AREAS

Hexagonal pattern Radial or star and block pattern

 XiYi MDR1ODR
—

Y1Y2 MDRISH

ZiZi SH/NH
X VILLAGE
Y — DISTRICT HEAD QUARTER/TOWN
Z — STATE CAPITAL/BIG CITY •

 ,0 — NATIONAL CAPITAL/
METROPOLITAN CITY

Concept of star and grid pattern

PLANNING SURVEYS AND INTERPRETATION

Planning Surveys
The studies for collecting the factual data for highway planning are known as 'fact finding
studies' or 'planning surveys'. The fact - finding studies point to an intelligent approach for
planning and these studies should be carried out if the highway programme is to be
protected from inconsistent and short sighted policies. Planning based on the factual data and
analysis may be considered scientific and sound. The planning surveys consist of the following
studies:
(a) Economic studies
(b) Financial studies
(c) Traffic or road use studies
(d) Engineering studies

Economic studies
The details to be collected during economic studies are useful in estimating the requirements,
cost involved for the proposed highway improvement programme and the economic justification.
Hence it is desirable to find the service given by each road system to the population and various
types of products (such as different types of agricultural produce and industrial products) of the
area. It is essential to first collect all details of the existing facilities, the deficiencies,
future trends additional requirements and the estimated cost of improvements. These particulars
are useful to work out economic justification of each plan. The details to be collected include the
following:
 (a) Total population and classified distribution of the different population groups
based on occupation, income, etc. in each village, town or other locality and
the area of settlement of each classified in group
(b) Trend of population growth of various population groups
(c) Agricultural and industrial products and their listing in classified groups, area
wise
(d) Industrial and agricultural development, diversifications if any and future
trends

(e) Existing facilities with regard to communication, education, banks, hospitals,

post office, recreation facilities, etc
(f) Per capita income

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Introduction
The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground
is called the alignment. Highway alignment includes both horizontal and
vertical alignments of the roadway. The horizontal alignment includes the
straight path, the deviations and horizontal curves. Changes in gradient and
vertical curves are covered under vertical alignment of roads.
A new road should be aligned very carefully as improper alignment would
result in increase in one or more of the following:
(a)Construction cost
(b)Maintenance cost
(c)Vehicle operation cost
(d)Accident rate
Once the road is aligned and constructed, it is not easy to change the
alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction of
costly structures by the road side, as the land value increases manifolds
once the road is opened to traffic. Hence the importance of car eful
considerations while finalizing the alignment of a new road need not be
over-emphasized.
Requirements:
The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations
are that it should be:
(a)Short
(b)Easy
(c)Safe and
(d)Economical
Short: It is desirable to have a short (or shortest) alignment between two
terminal stations. A straight alignment would be the shortest, though there
may be several practical considerations which would cause deviations from
the shortest path.
Easy: The alignment should be such that it is easy to construct and
maintain the road with minimum problems. Also the alignment should be
easy for the operation of vehicles with easy gradients and curves.
Safe: The alignment should be safe enough for construc tion and
maintenance from the view point of stability of natural hill slopes,
embankment and cut slopes, foundation of embankments. Also it should be
safe for the traffic operation with safe geometric features.
Economical : The road alignment could be considered economical only if
the total life cycle cost considering the initial cost, maintenance cost and
vehicle operation cost is lowest.
Factors Controlling Alignment:
For an alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between the two
terminal stations. This is not always possible due to various practical
difficulties such as intermediate obstructions and topography. A shortest
route may have very steep gradients and hence not easy for vehicle
operation. Similarly, there may be construction and mainte nance problems
along a route which may otherwise be short and easy. Roads are often
deviated from the shortest route in order to cater for intermediate places of
importance or obligatory points.
A road which is economical with lowest initial construction c ost, need not
necessarily be the most economical in maintenance or in vehicle operation
cost. It may also happen that the shortest and easiest route for vehicle
operation may work out to be the costliest of the different alternatives from
construction view point. Thus it may be seen that an alignment can seldom
fulfill all the requirements simultaneously; hence a judicial choice is made
considering all the factors.
The various factors which control the highway alignment in general are:
(a)Obligatory points
(b)Traffic
(c)Geometric design
(d)Economics
(e)Other considerations
Obligatory points:
These are control points governing the alignment of the highways. These
control points may be divided broadly into two categories.
(i)Points through which the alignment is to pass
(ii)Points through which the alignment should not pass
Points through which the alignment has to pass
Obligatory points through which the road alignment has to pass are
generally due to the topographic and other site conditions including natural
obstructions. Some of the examples of this category include location of a
mountain pass, suitable location of bridge to cross a river, presence of
quarry or an intermediate town to be connected. These obligatory points
necessitate deviation of the road alignment from the straight alignment with
shortest or easiest path.
Points through which the alignment should not pass
There are obligatory points through which the road should not pass and
these locations may make it necessary to deviate from the proposed shortest
alignment. The obligatory points which should be avoided while aligning a
road include religious places, very costly structures, unsuitable land etc.
Religious places like temple, mosque, church, grave or tomb have been
protected by the law from being acquired for any purpose. Acquiring costly
structures would mean heavy compensation resulting in increased cost.

Marshy, peaty and water logged areas are generally unsuitable for road
construction and should be avoided as far as pos sible. If a marshy land with
peaty soil falls on the path of a straight alignment, it may be necessary to
deviate the road alignment from the straight path and go round the
unsuitable land or pond as shown in Fig. 3.1(d). The other alternative
method is to resort to very expensive construction techniques.
Traffic
The road alignment should be decided based on the requirements of road
traffic. Origin and Destination study should be carried out in the area and
the desire lines be drawn showing the trend of traffic flow. The new road to
be aligned should keep in view the desire lines, anticipated traffic flow,
classified traffic volume, their growth and future trends.
Geometric design
Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve and sight
distances also would govern the final alignment of the highway. If straight
alignment is aimed at, often it may be necessary to provide very steep
gradients. As far as possible while aligning a new road, the gradient should
be flat and less than the ruling or de sign gradient. Thus it may be necessary
to change the alignment considering the design speed, maximum allowable
super elevation and coefficient of lateral friction. It may be necessary to
make adjustment in the horizontal alignment of roads keeping in view the
minimum radius of curve and the transition curves.
The absolute minimum sight distance, which should invariably be made
available in every section of the road, is the safe stopping distance for the
fast moving vehicles. Also there should be enough dis tance visible ahead
for safe overtaking maneuvers of vehicles moving at design speed on the
road. Hence the alignment should be finalized in such a way that the
obstructions to visibility do not cause restrictions to the sight distance
requirements.
Economics
The alignment finalized based on the above factors should also be
economical. While working out the economics, the factors to be considered
are, (0 initial construction cost of the road, (ii) regular and periodic
maintenance cost of the road and (iii) vehicle operation cost in f uture
years. While trying to decrease the initial construction cost, either the
future road maintenance cost or vehicle operation cost or both of these may
increase considerably. Therefore while carrying out economic analysis, it is
essential to work out overall economics based on life cycle cost' of the road
project and not consider the initial cost of the road project only.
Other considerations
Various other factors which may govern either the horizontal or vertical
alignment of the road are drainage considerations, hydrological factors,
political considerations and monotony. The vertical alignment is often
guided by drainage considerations. The sub -surface water level, seepage
flow and high flood level are the factors to be kept in view, while deciding
the highway alignment.
Special Considerations while Aligning Roads on Hilly Areas
During alignment of hill roads, special care should be taken on the
following points which pertain to the hill roads:
(a)Stability of hill side slopes
(b)Drainage of surface and subsurface water flowing from the hill side
(c)Special geometric standards for hill roads, and
(d)Resisting length
Stability
While aligning hill roads, special care should be taken to align the road
along the side of the hill which is stable. A commo n problem in hill roads
is that of landslides. The cutting and filling of earth to construct roads on
hill-side causes steepening of existing slopes and this affect its stability of
the hill slopes.
Drainage
Numerous hill-side drains should be provided for adequate drainage facility
across the road. But the cross drainage structure being costly, attempts
should be made to align the road in such a way that the number of very
expensive cross drainage structures is kept minimum.
Geometric standard of hill road s
Different sets of geometric design standards are followed on hill roads with
reference to gradient, curves and speed and they consequently influence the
sight distance, radius of curve and other related features. The route should
enable the ruling gradient to be attained in most of the length, minimizing
steep gradients, hair pin bands and needless rise and fall.
Resisting length
The resisting length of a road may be calculated from the total work to be
done to move the loads along the route taking the ho rizontal length, the
actual difference in levels between the two stations and the sum of
ineffective rise and fall in excess of floating gradient. In brief, the resisting
length of the alignment should kept as low as possible. Thus the ineffective
rise and excessive fall should be kept minimum.
Engineering surveys for highway alignment
Stages of Engineering Surveys
Before a highway alignment is finalized in a new highway project, en
earring surveys are to be carried out. These engineering surveys may be
completed in the following four stages: -
(a)Map study
(b)Reconnaissance survey
(c)Preliminary surveys and
(d)Final location and details -surveys.
Map Study
If the topographic map of the area is available, it is possible to suggest the
likely routes of the road. In India; topographic maps are available from the
Survey of India with 15 or 30 meter contour intervals. The main features
like rivers, hills valleys, etc. are also shown on these maps. By careful
study of such maps, it is .possible to have an idea of several possible
alternate routes so that further details of these may be studied..latcr at the
site. The probable alignment can be located on the map from the following
details available on the map.
(a)Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds or lakes
(b)When the road has to cross a row of hills or mountains, possibility of
crossing through a mountain pass
(c)Approximate location of bridge site for crossing rivers, avoiding bend of
the river, if any
(d)when a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the top and
the other on the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested
keeping in view the design or ruling gradient and the maximum permissible
gradient
Reconnaissance
The second stage of engineering surveys for highway alignment is the
reconnaissance survey. During the reconnaissance, the engineer visits the
site and examines the general characteristics of the area before deciding the
most feasible routes for defaiFe7d:studiei A field survey party -may inspect
a fairly broad stretch of land along the proposed alternative routes of the
map in the field. Only very simple survey instruments are used by the
reconnaissance party to collect additional details rapidly, but not
accurately. All relevant details which are not available in the map are
collected and noted down. Some of the details to be collected during
reconnaissance are given below:
(i)Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and
other obstructions along the route which are not available in the map
(ii)approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves
of alternate alignments.
(iii)Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and
natural ground water level along the probable routes
(iv)Soil type along the routes from field identification tests and observation
of geological features
(v)Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries
(vi)When the road passes through hilly or mountainous terrain, additional
data regarding the geological formation, type of rocks, dip of strata,
seepage flow etc. may be observed so as to decide the stable and unstable
sides of the hill for highway alignment
Preliminary Survey
The main objectives of the preliminary survey are:
(i) To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the
reconnaissance and to collect all the necessary physical information and
details of topography, drainage and soil
(ii) To compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a
good alignment
(iii) To estimate quantity of earth work materials and other construction
aspects and to work out the cost of alternate proposals
(iv) To finalize the best alignment from all considerations
The preliminary survey is carried out to collect all the physical information
which ire necessary in connection with the proposed highway alignment.
The preliminary survey may be carried out by any one of the following
methods:

Soil survey
Soil survey is an essential part of the preliminary survey as the suitability
of the proposed location is to be finally decided based on the soil survey
data. The soil survey conducted at this stage also helps in working out
details of earth work, slopes, suitability of mat erials, subsoil and surface
drainage requirements and pavement type and the approximate thickness
requirements. All these details are required to make a comparative study of
alternate proposals.
Material survey
The survey for naturally occurring materials likes stone aggregates, soft
aggregates, etc. and identification of suitable quarries should be made.
Also availability of manufactured materials like cement, lime, brick, etc.
and their locations may be ascertained.
Traffic survey
Traffic surveys conducted in the region form the basis for deciding the
number of traffic lanes and roadway width, pavement design and economic
analysis of the highway project. Traffic volume counts of the classified
vehicles are to be carried out on all the existing ro ads in the region,
preferably for 24 hours per day for seven days. Origin and destination
surveys are very useful for deciding the alignment of the roads. This study
may be carried out on a suitable sample of vehicle users or drivers. In
addition, the required traffic data may also be collected so that the traffic
forecast could be made for 10 to 20 year periods.
Determination of final centre line
After completing the preliminary surveys and conducting the comparative
studies of alternative alignments, the final centre line of the road is to be
decided in the office before the final location survey. For this, the
preliminary survey maps consisting of contour plans, longitudinal profile
and cross sections of the alternate alignments should be prepared and
carefully studied to decide the best alignment satisfying engineering,
aesthetic and economical requirements. After selecting the final alignment,
the grade lines are drawn and the geometric elements of the horizontal and
vertical alignments of the road are d esigned.

Rapid method using aerial survey and modern technique using GPS
Aerial photographic surveys and photogrammetric methods are very much
suited for preliminary surveys, especially when the distance and area to be
covered are vast. The survey may be divided into the following steps:
Taking aerial photographs of the strips of land to be surveyed with the
required longitudinal and lateral overlaps. Vertical photographs are
necessary for the preparation of mosaics.
(a)The photographs are examined under stereoscopes and control points are
selected for establishing the traverses of the alternate proposals. The
control points are located on the maps
(b)Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels and subsequently contour
details may be noted down on the maps
(c)Photo-interpretation methods are used to assess the geological features,
soil conditions, drainage requirements etc.
Final Location and Detailed Survey
The alignment finalized at the design office after the preliminary survey is
to be first located on the field by establishing the centre line. Next detailed
survey should be carried out for collecting the information necessary for
the preparation of plans and construction details for the highway project.
Location
The centre line of the road finalized in drawings is to be transferred on the
ground during the location survey. This is done using a transit theodolite
and by staking of the centre line. The location of the centre line should
follow, as closely as practicable, the alignment finalized after the
preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are established on the
ground and centre pegs are driven, checking the geometric design
requirements. However modifications in the final location may be made in
the field, if found essential. The centre line stakes are driven at suitable
intervals, say at 50 metre intervals in plain and rolling terrains and at 20
metre in hilly terrain.
Detailed survey
Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 m and at all
drainage and under pass structures. Levels along the final centre line
should be taken at all staked points. Levelling work is of great importance
as the vertical alignment, earth work calculations and drainage details are
to be worked out from the level notes. The cross section levels are taken up
to the desired width, at intervals of 50 to 100 m in plain terrain, 50 to 75 m
in rolling terrain, 50 m in built -up areas and 20 m in hilly terrain. The cross
sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and where
there is abrupt change in cross slopes. All river crossing, valleys etc.
should be surveyed in detail up to considerable distances on either side.
All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using
conventional signs. Adequate hydrological detail s are also collected and
recorded.
DRAWINGS AND REPORT
Drawings
The following drawings are usually prepared in a highway project:
(i)Key map
(ii)Index map
(iii)Preliminary survey plans
(iv)Detailed plan and longitudinal section
(v)Detailed cross section
(vi)Land acquisition plans
(vii)Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
(viii)Drawings of road intersections
(ix)Land plans showing quarries, etc.
Key map should show the proposed and existing roads, and important
places to be connected. The size of the plan generally should not exceed 22
x 20 cm. The scale of the map is chosen suitably depending upon the length
of road.
Index map should show the general topography of the area. The details are
symbolically represented. The index map should also be of suitable scale,
the size being 32 x 20 cm.
Preliminary survey plans showing details of the various alternate
alignments and all information collected should be normally drawn to scale
of 10 cm = 1 km to 25 cm =1 km.
Detailed plans show the ground plan with alignment and the boundaries,
contours at intervals of 1 to 2 m in plain terrain and 3 to 6 m in hills,
showing all details including existing structures. A scale of 1/2400 in close
country and a scale of 1/1200 may be adopted for detailed plans. The size
of the drawing may be A-2 size or 60 x 42 cm approximately.
Longitudinal sections should be drawn to the same horizontal scale of the
ground as in detailed plan. Vertical scale may be enlarged 10 times of the
longitudinal scale. The longitudinal section should show the details such as
datum line, existing ground surface, vertical profile of the proposed road
and position of drainage crossings.
Detailed cross sections are generally drawn to natural scale of 1 cm = 2.0
to 2.5 m. Cross section should be drawn every 100 m or where there are
abrupt changes in level. In hill roads the cross sections should be drawn at
closer intervals. The cross section drawings should extend at least up to the
proposed right of way. The cross section number, the reduced distances and
the area of filling and/or cutting should be shown -- on cross section
drawings.
Land acquisition plans and schedules are usually prepared from the survey
drawings for land acquisition details. These plans show all general de tails
such as buildings, wells, nature of gradients and other details required for
assessing the values. The scale adopted may be 1 cm = 40 m or less.
Detailed design for cross drainage and masonry structures are usually
drawn to scale of 1 cm = 1 m. For d etails of any complicated portion of the
structure enlarged scales up to 8 cm = 1 m or up to half full size may be
employed. However the size of drawing should not exceed the standard
size. Cross sections of streams should be to a scale of not less than 1 cm =
10 m.
Drawings of road intersections should be prepared showing all details of
pavement, shoulders, islands etc. to scale.
Land plans for quarries: Where quarries for construction materials are to
be acquired for new projects, separate land plans shou ld be prepared. The
size of these maps and scales may be similar to those suggested under land
acquisition.
Estimates
The project estimates should consist of general abstract of cost and detailed
estimates for each major head. If the project work is proposed to be
executed in stages, the estimate should be prepared for each stage
separately.
Project Report
The first phase of project report soon after completing the preliminary
surveys, feasibility and EIA studies is to prepare a 'Feasibility Report'.
The Detailed Project Report (DPR) should be prepared after completing all
the detailed studies including final location surv ey, preparation of
longitudinal and cross sections, soil and material surveys, drainage studies,
etc.. The design details of the pavements and all CD structures including
major bridges should be carried out and the relevant drawings prepared as
specified in the terms of reference for the project preparation.
HIGHWAY PROJECTS
General
In a new highway project, the engineer has to plan, design and construct
either a net-work of new roads or a road link. There are also projects
requiring re-design and re-alignment of existing roads of upgrading the
geometric design standards.
Once a highway is constructed, development takes place along the
adjoining land and subsequent changes in alignment or improvements in
geometric standards become very difficult. A badly al igned highway is not
only a source of potential traffic hazard, but also causes a considerable
increase in transportation cost and strain on the drivers and the passengers.
Therefore, proper investigation and planning are most important in a road
project, keeping in view the present day needs as well as the future
developments of the region.
New Highway Project
The new highway project work may be divided into the following stages:
(i)Selection of route, finalization of highway alignment and geometric
design details
(ii)Collection of materials and testing of sub grade soil and other
construction materials, mix design of pavement materials and design details
of pavement layers
(iii)Construction stages including quality control
Route selection
The selection of route is made keeping in view the requirements of
alignment and geological, topographical and other features of the locality
as explained However special care should be taken as regards the geometric
design standards of the road for possible upgrading of speed standards in
future, without being necessary to re. align the road. After the alignment if
finalized, the plans and working drawings are prepared
Materials and design
The soil samples collected from the selected route during the soil surveys
are tested in the laboratory in order to design the required pavement
thickness and the design of embankment and cut slopes. The basic
construction materials such as selected soil, aggregates etc. are collected
from the nearest borrow pits and quarries and stacked along the road
alignment after subjecting these materials to the specified laboratory tests.
In order to design the mixes for the pavement component layers and to
specify quality control test values during road construction, mix desi gn
tests are carried out in the laboratory.
Construction
The construction of the road may b e divided into two stages, (i) earth work
(ii) pavement construction. The earth work consists of excavation and
construction of the embankments. During the excavatio n for highway cuts,
the earth slopes, their protection and construction of drainage network are
taken care of. Highway embankments may be best constructed by rolled -fill
method by compacting the soil in layers under controlled moisture and
density using suitable rollers. In the case of high embankments, the
stability of the embankment foundation and slopes and the possible
settlement of the embankment with time are to be investigated.
The pavement construction is subsequently taken up starting with the
preparation of sub grade and the construction of sub -base, base and surface
courses of the pavement.
Steps in a new project work
The various steps in a new highway project may be summarized as given
below:
Map Study: This is carried out with the help of available topographic maps
of the area
Reconnaissance Survey: During reconnaissance survey, a general idea of a
topography and other features, field identification of soils and survey of
construction materials, by an on -the-spot inspection of the site
Preliminary Survey: Topographic details and soil survey along alternate
alignments, consideration of geometric design and other requirements of
alignment, preparation of plans and comparison of alternate routes;
economic analysis and selection of final alignm ent.
Location of Final Alignment: Transfer of the alignment from the drawings
to the ground by driving pegs along the centre line of finally chosen
alignment; setting out geometric design elements by location of tangent
points, apex points, circular and tr ansition curves, elevation of centre line
and super elevation details.
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTION:

1. A district road with a bituminous pavement has a horizontal curve of 1000 m for a
design speed of 75 km ph. The super-elevation is
A. 1 in 40

B. 1 in 50

C. 1 in 60

D. 1 in 70

E. none of these.

2. The minimum value of camber provided for thin bituminous surface hill roads, is
A. 2.2%

B. 2.5%

C. 3.0%

D. 3.5%

3. Design of horizontal and vertical alignments, super-elevation, sight distance and

grades, is worst affected by
A. width of the vehicle

B. length of the vehicle

C. height of the vehicle

D. speed of the vehicle

4. Thickness of a pavement may be reduced considerably by

A. compaction of soil

B. stabilization of soil

C. drainage of soil

D. combination of all the above.

5. The total length of a valley formed by two gradients - 3% and + 2% curve between the two
tangent points to provide a rate of change of centrifugal acceleration 0.6 m/sec 2, for a design
speed 100 km ph, is
A. 16.0 m

B. 42.3 m

C. 84.6 m

D. none of these.
6. For the movement of vehicles at an intersection of two roads, without any interference, the type
of grade separator generally preferred to, is
 A. delta

B. trumpet

C. diamond interchange

D. clover leaf.

7. If the ruling gradient on any highway is 3%, the gradient provided on the curve of 300
metre radius, is
A. 2.00%

B. 2.25%

C. 2.50%

D. 2.75%

E. 3.00%

8. As per recommendations of I.R.C., traffic volume study is carried out for rural roads for
7 days continuously during
A. harvesting

B. lean season

C. harvesting and lean season

D. none of these.

9. The minimum ratio of the radii of two circular curves of a compound curve, is kept
A. 1.25

B. 1.5

C. 1.75

D. 2.0
10. Pick up the incorrect statement from the following. The super-elevation on roads is
A. directly proportional to width of pavement

B. directly proportional to velocity of vehicles

C. inversely proportional to acceleration due to gravity

D. inversely proportional to the radius of curvature.

KEY
1)a 2)b 3)d 4)d 5)c 6)d 7)d 8)c 9)b 10)b
 UNIT-II
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
INTRODUCTION

Importance of Geometric Design

Geometric design of a highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway such as
horizontal and vertical alignments, sight distances and intersections. The geometries of highway should be designed to
provide efficiency in traffic operations with maximum safety at reasonable cost. The designer may be exposed to
either planning of new highway net work or improvement of existing highways to meet the requirements of the
existing and the anticipated traffic.
Geometric design of highways deals with following elements:
(i) Cross section elements
(ii) Sight distance considerations
(iii) Horizontal alignment details
(iv) Vertical alignment details
(v) Intersection elements
Under cross section elements, the considerations for the width of pavement, formation and land, the
surface characteristics and cross slope of pavement are included. The sight distance or clear distance visible
ahead of a driver at horizontal and vertical curves and at intersections govern the safe movements of vehicles.
Design Controls and Criteria

The geometric design of highways depends on several design factors. The important
factors which control the geometric elements are:
(a) Design speed
(b) Topography or terrain
(c) Traffic factors
(d) Design hourly volume and capacity
(e) Environmental and other factors

Design speed

The design speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design elements of
highways. The design speed is decided taking into account the overall requirements of the highway. In
India, different speed standards have been assigned depending upon the importance or the class of the
road such as National/State Highways, Major/Other District Roads and Village Roads. Further the
design speed standards are modified depending upon the terrain or topography. Similarly urban roads
have a different set of design speeds.
Topography
The topography or the terrain conditions influence the geometric design of highway significantly.
The terrains are classified based on the general slope of the country across the alignment, as
plain, rolling, mountainous and steep terrains. The design standards specified for different classes
of roads are different depending on the terrain classification. For example the design or ruling
speed of NH and SH on plain terrain with general cross slope up to 10% is 100 kmph whereas the
speed on rolling terrain with general cross slope of 10 to 25% is 80 kmph and that on mountainous
terrain with cross slope 25 to 60% is 50 kmph. As the speed standards affect geometric design
element, topography also affects the geometric design of loads. Further in hilly terrain, it is
necessary to allow for steeper gradients and sharper horizontal curves due to the construction
problems.
Traffic factors
The factors associated with traffic that affect geometric design of roads are the vehicular characteristics and
human characteristics of road users. It is difficult to decide the design vehicle or the standard traffic lane
under the 'mixed traffic flow condition prevalent especially on urban roads of developing countries like India.
This is a complex problem. The different vehicle classes such as passenger cars, buses, trucks, motor cycles,
and various other types of non-motorised vehicles have different speed and acceleration characteristics, apart
from having different dimensions and weights.
Design hourly volume and capacity
The traffic flow or volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value during certain off-peak hours to
the higher flow during the peak hours. It will be uneconomical to design the roadway facilities for the peak
traffic flow or the highest hourly traffic volume. Therefore a reasonable value of traffic volume is decided for
the design and this is called the 'design hourly volume'. This value is to be determined from extensive
traffic volume studies
Environmental and other factors
The environmental factors such as aesthetics, landscaping, air pollution, noise pollution and other local
conditions should be given due consideration in the design of road geometrics. Some of the arterial high speed
highways and expressways are designed for higher speed standards and uninterrupted flow of vehicles by providing
controlled access and grade separated intersections.

Highway cross section elements

Pavement Surface Characteristics

The pavement surface depends on the pavement type. The pavement surface type is decided based on the availability of
materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, subgrade, and climatic conditions, construction
facilities and cost considerations. The important surface characteristics of the pavement are: (0 friction (ii)
unevenness (iii) light reflecting characteristics and (iv) drainage of surface water.
Friction
The friction or 'skid resistance' between vehicle tyre and pavement surface is one of the factors determining
the operating speed and the minimum distance required for stopping the vehicles. When a vehicle negotiates a
horizontal curve, the lateral friction developed counteracts the centrifugal force and thus governs the safe operating
speed. Frictional force is an important factor in the acceleration and retardation abilities of vehicles. The coefficient of
friction, or the skid resistance offered by the pavement surface under various driving and surface conditions is
important with reference to the safety. The maximum coefficient of friction comes into play only when the braking
efficiency is high enough to partially arrest the rotation of the wheels on application of brakes, at low speeds.

Skid' occurs when the wheels slide without revolving or rotating or when the wheels partially revolve.
While a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, if the centrifugal force is greater than the counteracting
forces (i.e. lateral friction and component of gravity due to super elevation) lateral skidding takes place
`Slip' occurs when a wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along the roads.
 Factors affecting friction or skid resistance
The maximum friction offered by pavement surface or the skid resistance depends upon the following
factors:
(a) Type of pavement surface namely, cement concrete, bituminous, WBM, earth surface etc.
(b) Macro-texture of the pavement surface or its relative roughness ,
(c) Condition of pavement namely, wet or dry, smoothened or rough, oil spilled, mud or dry sand on
pavement
(d) Type and condition of tyre i.e. new with good treads or smoothened and worn out tyre
(e) Speed of vehicle
(f) Extent of brake application or brake efficiency
(g) Load and tyre pressure
(h) Temperature of tyre and pavement
(i) Type of skid, if any

Pavement unevenness
The longitudinal profile of the road pavement has to be 'even' in order to provide good riding comfort to
fast moving vehicles and to minimize the vehicle operation cost. Presence of undulations on the
pavement surface is called 'pavement unevenness' which results in: (i) increase in discomfort and fatigue
to road users, (ii) increase in fuel consumption and tyre wear, (iii) increase in vehicle maintenance cost, (iv)
reduction in vehicle operating speed and (v) increase in accident rate.
The unevenness of pavement surface is commonly measured by using a simple equipment called 'Bump
Integrator' (BI), in terms of 'unevenness index', which is the cumulative measure of vertical undulations of the
pavement surface recorded per unit length of the road.

Internationally, the riding quality of a pavement surface is quantified in terms of `roughness' and is
expressed as 'International Roughness Index' (IRI) in units of In /km. The relation between the unevenness
measured using bump integrator in mnilkili and the International Roughness Index in m/lcm is as follows:
BI = 630 (1R) •1 2

The unevenness or undulations on pavement surface may be caused due to various factors, such as:. (0
inadequate or improper compaction of either the fill, subgrade or pavement layers or combination of these (ii) use
of improper construction machinery (iii) use of inferior pavement materials (iv) improper surface and
subsurface drainage
(v) unscientific construction practices including the use of boulder stones and bricks as `soling course' over loose or
weak subgrade soil (vi) poor maintenance practices and (vii) localized failures due to combination of causes.
Light reflecting characteristics
Night visibility depends upon the colour and light reflecting characteristics of the pavement surface. The
glare caused by the reflection of head lights is considerably high on wet pavement surface than on the dry
pavement. Light coloured or white pavement surface give good visibility at night particularly during rains;
however white or light colour of pavement surface may produces glare and eye strain during bright sunlight.
Black top pavement surface on the other hand provides very poor visibility at nights, especially when the
surface is wet.
 Cross Slope or Camber
Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off the rain
water from the road surface. Cross slope is considered important because of the following reasons:
(i) To prevent the entry of surface water into the pavement layers and the sub grade soil through pavement;
file stability, surface condition and-the life -of the pavement get adversely affected if the water enters in to the sub
grade and the soil gets soaked
(ii) To prevent the entry of water into the bituminous pavement layers, as continued contact with water
causes stripping of bitumen from-MT-aggregates and results in deterioration of the pavement layer
(iii) To remove the rain water from the pavement surface as quickly as possible and to allow the pavement toget
drysoon after the rain. The resistance of the pavement decrease considerably when the pavement surface is
wet.
The required camber of a pavement depends on:
(a) Type of pavement surface as
(b) The amount of rainfall
A flat camber of 1.7 to 2.0% is sufficient on relatively impervious pavement surface like cement
concrete or bituminous concrete. In pervious surfaces (like water bound Macadam, gravel or earth road) which
may allow surface water to get into the sub grade soil, steeper camber is required. Steeper camber is
provided in areas of heavy rainfall to enable the surface water to drain off at a rapid rate.
However it is desirable not to provide excessive camber or steep cross slope on road pavements. Only
the minimum camber needed to drain off surface water may be adopted keeping in view the type of pavement
surface and the amount of rainfall in the locality. Too steep cross slope is not desirable because of the
following reasons:
(a) Transverse tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable side thrust and a drag on the steering wheel of automobiles.
Also the thrust on the wheels along the pavement edges is more causing unequal wear of the tyres as
well as road surface,
(b) Discomfort causing _throw of vehicle when crossing the crown during overtaking operations
(c) Problems of possible toppling over of highly laden bullock carts and trucks
(d) Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water
(e) Tendency of most of the vehicles to travel along the centre line

Recommended values of camber

The values of camber recommended by-the IRC for different types of road surfaces are given in Table range
of values are given with a view that in localities with lower rainfall, a flatter chamber and in places with
high rainfall, a steeper camber can be adopted.
Table Recommended values of camber for different types of road surfaces
Sl. Type of road surface Range of camber in areas of
no. Heavy rain fall Low rain fall
Cement concrete and high .
1. type bituminous surface 1 in 50 or 2.0 % 1 in 60 or 1.7 %
2. Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 or 2.5 % 1 in 50 or 2.0 %,
3. Water bound Macadam and 1 in 33 or 3.0 °/0" 1 in 40 or 2.5-%-
gravel pavement
4. Earth road 1 in 25 or 4.0 ,% 1 in 33 or 3.O/%
Shape of cross slope:

In the field, camber of the pavement cross section is provided with suitable shape.
Different shapes that arecommonly adopted are parabolic, straight line or straights with parabolic
curve at the top.
I i n(

·.·:..·.·::....--..------...- --.----...·····--···-·............- --- - .....................................

r ·--- --
2 nW]
PARABOLICSHAPE [Y=2X /

STRAIGHT LINE CAMBER

COMBINATION O FSTRAIGHT AND PARABOLIC SHAPE

Note: vertical scale isenlarged in the above sketches

Fig. Shapes of cross slope

Providing camber in the field:

In order to provide the desired amount and shape of camber, template or camber boards
are prepared with the chosen shape and specific cross slope. In the case of parabolic
camber the general equation, y=x2g/a may be adopted.

Here, a= nW/2 for a pavement of width W and cross slope1in n.

Hence, y =2X2/nW

Width of Pavement or Carriageway

The width of pavement or carriageway depends on(i)width of traffic lane and
Number of lanes.
,___2.5rn_-l I- _ _2.5r11 -J

500mrn_, soomm
1
f-' l-J
r-PAVEMENT
I EDGE
l',
l-
SHOULOER
L 7m
-1

(b) TWO LANE PAVEMENT

 The width of carriage way for various classes of roads standardized by the Indian Road
Congress (IRC) is given in Table.
Table :Width of carriageway recommended by the IRC

Width of
Class of road
carriageway, m
(i) Single lane road 3.75
(ii) Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7.0
(iii) Two lanes, with raised kerbs 7.5
Jnt em1ediatecarriagewa y(ex
(iv) 5.5
cepton important roads)
(v) Multi-lane pavements 3.5perlane

Medians/Traffic separators

In highways with divided carriageway, a median is provided between two sets of traffic lanes
intended to divide the traffic moving in opposite directions. The main function of the median is to prevent
head-on collision between vehicles moving in opposite directions on adjacent lanes. The median is also
called or traffic separator. The traffic separators used may be in the form of pavement markings, physical
dividers or area separators. Pavement marking is the simplest of all these, but this will not rule out head-on
collision. The mechanical separator may be suitably designed keeping in view safety considerations.
The medians/traffic separators may also serve the following functions:
(a) to channelize traffic into streams at intersections
(b) to shadow the crossing and turning traffic
(c) to segregate slow traffic
(d) to protect pedestrians
 It is desirable to provide wide median/traffic separators of 8 to 14 m width so that it is possible carry out
future widening of the carriageway towards the median. But the width should be decided in
conformity with the availability of land and its cost. A minimum of 6 m is required to reduce head
light glare due to vehicles moving in opposite directions on either side of the median at night. The glare
can be reduced in narrower strips by planting shrubs.

KERB

3-LANE TRAFFIC
'PAVEMENT SEPARATOR

Fig. Kerb and traffic separator

The IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5.0 m for medians of rural highways, which may
be reduced to 3.0 m where land is restricted. On long bridges the width of the median may be
reduced up to 1.2 to 1.5 m. The medians should normally be of uniform width on a particular road,
but where change in width is unavoidable, a transition of 1 in 15 to 1 in 20 must be provided. Thus
in highways with divided carriageway, the total road width depends on the width of pavement or
carriageway and the width of the median/dividing island/traffic separator.
On urban highways with six lanes or more, medians should invariably be provided. The minimum
recommended width of medians at intersections of urban roads are 1.2m for pedestrian refuge, 4.0 to
7.5 m for protection of vehicles making right turn and 9.0 to 12 m for protection vehicles crossing at
grade. The absolute minimum width of median in urban area is 1.2 m and desirable minimum is 5.0 m.
Kerbs:

Kerb indicates the boundary between the pavement and median or foot path or island or
shoulder. It is desirable to provide kerbs on urban roads. Refer Fig. 4.3. There are a variety of kerb
designs. Kerbs may be mainly divided into three groups based on their functions.
(a) Low kerb' or 'mountable type kerb' encourages traffic to remain in the through traffic lanes, yet
allows the driver to enter the shoulder area at slow speed. The height of this type of kerb is about
100 mm above the pavement edge with a slope or batter to enable vehicles to climb the kerb at slow
speed. This type of kerb is provided at medians and channelization schemes and is also useful for
longitudinal drainage system

(b) `Semi-barrier type kerb' is provided on the periphery of a roadway where the pedestrian traffic
is high. This type of kerb has a height of about 150 mm above the pavement edge with a batter of 1:
1 on the top 75 mm. This kerb prevents encroachment by the parking vehicles, but at acute emergency
it is possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty
(c) Barrier type kerb is provided in built-up areas adjacent to foot paths with considerable
pedestrian traffic. The height of kerb stone is about 200 mm above the pavement edge with a steep
batter of 1.0 vertical 0.25 horizontal
At times submerged kerb is provided on rural roads between pavement edge and shoulders. The
submerged kerb provides lateral confinement and stability to the flexible pavements in general and to the
granular base course of pavements in particular.

Road Margins

The various elements included in the road margins are shoulder, guard rail, footpath, drive way,
cycle track, parking lane, bus bay, lay-bye, frontage road and embankment slope.
 Shoulders

The important functions of shoulders are:

(a) The capacity of the carriageway and the operating speeds of vehicles increase if the shoulders are
laid and maintained in good condition
(b) Shoulders serve as emergency lanes for vehicle compelled to be taken out of the main carriageway
or roadway. Shoulders should have sufficient load bearing capacity to support loaded truck even in
wet weather
(c) Shoulders also act as service lanes for vehicles that are disabled. The width of shoulder should be
adequate to accommodate stationary vehicle fairly away from the edge of adjacent lane.
Guard rails
Guard rails are provided at the edge of the shoulder when the road is constructed on a fill so that vehicles are
prevented from running off the embankment, especially when the height of the fill exceeds 3 m. Various designs of
guard rails are in use. Guard stones (painted with black and white strips) are installed at suitable intervals along the
outer edge of the formation at horizontal curves of roads running on embankments along rural areas so as to provide
better night visibility of the curves under head lights of vehicles.

Embankment slopes
Embankment slopes should be as flat as possible for the purpose of safe traffic movement and also for
aesthetic reasons. Though from the slope stability point, a steeper slope may be possible, the slope may be
kept as flat as permitted by financial considerations. Road side landscaping can improve the aesthetic features
of road side, making road travel more pleasant. For safety considerations, the desirable slope for the
embankment is 1 in 3
Width of Formation or Roadway
Width of formation or roadway is the sum of widths of pavement or carriageway including separators, if any
and the shoulders.
Formation or roadway
width is the top width of the highway embankment or the bottom width of highway cutting excluding the
side drains.

Right of Way and Land Width

Right of way is the area of land acquired for the road, along its alignment. The width of the acquired land
for right of way is known as 'land width' and it depends on the importance of the road and possible future
development. A minimum land width has been prescribed for each category of road. A desirable range of
land width has also been suggested for each category of road. While acquiring land for a highway it is
desirable to acquire more width of land as the cost of adjoining land invariably
increases very much, soon after the new highway is constructed. Also road sid e developments start
taking place making it difficult later on to acquire more land required for future widening or for
other improvements. In some cases the lower width within the suggested range may have to be
adopted in view of high cost of land and other existing features. This is particularly true in urban and
industrial areas.
Notes: (a) In multilane highways, roadway width should be adequate for the requisite number of traffic lanes besides shoulders and central
median.
(b) The minimum roadway width on single lane bridge is 4.25 m.

Table 4.3 Width of roadway of various classes of roads

Si. Roadway width, m at:

-7 —
no. Road classification Plain and rolling terrain Mountainous and stee ten Z A
National & State Highways
a) le lane 12.0 6.25
Two lane 12.0 8.80
Ma or District Roads
le lane 9.0 4.75
Two lane 9.0
Other District Roads
(a) Sin le 7.5 4.75
b)Two lanes 9.0
4. Village roads, single lane 7.5 4.00

The land width is governed by the following factors:

(a) Width of formation which depends on the category of highway, width of roadway and road margins
(b) Height of embankment or depth of cutting which is governed by the topography and the
vertical alignment
(c) Side slopes of embankment or cutting which depend on the height of the slope, soil type and several
other considerations including aesthetics
(d) Drainage systems and their size, which depends on the rainfall, topography, and run off
(e) Sight distance considerations on horizontal curves, as there is restriction to the visibility on the inner
side of the curve due to obstruction such as building structures etc. At sharp curves it is desirable to acquire
a wider strip of land, particularly on the inner side of the horizontal curve in order to avoid
obstructions to visibility.
(f) Reserve land for future widening is to be planned in advance based on anticipated future
development and increase in the traffic,
The values of normal and range of land width standardized by the IRC for various categories of roads in
rural areas and in different terrains
It is desirable to control the building construction activities on either side of the road boundary,
beyond the land width acquired for the road in order to reserve sufficient space for future improvement
of roads. Therefore, it is necessary to proh1131 the building activities up to 'building line' with sufficient
setback from the road boundary. In addition it is desirable to exercise control of the nature of building

Further set back distance up to the 'control lines'. The overall width requirements between the building lines and
the control lines on either side of the road, recommended by the IRC for different road classifications and
different terrain conditions in rural areas are given in Table 4.5. It may be seen from Tables 4.4 and 4.5 that the
normal land width required for the National and State Highways on open plain terrain is 45 m and the maximum land
width required is 60 m, the corresponding width between the building lines is 80 m and that between the control lines is
150 rn, thus allowing set back distances of 10 and 45 m beyond the road boundary lines with the maximum
recommended road width.

Table : Recommended land width for different roads in rural areas

Mountainous
Plain and rolling terrain
and steep terrain
SI.
Road classification Open Built-up
no. Opens areas Built-up areas
areas areas
Normal Range Normal Range Normal Normal
1. Expressways 90 - - - 60/30*
2. National and State Highways 45 30 — 60 30 30 — 60 24 20
3. Major District Roads 25 25 — 30 20 15 — 25 18 15
4 Other District Roads 15 15 —25 15 15-20 15 12
5. Village Roads 12 12 7 18 10 10 — 15 9 9
*Split levels
The recommended land widths for different classes of urban roads are, 50 to 60 m for arterial roads (high types
of urban roads meant for through traffic, with controlled access), 30 to 40 m for sub-arterial roads, 20 to 30 m for
collector streets (urban roads and streets meant for collecting traffic from local streets and feed to the arterial and
sub-arterial roads) and 10 to 20 m for local streets.

Typical Cross Sections of Roads

Some of the typical cross sections of different categories of highways in rural areas and a typical urban arterial
road are shown in Fig. 4.6 to 4.1

Table: Recommended standards for building lines and control lines

Plain and rolling terrain Mountainous abd steep terrain

Distance between line and boundary

building bacl,_).2.!.___In
Road Open area Built-up
road
classification set
Overall width Overall width Distance between
between between building line and Open Built-up
building lines, control lines, road boundary areas areas
m m (set-back), m
Expressways 110 130 5 5 5
N.H. & S.H. 80 150 3 to 6 3 to5 3 to5
M.D.R. 100 3 to 5 3to5 3 to5
50
.,, _
O.D.R. 25/30* 35 3 to 5 3 to 5 3 to 5
V.R. 25 30 3 to 5 3 to 5 3 to5
 Fig. Cross section of two-lane city road in built-up area

ROAD WAY WIDTH

7.5 or 8.0 m
PAVEMENT
ki3.8mil
LONGITUDINAL
DRAIN

1. 5 nh
LAND WIDTH 18 or 24 m

Fig. 4.6 Cross section of VR or ODR in embankment in rural area

LONGITUDINAL
SPOILBANK 1WAY
ROAD 5 10 m DRAIN
PAVEMENT

• ______ LAND WIDTH 30 m

Fig. 4.7 Cross section of MDR in cutting in rural area

12.0m
Pr

LONGITUDINAL
DRAIN

LAND WIDTH 50m

11,
hl

rl -1 2
 SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance and importance

One of the important factors on which safe and efficient operation of vehicle on roads depends is the road
length when an obstruction, if any, becomes visible to the driver in the direction of travel. In other words the
distance visible ahead to the driver is very important for safe vehicle operation on a highway.
`Sight distance' is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance. Sight distance available at
any location of the carriageway is the actual distance a driver with his eye level at a specified height above the
pavement surface has visibility of any stationary or moving object of specified height which is on the
carriageway ahead. The sight distance between the driver and the object is measured along the road surface.
Restrictions to sight distance
Restrictions to visibility or sight distance may be caused in the following circumstances:
(a) At horizontal curves, when the line of sight is obstructed by objects at the inner side of the curve).
Here the sight distance is measured along the centre line of the horizontal curve when the vehicle driver is able
to see another vehicle or object on the carriageway,
(b) At a vertical curve the line of sight is obstructed by the road surface of the summit curve (i.e., a vertical
curve of the road with convexity upwards),
(c) In this case also the sight distance is measured along the centre line of the vertical curve when the
vehicle driver is able to see another vehicle or object on the road.
(d) At an uncontrolled intersection when a driver from one of the approach roads is able to sight a vehicle
from another approach road proceeding towards .the intersection. Here the sight distance for each vehicle driver is
the distance from the position when the two can see each other up to the intersection point of the two roads
 SIGHT
DISTANCE
-K`"
OBSTRUCTION TO VISION

_____SIGHT UNE

HORIZONTAL ____________________
CURVE
(a) SIGHT DISTANCE AT HORIZONTAL CURVE

EYE LEVELSIGHT LINE OBJECT

1.2 m HIGH \
- 0.15 m hight

— STOPPING
SIGHT DISTANCE

(b) SIGHT DISTANCE AT VERTICAL SUMMIT CURVE

OBSTRUCTION
TO VISION CROSS ROADS
cl
7 vi
S I G H T L I N E - 0 . 7 i

S.D_______

(c) SIGHTDISTANCE (S.D) AT INTERSECTION

Fig. Restrictions to sight distance
Types of sight distance
Sight distance required by drivers applies to both geometric designs of highways and for traffic control. Three
types of sight distance situations are considered in the design:
(a) Stopping sight distance (SSD) or absolute minimum sight distance
(b) Safe overtaking sight distance (OSD) or passing sight distance
(c) Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersections

Therefore the following requirements should be taken into account during the design of road geometrics:
(a) Safe stopping: Driver travelling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or length of road visible ahead to stop
the vehicle without collision, in case of any obstruction on the road ahead. As safe stopping is most essential requirement
to avoid collision, this requirement has to be invariably fulfilled all along the road
(b) Safe overtaking: Driver travelling at the design speed should be able to safely overtake the slower vehicles
without causing obstruction or hazard to traffic of opposite direction, at reasonable intervals
(c) Safety at an uncontrolled intersection: Driver entering an uncontrolled intersection has sufficient
visibility to enable him to take control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with another vehicle
Apart from the three situations mentioned above, the following sight distances are considered by the IRC in
highway design:
(i) Intermediate sight distance: This is defined as twice the stopping sight distance. When overtaking
sight distance cannot be provided, intermediate sight distance (ISD) is provided to give limited overtaking
opportunities to fast vehicles..

(ii) Head-light sight distance: This is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the illumination
of the vehicle head lights. This sight distance is critical at up-gradients and at the ascending stretch of the valley
curves.

(iii) Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

Factors on which visibility or sight distance depends

The minimum distance visible to a driver ahead or the ‘sight distance' available on a highway at any spot
should be of sufficient length to safely stop a vehicle travelling at design speed Without collision with any other
obstacle Therefore this stopping sight distance (SSD) is also called absolute sight distance.
The sight distance available to a driver travelling on a road at any instance depends on the following factors:

Factors on which stopping distance depends

The distance within which a motor vehicle can be stopped depends upon the factors
listed below:
(a) Features of the road ate
(b) Height of the driver's eye above the mad surface
(c) Height of the object above the road surface
The features of the road ahead which affect the sight distance are the horizontal alignment and
vertical profile of the road, the traffic condition and the position of obstructions. At vertical summit
curves the height of driver's eye and the object above road level are more important factors affecting
the visibility. The height of an object to be considered for stopping a vehicle depends on what might
be a source of danger to the moving vehicle. For the purpose of measuring the stopping sight
distance or visibility ahead, IRC has suggested the height of eye level of driver as 1.2 m and the
height of the object as 0.15 m above the road surface.
Hence the stopping distance available at a summit curve is the distance measured along the road
surface at which an object of height 0.15 m can be seen by a driver whose eye is at a height of 1.2
m above the road surface.
(a) Total reaction time of the driver
(a)Speed of vehicle
(b)Efficiency of brakes
(c)Frictional resistance between the road and the tyres and
(d)Gradient of the road, if any
Total reaction time of driver
Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the instant
the brakes are effectively applied. The actual time gap or the reaction time of the driver depends on several factors.
During this period of time the vehicle travels a certain distance at the original speed, which may be assumed to be
the design speed of the road. Thus the stopping distance increases with increase in reaction time of the
driver. The total reaction time, t may be split up into two parts: (i)perception time (ii) brake reaction time.
The 'perception time' is the time required for a driver to realise that brakes must be applied. It is the time from
the instant the object comes on the line of sight of the driver to the instant he realises that the vehicle needs
to be stopped. The perception time varies from driver to driver and also depends on several other factors such as
the distance of object and other environmental conditions.
The 'brake reaction time' also depends on several factors including the skill of the driver, the type of the
problems and various other environmental factors.
Generally total reaction time of the driver is taken together, as this is found to vary considerably depending on
several factors. The total reaction time may be explained with the help of `PIEV' theory.
`PIEV' theory
According to PIEV' theory, the total reaction time of the driver is split into four parts, viz., time taken by
the driver for: (i) Perception, (ii) Intellection, (iii) Emotion and (iv) Volition.
`Perception time' is the time required for the sensations received by the eyes or ears of the driver to be
transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal cord. In other words, it is the time required to
perceive an object or situation.
`Intellection time' is the time required for the driver to understand the situation. It is also the time
required for comparing the different thoughts, regrouping and registering new sensations.
`Emotion time' is the time elapsed during emotional sensations and other mental disturbance such as fear,
anger or any other emotional feelings like superstition etc. with reference to the situation. The emotion time
varies for different drivers, but even for a particular driver the emotion time is likely to vary considerably
depending upon the situation or the actual problem involved.
`Volition time' is the time taken by the driver for the final action, such as brake application.

Sight Distance at Uncontrolled Intersections

It is important that on all approaches of intersecting roads, there is a clear view across the corners
from a sufficient distance so as to avoid collision of vehicles. This is all the more important at
uncontrolled intersections. The sight line is obstructed by structures or other objects at the corners of the
intersections. The area of unobstructed sight formed by the lines of vision is called the sight triangle.
The design of sight distance at intersections may be based on three possible conditions, viz., (i)
Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed (ii) Enabling approaching vehicle to stop and (iii)
Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed
The sight distance should be sufficient to enable either one or both the approaching vehicles to change
speed to avoid collision. The vehicle approaching from the minor road should slow down. The total
reaction time required for the driver to decide to change speed may be assumed as two seconds and at
least one more second will be needed for making the change in speed. Hence the two sides AC and BC of
the sight triangle along the intersection approaches up to the conflict point C should be at least equal to the
distance covered by a vehicle travelling at design speed in two seconds preferably in three seconds. But this
sight distance being too less, should be increased' in all possible cases.
Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
In this case, the distances for the approaching vehicle should be sufficient to bring
either one or both of the vehicles to a stop before reaching a point of collision. Hence
the two sides AC and BC of the sight triangle should each be equal to the safe stopping
distance. In almost all uncontrolled intersections one of the two cross roads i s a
preference highway or a through road or a major road. Thus it is the responsibility of
the drivers on the minor road who would cross or enter this main road to stop or
change speed, to avoid collision. The traffic of the minor road is generally controlled
by an appropriate traffic sign. In such a case the sight distance for a minor road should
be at least equal to the SSD for the design speed of that road. The sight distance
requirement of stopping is higher than that of condition (i) above and hence is safe as
vehicles can stop if necessary.

Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road

This case is applicable when the vehicles entering the intersection from the minor road
are controlled by stop sign and so these vehicles have to stop and then proceed to cross the
main road. In such a situation, the sight distance available from the stopped position of the
minor road should be sufficient to enable the stopped vehicle to start, accelerate and cross the
main road, before another vehicle travelling at its design speed on the main road reaches the
intersection. The time, T required for the stopped vehicle to cross the main road would
depend upon (a) reaction time of the driver (b) width of the main road (c) acceleration, and
(d) length of vehicle. Thus the minimum sigh t distance to fulfil this condition is the
distance travelled by a vehicle on the main road at design speed during this time 'T'.

From safety considerations, the sight distance at uncontrolled intersections should therefore
fulfil all the above three conditions. The higher of the three values may be taken at un-signalised
intersections at grade, except at rotaries. The IRC recommends that at uncontrolled intersections,
sufficient visibility should be provided such that the sight distance of each road is at least equal
to the SSD corresponding to the design speed of the road. If the sight triangle available is less
than the desirable minimum size due to unavoidable reasons, the vehicles approaching the
intersection may be warned or controlled by suitable signs.

Sight distance at controlled intersections

At rotary intersections the sight distance should be at least equal to the safe stopping
distance for the design speed of the rotary. At signalized intersections, the above three
requirements are not applicable.
At 'priority intersections' where a minor road crosses a major road, the traffic on the minor
road may be controlled by stop or give-way sign to give priority to the traffic on the major
road. The visibility distance available along the minor road should be sufficient to enable the
drivers stop their vehicles. The visibility distance along the major road depends upon the time
required for the stopped vehicles approaching from the minor road to evaluate the gaps
between the vehicles on the major road, to accelerate and to cross the major road safely.

IRC recommends that a minimum visibility distance of 15 m alonu the minor road and a
distance of 220, 180, 145 and 110 in along the major road corresponding to the design speeds
of 100, 80, 65 and 50 kmph respectively.

DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

General

Often changes in the direction are necessitated in highway alignment due to various reasons
such as topographic considerations, obligatory points, etc.. as discussed in Chapter 3. The
geometric design elements pertaining to horizontal alignment of highways should
consider safe and comfortable movement of vehicles at the designated design speed of
the highway. It is therefore necessary to avoid sudden changes in direction with sharp curves
or reverse curves which could not be safely and conveniently negotiated by the vehicles at design
speed. Improper design of horizontal alignment of roads would necessitate speed changes
resulting in higher accident rate and increase in vehicle operation cost.
Horizontal Transition Curves

A transition curve has a radius which decreases from infinity at the tangent point to a designed
radius of the circular curve. When a transition curve is introduced between a straight and circular
curve, the radius of the transition curve decreases and becomes minimum at the beginning of the
circular curve. The rate of change of radius of the transition curve will depend on the shape of the
curve adopted and the equation of the curve.
Objects of providing transition curves
Suppose a curve of radius R takes off from straight road, and a vehicle travels on this road; then
due to the centrifugal force which suddenly acts on the vehicle just after the tangent point, a
sudden lateral jerk is felt on the vehicle. This not only causes discomfort to the passengers, but
also makes it difficult to steer the vehicle safely. Refer Fig. 4.28. If a transition curve BC of
length L s is introduced between the straight AB and the circular curve CD of radius R, the
centrifugal force will also be introduced gradually as the radius of the transition curve decreases
gradually from infinity. The rate at which this force is introduced can be controlled by
adopting suitable shape of the transition curve and by designing its length, so that the vehicle
can have a smooth entry from the straight to the circular curve at the design speed.
A transition curve which is introduced between the straight and a circular curve will help also in
gradually introducing the designed superelevation and the extra widening necessary.
DEFLECTION
ANGLE,

c,tikotiL.AR cuRvE (4/

c.7 •
TRANSITION
CURVE, LS
/

/
FRI
,.„4" SHIFT, S 1
T.P
1
• ,1 /
's

Fig. 4.28 Transition curve in horizontal alignment

Thus the functions of transition curves in the horizontal alignment of highway may be summed
up into the following points:
(a) To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between the tangent point and the beginning of the
circular curve, avoiding a sudden jerk on the vehicle
(b) To enable the driver turn the steering gradually for his own comfort and safety
(c) To enable gradual introduction of the designed super elevation and extra widening of
pavement at the start of the circular curve
(d) To improve the aesthetic appearance of the road.
In a good highway alignment it should be possible to maintain the design speed even on
horizontal curves. The radius is first designed as discussed in article 4.3.4 and then a suitable
shape of the transition curve is selected and its length is designed. The ideal shape of a
transition curve should be such that the rate of introduction of centrifugal force or the rate of
change of centrifugal acceleration should be consistent. This means that the radius of the
transition curve should consistently decrease from infinity at the tangent point B to the radius R
of the circular curve at point C, the end of the transition curve of length L s
the length Ls should be inversely proportional to the radius R i.e., (Ls cc 1/R) or Ls R is a
constant. The 'spiral transition curve' fulfils this requirement.
Different types of transition curves
The types of transition curves commonly adopted in horizontal alignment of highways are:
(a) Spiral
(b) Lemniscate
(c) C ubi c parabol a
The general shapes of these three curves are shown in Fig. 4.29. All the three curves follow almost
the same path up to deflection angle of 4°, and practically there is no significant difference even
up to 9°. In all these curves, the radius decreases as the length increases. But the rate of change of
radius and hence the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is not constant in the case of
lemniscate and cubic parabola, especially at deflection angles higher than 4°. In spiral curve the
radius is inversely proportional to the length and the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is
uniform throughout the length of the. curve. Thus the spiral fulfils the condition of an ideal transition
curve.
Fig. Different types of transition curves

SPIRAL

LEMNISCATE
CUBIC PARABOLA
The Indian Roads Congress recommends the use of the spiral as transition curve in the horizontal
alignment of highways due to the following reasons:
(i) The spiral curve satisfies the requirements of an ideal transition, as the rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration is uniform throughout the lengths
(ii) The geometric property of spiral is such that the calculations and setting out the curve in the
field is simple and easy,
The equation of the spiral may be written as:
LR = L s R c = costant
Therefore, L = m \rd (Eq. 4.22)

Here, m is a constant equal to V2RLs and 8 is the tangent deflection angle in radius.

Calculation of length of transition curve

The length of transition curve is designed to fulfil three conditions, viz.: (i) rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration to be developed gradually (ii) rate of introduction of the designed
superelevation to be at a reasonable rate (iii) minimum length by IRC empirical formula. The length
of transition curve fulfilling all the three conditions (or the highest of the three values) is generally
accepted.
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
At the tangent point the centrifugal acceleration (v 2/R) is zero, as the radius is
infinity. At the end of the transition the radius, R has the minimum value Rm. Hence the centrifugal
acceleration is distributed over a length Ls of the transition curve. The centrifugal acceleration should be
developed at such a low rate that it will not cause discomfort for the passengers of a vehicle travelling at
the design speed, v m/sec. It is evident that larger the length of transition, lower will be the rate at
which the centrifugal acceleration is introduced.
Let the length of transition curve be Ls m. If 't' is the time taken in seconds to traverse this
transition length at uniform design speed of v m/sec, t = Ls/v. The maximum centrifugal
acceleration of v 2/R is introduced in time 't' through the
transition length Ls and hence the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration 'C' is given by:
2
v
2 "T
v ds V3
(Eq. 4.23)
3
C = __________ (m/sec )

Rt v Ls R
The maximum allowable value of the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, C without producing
discomfort or undesirable oscillation, is dependent on the speed and varies inversely with the radius.
The IRC has recommended the following equation for finding the value of C for the design speed V
kmph:
8
C— 80 __ m/sec340.5 < C < 0.8)] (Eq. 4.24)
(75 + V)
i.e., the minimum and maximum values of C are limited to 0.5 and 0.8 respectively.
Once the value of 'C' is decided based on the design speed as given above, th e length of
transition curve Ls can be calculated from the Eq. 4.23 which may be rewritten as:
V3 (Eq. 4.25)
Ls = CR
If the design speed is V kmph, v3

L (3.6)3 CR
V3 0.0215V3
(Eq. 4.26)
i.e., Ls -- 46.5CR CR
Here,

Ls = length of transition curve, in

C = allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, (0.5 to 0.8 in/sec 3) as given in Eq.
4.23.
R = radius of the circular curve, m
Rate of introduction of superelevation
In open country if a high value of superelevation is to be introduced, it is not desirable to
raise the outer edge of a pavement at a rate higher than 1 in 150 relative to the grade of the
centre line. Hence the length of transition curve should be at least 150 times the total amount
by which the outer edge of the pavement is to be raised with respect to the centre line.
However, the transition curve length may be reduced by allowing an increased differential
gradient of 1 in 100 in built up areas and 1 in 60 on hill roads. If the pavement is rotated about
the inner edge and not the centre line, then the total lifting of outer edge with respect to
inner edge has to be considered in calculating the length of transition curve required.
Let 'e' be the rate of superelevation designed as per Eq. 4.9 for a highway curve having
normal pavement width W. Let 'We' be the extra widening provided at the circular curve so
that the total width B of pavement = (W + We) and the total raising of

allowing a rate of change of superelevation of 1 in N (where minimum value of N 150, 100

or 60 as +n:lissed above), the length of transition curve Ls is given by:

edge is to be raised at the circular curve with respect to the centre = E/2. Hen ce the
vertical alignment of the centre line) then the maximum amount by which the outer the
pavement is rotated about centre line after neutralizing the camber, (maintaining
pavement with respect to the inner edge = e.B = e. (W + We) = E. If it is assumed that
E N e N Ls = (W+ W e )
2 (Eq. 4.27a)
However if the pavement is rotated about the inner edge, the length of transitio n curve is given
by:
Ls = EN — eN (W + We) (Eq. 4.27b)

According to the IRC standards, the length of horizontal transition curve Ls s .i°
old
not be less than the value given by the following empirical formulas for the two terrain
classifications:
 (a) For plain and rolling terrains:

LS = 2.7V 2
(Eq. 4.28a)
R
(b) For mountainous and steep terrains:

Ls R2 (Eq. 4.28b)

Design of horizontal transition curve length

The length of transition curve Ls required on a horizontal highway curve depends upon the
following factors:
(a) Radius of circular curve, R
(b) Design speed, V
(c) Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, C (0.5 to 0.8, depending on the design
speed)
(d) Maximum amount of superelevation, E which depends on the maximum rate of
superelevation, e and the total width of the pavement, B at the horizontal curve
(e) Whether the pavement cross section is rotated about the inner edge or the centre line to
introduce full amount of superelevation, after the elimination of the camber
(f) Allowable rate of introduction of superelevation, which depends on the terrain, location and
environmental conditions of the site
The length of transition curve for the design should be the highest of the three methods based
on: (i) rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, C (ii) rate of introduction of superelevation
(iii) empirical formula, mentioned above. Therefore, the design steps are given below:
(a) Find the length of transition curve based on allowable rate of change of the centrifugal
acceleration (Eq. 4.25 and Eq 4.26).
(b) Find the length of transition curve based on allowable rate of change of superelevation
(Eq. 4.27a or Eq. 4.27b).

(c) Determine the minimum required value of Ls as per the empirical formula (Eq. 4.28a or Eq
4.28b)
(d) Adopt the highest value of Ls given by (a), (b) and (c) above as the design length of
transition curve
The minimum length of transition curves for various values of radius of curve and design speeds
recommended by the IRC for plain and rolling terrains and also for mountainous and steep
terrains are given in Table 4.15.
For expressways, the minimum radius of horizontal curve beyond which transition curves are not
required for design speeds of 120 and 100 kmph are 4000 and 3000 m respectively.
Setting out transition curve
Transition curves are introduced between the tangent points of the straight stretches and the ends of the
circular curve on both sides as shown in Fig.4.28. If the length of transition curve is Ls and the radius
of the circular curve is R, the shift, S of the transition curve is given by the formula:
2
S = Ls/24R

DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMNET

Over view:

The natural ground or the topography may be level at some places, but may have slopes of varying
magnitudes at other locations. While aligning a highway it is the common practice to follow the
general topography or profile of the land, keeping in view the drainage and other requirements on each
stretch. This is particularly with a view to minimise deep cuttings and very high embankments, as
discussed in Chapter 3. Hence the vertical profile of a road would have level stretches as well as slopes
or grades.
In order to have smooth vehicle movements on the roads, the changes in the gradient should be
smoothened out by the vertical curves. The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile of the
centre line of the road. The vertical alignment consists of grades and vertical curves. The
vertical alignment of a highway influences: (i) vehicle speed (ii) acceleration and deceleration
(iii) stopping distance (iv) sight distance (v) comfort while travelling at high speeds and (vi) vehicle
operation cost.

Gradient

Longitudinal gradient or slopes on roads

Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to the horizontal. It is
expressed as a ratio of 1 in x (1 vertical unit to x horizontal units), The gradient is also expressed
as a percentage, such as n %, the slope being n vertical units to 100 horizontal units.
If the gradient is 1 in x and the angle of the gradient or slope angle is a, (see Fig. 4.33a) the gradient
may also be expressed as, 'tan a'. When the slope angle a is small, tan a is approximately equal to the
circular measure or a in radians (ac). All angles within the
practical range 61 gradients on roads may be treated as small. Hence gradients which are generally represented
as 'n' percent, would mean that this is the value of the tangent of the angle made by the gradient with
horizontal, i.e., a gradient of n % = tan a. The ascending gradients are given positive signs and are
denoted as + ni, + n2 etc., and descending
gradients are given negative signs and are denoted as — n3, —114, etc.

x 100
(a) GRADIENT = 1 IN x GRADIENT = n IN 100
= tan a=100/x% =n%
D
N _- (n1 + n2) or CE 0.1+1:12 2
'1)

a2
(b) DEVIATION ANGLE. N = (n1 + n2)

Fig. 4.33 Measure of gradients

The angle which measures the change of direction at the intersection of two grades is called the
'deviation angle' N which is equal to the algebraic difference between the two grades. In Fig. 4.33 b the
-

deviation angle,
N = DBC = BAC + BCA
=ni — (— n2) = (ni ± n2)
where, + ni or ni is ascending gradient of AB and — n2 the descending gradient of BC.
While aligning a highway, the gradients are decided for designing the vertical curve. Very steep
gradients are avoided as it is not only difficult to climb the grade, but also the vehicle operation cost is
increased. The highway engineer has to consider all aspects such as construction costs, practical
problems in construction at the site and the vehicle operation cost while considering different alternative
alignments before finalising the gradients and vertical alignment of the highway.
Types of gradient
Gradients are divided into four categories: (i) Ruling gradient (ii) Limiting gradient (iii) Exceptional
gradient and (iv) Minimum gradient. The types of gradients and their objects are explained below.
Ruling gradient
Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within which the designer attempts to design the vertical
profile of a road. Gradients up to the ruling gradient are adopted as a normal course in design of vertical
alignment and accordingly the quantities of cut and fill are decided. Hence ruling gradient is also
known as 'design gradient'. However flatter gradients may be preferred where ever practicable.
The selection of ruling gradient for the purpose of design is a complex job as several factors such as
type of terrain, the length of the grade, the speed, pulling power of different types of vehicles and
presence of horizontal curves are to be considered. In plain terrain or flat country it may be possible to
adopt a flat gradient. But on hill roads it may not be economical or some times not even possible
to adopt the same gradient because of large difference in levels to be covered in short length of
road. Therefore different values of ',Jailing gradient' are specified on different terrains.
A vehicle which travels with a certain speed on a level ground, with the same tractive effort put
in, would lose speed at grades; the speed would steadily decrease with increase in length of grade.
With the maximum pulling power, the vehicle would be able to sustain the same speed even on long
stretches only up to a certain gradient. This is when the maximum power developed by the engine
is equal to the power required to overcome the resistances to motion on the grade at this speed.
Therefore this gradient, is the one which should be adopted as 'ruling gradient' by the designer for
this vehicle and the design speed. But the problem is not so simple as different vehicles have
different values of hauling power and varying tractive resistances. The commercial vehicles in
particular have to carry different amounts of load. Further in India due consideration is to be given
to the pulling power of animal drawn vehicles like the bullock carts also.

The maximum length of ascending gradient which a loaded truck can operate without undue
reduction in speed is called 'critical length of grade' for a design. A reduction in speed of about 25
kmpli may be considered reasonable limit. The critical length for design depends on several factors
such as size, power, load and grade ability data of the truck, its initial speed at the beginning of the
ascending grade and the desirable limit of the minimum speed at the end of the grade so as to
avoid unreasonable interference with the movement of other vehicles. The critical length of ascending
gradients should therefore be limited to lower values at steeper gradients.

Thus it is not possible to lay down precise standards of ruling gradient applicable for the mixed
traffic and for the country as a whole.

The IRC has recommended ruling gradient values of: (a) 1 in 30 on plain and rolling terrain (b) 1
in 20 on mountainous terrain and (c) 1 in 16.7 on steep terrain.

Limiting gradient

Where topography of a place compels adopting steeper gradient than the ruling gradient, 'limiting
gradient' is used in view of enormous increase in cost in constructing roads with gentler
gradients. However the length of continuous grade line steeper than ruling gradient should be limited.
On rolling terrain and on hill roads, it may be frequently necessary to exceed ruling gradient and
adopt limiting gradient; but care should be taken to separate such stretches of steep gradients by
providing either a level road or a road with easier grade.

Exceptional gradient

In some extra ordinary situations it may be unavoidable to provide still steeper gradients than limiting
gradient at least for short stretches and in such cases the steeper gradient up to `exceptional gradient' may
be provided. However the exceptional gradient should be strictly limited only for short stretches not
exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.

The maximum values of ruling, limiting and exceptional gradients recommended by the IRC in
different terrains are given in Table 4.16.
Table : Gradients for roads in different terrains
Minimum gradient
Ruling Limiting
-• - - Exceptional
Type of terrain gradient gradient _ gradient
_
3.3 per
Plain or rolling 5 per cent 6.7 per cent
cent
(1 in 30) (1 in 20) (1 in 15)

Mountainous terrain, and steep 5 per cent 6 per cent 7 per cent
terrain having elevation more than (1 in 20) (1 in 16.7) (1 in 14.3)
3,000__________m above the mean sea level
Steep terrain up to 3,000 m 6 per cent 7 per cent 8 per cent
height a h n v e m e a n cea level (1 in 16.7) (1 in 14.3) (1 in 12.5)

A minimum gradient of about 1 in 500 may be sufficient to drain water in concrete drains or
gutter; but on inferior surfaces of drains a slope of 1 in 200 or 0.5 percent may be needed where
as on kutcha open drains or soil drains, steeper slopes up to 1 in 100 or 1.0 percent may be needed
depending on the soil type.
Grade compensation on horizontal curves
At horizontal curves, due to the turning angle a of the vehicles with rear wheel drive, the curve
resistance developed is equal to [T (1 — cos a) j, as explained in Art. 4.4.9. When there is a
horizontal curve in addition to the gradient, there will be increased resistance to traction due to
both horizontal curve and gradient; in other words the total resistance will be (grade resistance +
curve resistance). It is necessary that in such cases the total resistance due to grade and curve
should not normally exceed the resistance due to the maximum value of the gradient specified. For
design purpose, this maximum value may be taken as the ruling gradient and in some special cases
as limiting gradient for the terrain.
When sharp horizontal curve is to be introduced on a road which has already the maximum
permissible gradient, then the gradient should be decreased to compensa te for the loss of
tractive effort due to the curve. This reduction in gradient at th e horizontal curve is called
grade compensation or compensation in gradient at horizontal curve, which is intended to off-
set the extra tractive effort involved at the curve. This is calculated from the empirical relation:

Grade compensation, % 30+R (Eq. 4.32)

R
Vertical Curves

Objects and types

Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway, it is necessary to introduce vertical
curve at the intersections of different grades to smoothen out the vertical profile and thus ease off
the changes in gradients for the fast moving vehicles.
The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into two categories:
(a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards
(b) Valley curves or sag curves with concavity upwards
Summit curves
Summit curves with convexity upwards are formed in any one of the cases illustrated in Fig.
4.34 — (a), (b), (c) or (d). The deviation angle, N between the two intersecting gradients is equal to
the algebraic difference between them. Of all the cases, the deviation angle will be maximum when
an ascending gradient, (+ ni) meets with a descending gradient, (— n2).
Therefore deviation angle, N= ni (--111,) = + n2)
When a fast moving vehicle travels along a summit curve, the centrifugal force will act upwards,
against gravity and hence a part of the self weight of the vehicle is relieved resulting in reduction
in pressure on the tyres and on the suspension springs of the vehicle suspensions. So there is no
problem of discomfort to passengers on summit curves, particularly because the deviation
angles on roads are quite small. Also if the summit curve is designed to have adequate sight
distance, the length of the summit curve would be long enough to ease the shock due to change in
gradients.
 L)

Types of summit curves

Types of summit curves

The design of summit curves are governed only by considerations of sight distance and therefore
transition curves are not necessary. Circular summit curve is ideal as the sight distance available throughout
the length of circular curve is constant. From this view point, transition curve may be said to be even
undesirable to be used on summit curves. This is because the radius of curvature and hence the sight
distance would vary from point to point along the length of curve.
The deviation angles in vertical curves of highways are very small and so between the same tangent
points, a simple parabola is nearly congruent with a circular arc; also a parabola is very easy for
arithmetical manipulation for computing ordinates. The use of simple parabola as summit curve is found
to give good riding comfort too. Because of these reasons in actual practice a simple parabolic curve is
used as summit curve
instead of the circular arc.
Objective type questions:
1. The weaving length of a roadway is the distance
A. between the channelizing islands

B. equal to half circumference

C. equal to total width of adjoining radial roads

D. equal to diameter of rotary.

2. Road makers along roads from the edge of a kerb should not be less than
A. 40 cm

B. 45 cm

C. 50 cm

D. 55 cm

E. 60 cm

3. Traffic surveys are carried out

A. to know the type of traffic

B. to determine the facilities to traffic regulations

C. to design proper drainage system

D. all the above.

4. Width of vehicles affects the width of
A. lanes

B. shoulders

C. parking spaces

D. all the above.

5. First operation during the detailed survey of a hill road, is

A. hydrological and soil surveys

B. adjustment of alignment along with curves

C. derivation of longitudinal and cross-sections

D. fixation of Bench Marks

E. staking the ground.

6. The period of long term plan for the development of roads in India, known as Bombay Plan (Aug. 1958),
is
A. 5 years
 B. 10 years

C. 15 years

D. 20 years

E. 25 years

7. In water bound macadam roads, binding material, is

A. sand

B. stone dust

C. cement

D. brick dust.
8. According to Highway Research Board of U.S.A. practical land width, is
A. 2.7 m

B. 3.0 m

C. 3.3 m

D. 3.6 m

E. 4.5 m

9. Design of flexible pavements is based on

A. mathematical analysis

B. empirical formulae

C. a compromise of pure theory and pure empirical formula

D. none of these.

10. The efficiency of the brakes of a vehicle depends upon

A. condition of road surface

B. condition of the tyres

C. presence of the show moisture

D. all the above.

KEY

1)a 2)e 3)d 4)d 5)d 6)d 7)b 8)d 9)c 10)d