Theoretical

astronomy

Theoretical astronomy is the use of the

analytical models of physics and
chemistry to describe astronomical
objects and astronomical phenomena.

Ptolemy's Almagest, although a brilliant

treatise on theoretical astronomy
combined with a practical handbook for
computation, nevertheless includes many
compromises to reconcile discordant
observations. Theoretical astronomy is
usually assumed to have begun with
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), and
Kepler's laws. It is co-equal with
observation. The general history of
astronomy deals with the history of the
descriptive and theoretical astronomy of
the Solar System, from the late sixteenth
century to the end of the nineteenth
century. The major categories of works on
the history of modern astronomy include
general histories, national and institutional
histories, instrumentation, descriptive
astronomy, theoretical astronomy,
positional astronomy, and astrophysics.
Astronomy was early to adopt
computational techniques to model stellar
and galactic formation and celestial
mechanics. From the point of view of
theoretical astronomy, not only must the
mathematical expression be reasonably
accurate but it should preferably exist in a
form which is amenable to further
mathematical analysis when used in
specific problems. Most of theoretical
astronomy uses Newtonian theory of
gravitation, considering that the effects of
general relativity are weak for most
celestial objects. The obvious fact is that
theoretical astronomy cannot (and does
not try to) predict the position, size and
temperature of every star in the heavens.
Theoretical astronomy by and large has
concentrated upon analyzing the
apparently complex but periodic motions
of celestial objects.

Integrating astronomy and

physics
"Contrary to the belief generally held by
laboratory physicists, astronomy has
contributed to the growth of our
understanding of physics."[1] Physics has
helped in the elucidation of astronomical
phenomena, and astronomy has helped in
the elucidation of physical phenomena:
 1. discovery of the law of gravitation
came from the information provided
by the motion of the Moon and the
planets,
2. viability of nuclear fusion as
demonstrated in the Sun and stars
and yet to be reproduced on earth in
a controlled form.[1]

Integrating astronomy with physics

involves
Physical interaction Astronomical phenomena

Electromagnetism: observation using the electromagnetic spectrum

black body radiation stellar radiation

synchrotron radiation radio and X-ray sources

inverse-Compton
astronomical X-ray sources
scattering

acceleration of
pulsars and cosmic rays
charged particles

absorption/scattering interstellar dust

Strong and weak

nucleosynthesis in stars
interaction:

cosmic rays

supernovae

primeval universe

motion of planets, satellites and binary stars, stellar structure and

Gravity: evolution, N-body motions in clusters of stars and galaxies, black holes,
and the expanding universe.[1]

The aim of astronomy is to understand the

physics and chemistry from the laboratory
that is behind cosmic events so as to
enrich our understanding of the cosmos
and of these sciences as well.[1]
Integrating astronomy and
chemistry
Astrochemistry, the overlap of the
disciplines of astronomy and chemistry, is
the study of the abundance and reactions
of chemical elements and molecules in
space, and their interaction with radiation.
The formation, atomic and chemical
composition, evolution and fate of
molecular gas clouds, is of special interest
because it is from these clouds that solar
systems form.

Infrared astronomy, for example, has

revealed that the interstellar medium
contains a suite of complex gas-phase
carbon compounds called aromatic
hydrocarbons, often abbreviated (PAHs or
PACs). These molecules composed
primarily of fused rings of carbon (either
neutral or in an ionized state) are said to
be the most common class of carbon
compound in the galaxy. They are also the
most common class of carbon molecule in
meteorites and in cometary and asteroidal
dust (cosmic dust). These compounds, as
well as the amino acids, nucleobases, and
many other compounds in meteorites,
carry deuterium (2H) and isotopes of
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen that are very
rare on earth, attesting to their
extraterrestrial origin. The PAHs are
thought to form in hot circumstellar
environments (around dying carbon rich
red giant stars).

The sparseness of interstellar and

interplanetary space results in some
unusual chemistry, since symmetry-
forbidden reactions cannot occur except
on the longest of timescales. For this
reason, molecules and molecular ions
which are unstable on earth can be highly
abundant in space, for example the H3+
ion. Astrochemistry overlaps with
astrophysics and nuclear physics in
characterizing the nuclear reactions which
occur in stars, the consequences for
stellar evolution, as well as stellar
'generations'. Indeed, the nuclear reactions
in stars produce every naturally occurring
chemical element. As the stellar
'generations' advance, the mass of the
newly formed elements increases. A first-
generation star uses elemental hydrogen
(H) as a fuel source and produces helium
(He). Hydrogen is the most abundant
element, and it is the basic building block
for all other elements as its nucleus has
only one proton. Gravitational pull toward
the center of a star creates massive
amounts of heat and pressure, which
cause nuclear fusion. Through this
process of merging nuclear mass, heavier
elements are formed. Lithium, carbon,
nitrogen and oxygen are examples of
elements that form in stellar fusion. After
many stellar generations, very heavy
elements are formed (e.g. iron and lead).

Tools of theoretical
astronomy
Theoretical astronomers use a wide
variety of tools which include analytical
models (for example, polytropes to
approximate the behaviors of a star) and
computational numerical simulations.
Each has some advantages. Analytical
models of a process are generally better
for giving insight into the heart of what is
going on. Numerical models can reveal the
existence of phenomena and effects that
would otherwise not be seen.[2][3]

Astronomy theorists endeavor to create

theoretical models and figure out the
observational consequences of those
models. This helps observers look for data
that can refute a model or help in choosing
between several alternate or conflicting
models.

Theorists also try to generate or modify

models to take into account new data.
Consistent with the general scientific
approach, in the case of an inconsistency,
the general tendency is to try to make
minimal modifications to the model to fit
the data. In some cases, a large amount of
inconsistent data over time may lead to
total abandonment of a model.

Topics of theoretical
astronomy
Topics studied by theoretical astronomers
include:

1. stellar dynamics and evolution;

2. galaxy formation;
 3. large-scale structure of matter in the
Universe;
4. origin of cosmic rays;
5. general relativity and physical
cosmology, including string
cosmology and astroparticle physics.

Astrophysical relativity serves as a tool to

gauge the properties of large scale
structures for which gravitation plays a
significant role in physical phenomena
investigated and as the basis for black
hole (astro)physics and the study of
gravitational waves.

Astronomical models
Some widely accepted and studied
theories and models in astronomy, now
included in the Lambda-CDM model are
the Big Bang, Cosmic inflation, dark
matter, and fundamental theories of
physics.

A few examples of this process:

Physical Theoretical
Experimental tool Explains/predicts
process model

Self-gravitating
Gravitation Radio telescopes Emergence of a star system
system

How the stars shine and how

Nuclear fusion Spectroscopy Stellar evolution
metals formed

Hubble Space Expanding

The Big Bang Age of the Universe
Telescope, COBE universe

Quantum
Cosmic inflation Flatness problem
fluctuations

Gravitational Black holes at the center of

X-ray astronomy General relativity
collapse Andromeda Galaxy

CNO cycle in
stars
Leading topics in theoretical
astronomy
Dark matter and dark energy are the
current leading topics in astronomy,[4] as
their discovery and controversy originated
during the study of the galaxies.

Theoretical astrophysics
Of the topics approached with the tools of
theoretical physics, particular
consideration is often given to stellar
photospheres, stellar atmospheres, the
solar atmosphere, planetary atmospheres,
gaseous nebulae, nonstationary stars, and
the interstellar medium. Special attention
is given to the internal structure of stars.[5]

Weak equivalence principle …

The observation of a neutrino burst within

3 h of the associated optical burst from
Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic
Cloud (LMC) gave theoretical
astrophysicists an opportunity to test that
neutrinos and photons follow the same
trajectories in the gravitational field of the
galaxy.[6]

Thermodynamics for stationary

black holes
…
A general form of the first law of
thermodynamics for stationary black holes
can be derived from the microcanonical
functional integral for the gravitational
field.[7] The boundary data

1. the gravitational field as described

with a micocanonical system in a
spatially finite region and
2. the density of states expressed
formally as a functional integral over
Lorentzian metrics and as a
functional of the geometrical
boundary data that are fixed in the
corresponding action,
are the thermodynamical extensive
variables, including the energy and angular
momentum of the system.[7] For the
simpler case of nonrelativistic mechanics
as is often observed in astrophysical
phenomena associated with a black hole
event horizon, the density of states can be
expressed as a real-time functional
integral and subsequently used to deduce
Feynman's imaginary-time functional
integral for the canonical partition
function.[7]

Theoretical astrochemistry
Reaction equations and large reaction
networks are an important tool in
theoretical astrochemistry, especially as
applied to the gas-grain chemistry of the
interstellar medium.[8] Theoretical
astrochemistry offers the prospect of
being able to place constraints on the
inventory of organics for exogenous
delivery to the early Earth.

Interstellar organics …

"An important goal for theoretical

astrochemistry is to elucidate which
organics are of true interstellar origin, and
to identify possible interstellar precursors
and reaction pathways for those
molecules which are the result of aqueous
alterations."[9] One of the ways this goal
can be achieved is through the study of
carbonaceous material as found in some
meteorites. Carbonaceous chondrites
(such as C1 and C2) include organic
compounds such as amines and amides;
alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones; aliphatic
and aromatic hydrocarbons; sulfonic and
phosphonic acids; amino,
hydroxycarboxylic, and carboxylic acids;
purines and pyrimidines; and kerogen-type
material.[9] The organic inventories of
primitive meteorites display large and
variable enrichments in deuterium, carbon-
13 (13C), and nitrogen-15 (15N), which is
indicative of their retention of an
interstellar heritage.[9]

Chemistry in cometary comae …

The chemical composition of comets

should reflect both the conditions in the
outer solar nebula some 4.5 × 109 ayr, and
the nature of the natal interstellar cloud
from which the Solar system was
formed.[10] While comets retain a strong
signature of their ultimate interstellar
origins, significant processing must have
occurred in the protosolar nebula.[10] Early
models of coma chemistry showed that
reactions can occur rapidly in the inner
coma, where the most important reactions
are proton transfer reactions.[10] Such
reactions can potentially cycle deuterium
between the different coma molecules,
altering the initial D/H ratios released from
the nuclear ice, and necessitating the
construction of accurate models of
cometary deuterium chemistry, so that
gas-phase coma observations can be
safely extrapolated to give nuclear D/H
ratios.[10]

Theoretical chemical
astronomy
While the lines of conceptual
understanding between theoretical
astrochemistry and theoretical chemical
astronomy often become blurred so that
the goals and tools are the same, there are
subtle differences between the two
sciences. Theoretical chemistry as applied
to astronomy seeks to find new ways to
observe chemicals in celestial objects, for
example. This often leads to theoretical
astrochemistry having to seek new ways
to describe or explain those same
observations.

Astronomical spectroscopy …
The new era of chemical astronomy had to
await the clear enunciation of the
chemical principles of spectroscopy and
the applicable theory.[11]

Chemistry of dust condensation …

Supernova radioactivity dominates light

curves and the chemistry of dust
condensation is also dominated by
radioactivity.[12] Dust is usually either
carbon or oxides depending on which is
more abundant, but Compton electrons
dissociate the CO molecule in about one
month.[12] The new chemical astronomy of
supernova solids depends on the
supernova radioactivity:

1. the radiogenesis of 44Ca from 44Ti

decay after carbon condensation
establishes their supernova source,
2. their opacity suffices to shift
emission lines blueward after 500 d
and emits significant infrared
luminosity,
3. parallel kinetic rates determine trace
isotopes in meteoritic supernova
graphites,
4. the chemistry is kinetic rather than
due to thermal equilibrium and
 5. is made possible by radiodeactivation
of the CO trap for carbon.[12]

Theoretical physical
astronomy
Like theoretical chemical astronomy, the
lines of conceptual understanding
between theoretical astrophysics and
theoretical physical astronomy are often
blurred, but, again, there are subtle
differences between these two sciences.
Theoretical physics as applied to
astronomy seeks to find new ways to
observe physical phenomena in celestial
objects and what to look for, for example.
This often leads to theoretical
astrophysics having to seek new ways to
describe or explain those same
observations, with hopefully a
convergence to improve our understanding
of the local environment of Earth and the
physical Universe.

Weak interaction and nuclear

double beta decay
…

Nuclear matrix elements of relevant

operators as extracted from data and from
a shell-model and theoretical
approximations both for the two-neutrino
and neutrinoless modes of decay are used
to explain the weak interaction and nuclear
structure aspects of nuclear double beta
decay.[13]

Neutron-rich isotopes …

New neutron-rich isotopes, 34Ne, 37Na, and

43Si have been produced unambiguously
for the first time, and convincing evidence
for the particle instability of three others,
33Ne, 36Na, and 39Mg has been
obtained.[14] These experimental findings
compare with recent theoretical
predictions.[14]

Theory of astronomical time

keeping
Until recently all the time units that appear
natural to us are caused by astronomical
phenomena:

1. Earth's orbit around the Sun => the

year, and the seasons,
2. Moon's orbit around the Earth => the
month,
3. Earth's rotation and the succession of
brightness and darkness => the day
(and night).

High precision appears problematic:

1. amibiguities arise in the exact

definition of a rotation or revolution,
 2. some astronomical processes are
uneven and irregular, such as the
noncommensurability of year, month,
and day,
3. there are a multitude of time scales
and calendars to solve the first two
problems.[15]

Some of these time scales are sidereal

time, solar time, and universal time.

Atomic time …
Historical accuracy of atomic clocks from NIST.

From the Systeme Internationale (SI)

comes the second as defined by the
duration of 9 192 631 770 cycles of a
particular hyperfine structure transition in
the ground state of caesium-133
(133Cs).[15] For practical usability a device
is required that attempts to produce the SI
second (s) such as an atomic clock. But
not all such clocks agree. The weighted
mean of many clocks distributed over the
whole Earth defines the Temps Atomique
International; i.e., the Atomic Time TAI.[15]
From the General theory of relativity the
time measured depends on the altitude on
earth and the spatial velocity of the clock
so that TAI refers to a location on sea level
that rotates with the Earth.[15]

Ephemeris time …

Since the Earth's rotation is irregular, any

time scale derived from it such as
Greenwich Mean Time led to recurring
problems in predicting the Ephemerides
for the positions of the Moon, Sun, planets
and their natural satellites.[15] In 1976 the
International Astronomical Union (IAU)
resolved that the theoretical basis for
ephemeris time (ET) was wholly non-
relativistic, and therefore, beginning in
1984 ephemeris time would be replaced
by two further time scales with allowance
for relativistic corrections. Their names,
assigned in 1979,[16] emphasized their
dynamical nature or origin, Barycentric
Dynamical Time (TDB) and Terrestrial
Dynamical Time (TDT). Both were defined
for continuity with ET and were based on
what had become the standard SI second,
which in turn had been derived from the
measured second of ET.

During the period 1991–2006, the TDB and

TDT time scales were both redefined and
replaced, owing to difficulties or
inconsistencies in their original definitions.
The current fundamental relativistic time
scales are Geocentric Coordinate Time
(TCG) and Barycentric Coordinate Time
(TCB). Both of these have rates that are
based on the SI second in respective
reference frames (and hypothetically
outside the relevant gravity well), but due
to relativistic effects, their rates would
appear slightly faster when observed at
the Earth's surface, and therefore diverge
from local Earth-based time scales using
the SI second at the Earth's surface.[17]

The currently defined IAU time scales also

include Terrestrial Time (TT) (replacing
TDT, and now defined as a re-scaling of
TCG, chosen to give TT a rate that
matches the SI second when observed at
the Earth's surface),[18] and a redefined
Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB), a re-
scaling of TCB to give TDB a rate that
matches the SI second at the Earth's
surface.

Extraterrestrial time-keeping …

Stellar dynamical time scale …

For a star, the dynamical time scale is

defined as the time that would be taken for
a test particle released at the surface to
fall under the star's potential to the centre
point, if pressure forces were negligible. In
other words, the dynamical time scale
measures the amount of time it would
take a certain star to collapse in the
absence of any internal pressure. By
appropriate manipulation of the equations
of stellar structure this can be found to be

where R is the radius of the star, G is the

gravitational constant, M is the mass of
the star and v is the escape velocity. As an
example, the Sun dynamical time scale is
approximately 1133 seconds. Note that
the actual time it would take a star like the
Sun to collapse is greater because internal
pressure is present.

The 'fundamental' oscillatory mode of a

star will be at approximately the dynamical
time scale. Oscillations at this frequency
are seen in Cepheid variables.

Theory of astronomical
navigation

On earth …

The basic characteristics of applied

astronomical navigation are
1. usable in all areas of sailing around
the earth,
2. applicable autonomously (does not
depend on others – persons or
states) and passively (does not emit
energy),
3. conditional usage via optical visibility
(of horizon and celestial bodies), or
state of cloudiness,
4. precisional measurement, sextant is
0.1', altitude and position is between
1.5' and 3.0'.
5. temporal determination takes a
couple of minutes (using the most
modern equipment) and ≤ 30 min
 (using classical equipment).[19]

The superiority of satellite navigation

systems to astronomical navigation are
currently undeniable, especially with the
development and use of
GPS/NAVSTAR.[19] This global satellite
system

1. enables automated three-

dimensional positioning at any
moment,
2. automatically determines position
continuously (every second or even
more often),
3. determines position independent of
weather conditions (visibility and
cloudiness),
4. determines position in real time to a
few meters (two carrying
frequencies) and 100 m (modest
commercial receivers), which is two
to three orders of magnitude better
than by astronomical observation,
5. is simple even without expert
knowledge,
6. is relatively cheap, comparable to
equipment for astronomical
navigation, and
 7. allows incorporation into integrated
and automated systems of control
and ship steering.[19] The use of
astronomical or celestial navigation
is disappearing from the surface and
beneath or above the surface of the
earth.

Geodetic astronomy is the application of

astronomical methods into networks and
technical projects of geodesy for

apparent places of stars, and their

proper motions
precise astronomical navigation
astro-geodetic geoid determination and
 modelling the rock densities of the
topography and of geological layers in
the subsurface
Satellite geodesy using the stellar
background (see also astrometry and
cosmic triangulation)
Monitoring of the Earth rotation and
polar wandering
Contribution to the time system of
physics and geosciences

Astronomical algorithms are the

algorithms used to calculate ephemerides,
calendars, and positions (as in celestial
navigation or satellite navigation).
Many astronomical and navigational
computations use the Figure of the Earth
as a surface representing the earth.

The International Earth Rotation and

Reference Systems Service (IERS),
formerly the International Earth Rotation
Service, is the body responsible for
maintaining global time and reference
frame standards, notably through its Earth
Orientation Parameter (EOP) and
International Celestial Reference System
(ICRS) groups.

Deep space …
The Deep Space Network, or DSN, is an
international network of large antennas
and communication facilities that
supports interplanetary spacecraft
missions, and radio and radar astronomy
observations for the exploration of the
solar system and the universe. The
network also supports selected Earth-
orbiting missions. DSN is part of the NASA
Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).

Aboard an exploratory vehicle …

An observer becomes a deep space

explorer upon escaping Earth's orbit.[20]
While the Deep Space Network maintains
communication and enables data
download from an exploratory vessel, any
local probing performed by sensors or
active systems aboard usually require
astronomical navigation, since the
enclosing network of satellites to ensure
accurate positioning is absent.

See also
Astrochemistry
Astrometry
Astrophysics
Celestial mechanics
Celestial navigation
 Celestial sphere
Orbital mechanics

References
1. Narlikar JV (1990). Pasachoff JM;
Percy JR (eds.). "Curriculum for the
Training of Astronomers In: The
Teaching of astronomy". IAU Colloq.
105: The Teaching of Astronomy.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press: 7.
Bibcode:1990teas.conf....7N .
2. Roth H (1932). "A Slowly Contracting
or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its
Stability". Phys. Rev. 39 (3): 525–9.
Bibcode:1932PhRv...39..525R .
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.39.525 .
3. Eddington AS (1926). Internal
Constitution of the Stars. Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-33708-3.
4. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/sci
ence/know_l1/dark_matter.html third
paragraph, "There is currently much
ongoing research by scientists
attempting to discover exactly what
this dark matter is". Retrieved 2009-11-
02
5. Sobolev VV (1985). Course in
theoretical astrophysics (3rd revised
and enlarged ed.). Moscow:
Izdatel'stvo Nauka. p. 504.
Bibcode:1985cta..book.....S .
6. Krauss LM; Tremaine S (Mar 1988).
"Test of the Weak Equivalence
Principle for Neutrinos and Photons".
Phys. Rev. Lett. 60 (3): 176–7.
Bibcode:1988PhRvL..60..176K .
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.60.176 .
PMID 10038467 .
7. Brown JD; York JW Jr. (Apr 1993).
"Microcanonical functional integral for
the gravitational field". Phys. Rev. D. 47
(4): 1420–31. arXiv:gr-qc/9209014 .
Bibcode:1993PhRvD..47.1420B .
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.47.1420 .
PMID 10015718 .
8. Vasyunin AI; Semenov DA; Wiebe DS;
Henning T (Feb 2009). "A Unified
Monte Carlo Treatment of Gas-Grain
Chemistry for Large Reaction
Networks. I. Testing Validity of Rate
Equations in Molecular Clouds".
Astrophys. J. 691 (2): 1459–69.
arXiv:0810.1591 .
Bibcode:2009ApJ...691.1459V .
doi:10.1088/0004-637X/691/2/1459 .
9. Ehrenfreund P; Charnley SB; Botta O
(2005). Livio M; Reid IN; Sparks WB
(eds.). A voyage from dark clouds to
the early Earth In: Astrophysics of life:
proceedings of the Space Telescope
Science Institute Symposium held in
Baltimore, Maryland, May 6–9, 2002,
Volume 16 of Space Telescope
Science Institute symposium series.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press. pp. 1–20 of 110.
ISBN 9780521824903.
10. Rodgers SD; Charnley SB (Mar 2002).
"A model of the chemistry in cometary
comae: deuterated molecules".
Monthly Notices of the Royal
Astronomical Society. 330 (3): 660–
74. Bibcode:2002MNRAS.330..660R .
doi:10.1046/j.1365-
8711.2002.05165.x .
11. Merrill PW (1954). "Great Epochs in
Astronomy". Astronomical Society of
the Pacific Leaflets. 7 (306): 41–8.
Bibcode:1954ASPL....7...41M .
12. Clayton DD; Liu W (1999).
"Radioactivity Frontier for Supernova
Chemistry". Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 31:
739. Bibcode:1999HEAD....4.3602C .
13. Suhonen J; Civitarese O (Jul 1998).
"Weak-interaction and nuclear-
structure aspects of nuclear double
beta decay". Phys. Rep. 300 (3): 123–
214. Bibcode:1998PhR...300..123S .
doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(97)00087-2 .
14. Notani M; Sakurai H; Aoi N;
Yanagisawa Y; Saito A; Imai N; et al.
(Aug 2002). "New neutron-rich
isotopes, 34Ne, 37Na and 43Si,
produced by fragmentation of a 64 A
MeV 48Ca beam". Phys. Lett. B. 542
(1): 49–54.
Bibcode:2002PhLB..542...49N .
doi:10.1016/S0370-2693(02)02337-7 .
15. Husfeld D; Kronberg C. "Astronomical
Time Keeping" .
16. Guinot B; Seidelmann PK (Apr 1988).
"Time scales – Their history, definition
and interpretation". Astronomy and
Astrophysics. 194 (1–2): 304–8.
Bibcode:1988A&A...194..304G .
17. Klioner S; et al. (2009). "Units of
relativistic time scales and associated
quantities". IAU Symposium. 261.
18. "IAU 2000 resolutions, at Resolution
B1.9" .
19. Stajic D (Oct 2003). "Astronomical
navigation at the beginning of the third
millenium". Publ Astron Obs Belgrade
In: Proceedings of the XIII National
Conference of Yugoslav Astronomers,
Belgrade, October 17–20, 2002. 75:
209–16.
Bibcode:2003POBeo..75..209S . [sic]
20. Kawakatsu Y (Dec 2007). "Concept
study on Deep Space Orbit Transfer
Vehicle". Acta Astronautica. 61 (11–
12): 1019–28.
Bibcode:2007AcAau..61.1019K .
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.12.019 .

External links
 Introduction to Cataclysmic Variables
(CVs)
L. Sidoli, 2008 Transient outburst
mechanisms
Commentary on "The Compendium of
Plain Astronomy" is a manuscript from
1665 about theoretical astronomy

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Theoretical_astronomy&oldid=928762219"

Last edited 3 months ago by Citation bot

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless

otherwise noted.