INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC & TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH, VOL 1, ISSUE 1

Flood Risk assessment using Remote Sensing

and GIS for Anigunta Watershed, Sangareddy
District, and Telangana State
Rathod Ravinder, Penki Ramu, Srinivasarao T

Abstract—Flood is one of the most devastating natural hazards which lead to the loss of lives, properties and resources. Floods resulting
from excessive rainfall within a short duration of time and consequent high river discharge damage crops and infrastructures. They also
result in siltation of the reservoirs and hence limit the capacity of existing dams to control floods. The purpose of flood risk assessment is to
identify the areas within a plan that are at risk of flooding based on factors that are relevant to flood risks. It has therefore become
important to create easily read, rapidly accessible flood map. Maps give a more direct and stronger impression of the spatial distribution of
the flood risk than other forms of presentation like verbal description and diagrams. Remote sensing (RS) is a reliable way of providing
required data over a wide area in a very cost-effective manner. It also overcomes the limitation of the ground stations to register data in an
extreme condition. This paper is aimed at assessing flood risk in the Anigunta region, Sangareddy district, Telangana state, India. Remote
sensing technology along with geographic information system (GIS) is the key tool for flood monitoring. The map will be made using
Geographic Information System (GIS). A GIS database of indicators for the evaluation of hazard will be created. The indicators are road
network, settlements, drainage, contours, triangulated irregular network, digital elevation model, slope, aspect, flow accumulation, flow
direction, land use and land cover, soil map, geomorphology and ground water maps. Each indicator will be analyzed and weighted, after
which, the weights of the indicators will be combined to obtain the final map. The results obtained can provide useful information to suggest
artificial recharge structures for decision making.

Index Terms— Flood risk, RS, GIS, artificial recharge structures, Overlay analysis, Raster calculator

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1 INTRODUCTION

I n India, more than 75% of the population depends on

agriculture for their livelihood, which plays a important role
in our country’s economy. More than 70% of the total
geographical area is under distress due to the frequent
occurrence of droughts and agriculture is seriously affected by
uncertain monsoon. In order to meet the growing demand for
food, fuel, and fodder of ever-increasing population, land and
water resources need to be optimally utilized. It requires
timely and reliable information on available land and water
resources, which could be derived from space borne
multispectral data. Remote Sensing and Geographic
information system together provide an information base for
efficient management of land and water resources. A
watershed is a hydrological unit, draining runoff water at a
common point and is demarcated based on the ridge and gully
lines. The programmes under the watershed approach fall into
soil and water conservation, dry land and rainfed farming,
ravine reclamation, control of shifting cultivation and
improvement in the vegetative cover.
1.1 Need Finding
As India is one of the developing countries, due to
increased urbanization and deforestation the vegetative cover
is being decreased as a result of which the hydrological cycle
is being affected and this is resulting in reducing the levels of
the groundwater and increased risk of flood. All these
consequences finally result in desertification of that piece of
land. Anigunta in Zaheerabad Mandal of Medak District,
Telangana state, is selected because of its low levels of
groundwater and frequent floods. The open wells have
become dry forever and even bore wells are becoming dry
after certain period. The urban areas in the study area which
are densely populated are overexploiting the water resources
for various uses. So there is a need to raise the water table to a
reasonable level and controlling flood by various means such
as artificial recharge and constructing recharge structures in
the present study area.
1.2 Objectives
The following are the objectives for the present study
i. To generate the thematic maps like a base map, drainage
map, contour map, slope and aspect maps, land use/land
cover, geomorphology, soils, groundwater prospectus
maps.
ii. To develop an action plan map by overlaying all the
thematic maps.
iii. To propose artificial recharge structures.
2 STUDY AREA DELINEATION
The current study area is Anigunta region, Zaheerabad
Mandal of Sangareddy district, Telangana, which spreads over
an area of 1,477 hectares. The study area lies between 17° 34’
30” N to 17° 37’ 30” N Latitude and 77° 33’ 30’’ E to 77° 36’ 0”
E Longitudes and falls in Survey of India Toposheet No. 56
G/10/SW to a scale of 1: 25,000. The chief sources of irrigation
in the district tanks, wells, and streams. The net irrigated area
in the district is 1, 27,617 hectares, of which canal irrigation
accounts for only 3.3 %, the remaining irrigation is through
open wells and bore wells. Red earth comprising loamy soils,
sandy loams, and sandy clay loams. Red lateritic soils are
present in Zaheerabad mandal. The climate of the district is
characterized by a hot summer and generally dry weather,
showers, are expected during the south-west monsoon season.

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During the summer season, the temperature expected will be
42 o C. The mean normal annual rainfall of the district is 873
mm. The location map of the study area is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Study area Location map
3 IDEATION
The following is the methodology adopted for the present
study
i. All the thematic maps such as road network and
settlements map, drainage map, contour map,
triangulated irregular network, digital elevation model,
slope, aspect,flow accumulation map,flow direction map,
soil map, geomorphology map, and groundwater maps
are prepared in ArcGIS 10.3 software.
ii. Using the satellite imageobtained from National Remote
Sensing Agency and Survey of India toposheet number
56G/10/SW of scale 1:25,000 land use/land cover mapis
prepared in ArcGIS 10.3 software.
iii. By overlaying all the above-said maps and by
performing raster calculationsaction plan map is created.
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3.1 THEMATIC MAPS
3.1.1 Road Network and Settlements Map
Road network and settlements map are essential to locating all
the human inhabitations like rural and urban settlements with
important economic facilities such as health care, educational
institutions, drinking water facilities hospitals, communication
facilities, etc. Road network is used to locate and create
facilities which would strengthen the economy of the
watershed. This road network map helps to know the
connectivity to different human inhabitants within a
watershed, which is very important to take up developing
programmes that are to be carried. It is also used for knowing
the various transport facilities within that region. Road layer
would be useful to locate new development and its
relationship to existing development. Road network and
settlements map are prepared by using Survey of India
toposheet number 56G/10/SW for a scale of 1:25,000 and
updated with the help of satellite imagery in ArcGIS 10.3
software. In the road network and settlements map, all the
settlements and their connectivity within the study area are
digitized from Survey of India toposheet and each settlement
is labelled.
The various types of roads constructed in the study area
connect all the three settlements in the northern part of the
study area. Ondlagadda Thanda is not connected with other
settlements of the study area but it is connected with both
Anigunta and Gadda Thanda with a road from outside the
study area boundary. There are only 4 major settlements
namely Gadda Thanda, Makaha Nayak Thanda, Ondlagadda
Thanda, and Anigunta. Lakaha Nayak Thanda
issmallsettlement Anigunta is the largest settlement inhabited
and Gadda Thanda and Ondlagadda Thanda is the smallest of
the settlements.Ondlagadda Thanda is the only settlement
which is present in the southern part of the study area.The
road network and settlements map of Anigunta watershed are
shown in the Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Road networks and settlements map
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called the contour interval.

Contour lines indicate the slope of the land. Closely-spaced
3.1.2 Drainage Map contour lines indicate a steep slope because of elevation
Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface changes quickly in a small area. In contrast, broadly spaced
and sub-surface water from an area. Many agricultural soils contour lines indicate a shallow slope.
need drainage to improve production or to manage water A contour map is prepared by using Survey of India toposheet
supplies. This map consists of all water bodies, rivers, number 56 G/10/SW of scale 1:25,000 in ArcGIS 10.3 software.
tributaries, perennial and ephemeral streams, reservoirs, In contour map various contours present in the study area are
tanks, ponds and the entire drainage network from first order digitized form Survey of India toposheet and elevation is
originating in the area to the last order joining the rivers, assigned for each contour.
tributaries, and tanks based on topography. Drainage density The study area is having an undulating topography and the
and type of drainage gives information related to runoff, elevation varies from 590 meters to 660 meters above the Mean
infiltration relief, and permeability. Dendritic drainage Sea Level. Contour map has been prepared with 10 meters
systems are the most common form of drainage system. In a interval. The highest contour having an elevation of 660
dendritic system, there are many contributing streams which meters is present in the western part and the lowest contour
are then joined together into the tributaries of the main river. having an elevation of 590 meters is present in the southern
They develop where the river channel follows the slope of the part of the study area. The contour map is shown in Fig. 4.
terrain. Strahler system modification of Horton's classification
system is followed for steams in which the smallest streams
are called first-order streams. Two first-order streams meet to
give second-order stream and two second-order streams meet
resulting in the third-order stream is created and so on.
Drainage map is prepared by using Survey of India
toposheet number 56 G/10/SW of scale 1:25,000 in ArcGIS
10.3 software.
In the drainage map, all the water bodies and streams of
different orders are digitized and stream orders are assigned
to all the streams present in the study area.
The stream patternin the study area is dendritic in nature,
which is spread all over the study area. In the studyarea,
the stream orders ranged from 1st order streams to 4th order
streams. From the number of streams in each order present in
the study area, it is clear that the streams in the study area
verified Horton's first law i.e, first order streams are more in
number compared to second order, second order streams are
more compared to third order streams and third order streams
are more compared to fourth order streams. The number of
streams in each order in the study area is shown in the TABLE
1. The drainage map is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3. Drainage map

TABLE 1
NUMBER OF STREAMS IN STUDY AREA
S. No. Stream Order No. of Streams
1 First order 68
2 Second order 16
3 Third order 5
4 Fourth order 1

3.1.3 Contour Map

Contour is an imaginary line joining the points of equal
elevation. Contour lines are drawn on a topographic map to
show the location of hills, mountains, and valleys. Each
contour line represents a specific elevation and connects all the
places that are at the same elevation. Two contour lines next to
one another are separated by a constant difference in
elevation. This elevation difference between contour lines is Fig. 4. Contour map

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3.1.4 Triangulated Irregular Network Map Triangulated irregular network is converted into raster form.
The topography of a land surface is represented by digital The elevation values of the study area are recorded in this
elevation data. Triangulated irregular network is a surface raster. Digital elevation model(DEM) map is created from the
representation derived from irregularly spaced sample points triangulated irregular network map by using 3-D analyst tool
and break-line features. The tin data set includes topological in ArcGIS 10.3. is shown in Fig. 6.
relationships between points and their neighbouring
triangles..Triangulated irregular networks are made up of
triangular facets and the nodes and edges that make up the
triangles. The most commonly used terrain functions are the
calculation of slope and aspect. Geographic information
system analysis (Surface analysis and Hydrological analysis) is
carried out using the contours prepared for the study area. By
using the contours first step of surface analysis is carried out
by generating a triangulated irregular network.
The 2-D contours are converted into 3-D vector form and flat
triangles are formed between the contour intervals, so the gap
between each of the contour intervals is flat. Triangulated
irregular network map is created from the contour map by
using 3 D analyst tool in ArcGIS10.3. It is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 6. DEM map

3.1.5 Slope Map

Fig. 5. TIN map
3.1.4 Digital Elevation Map
Digital Elevation Models are data files that contain the
elevation of the terrain over a specified area, usually at a fixed
grid interval over the surface of the earth. The closer together
the grid points are located, the more detailed is the
information. Digital elevation model is used for Storage of
elevation data for digital topographic maps in the national
database and three-dimensional representations of landforms
for military purposes. Digital elevation model is the second
step of surface analysis which is created from the triangulated
irregular network using 3-D analyst tool. Therefore surface
analysis is carried out using contours.
The slope is one of the important terrain parameters which can
be explained by the horizontal spacing of the contours. In
general, in the vector form closely spaced contours represent
steeper slopes and sparse contours exhibit gentle slope
whereas in the elevation output raster every cell has a slope
value. The slope values can be calculated either in percentage.
Preparation of a slope map is a part of the hydrological
analysis. Slope map is prepared using triangulated irregular
network map as an input. The obtained slope categories are
classified into seven classes as per All India Soil and Landuse
Survey (AIS & LUS).
The slope map is divided into seven broad classes as per All
India Soil and Landuse Survey (AIS&LUS), which is shown in
the TABLE 2. The very steep slope is seen mostly in the
western region and less in eastern and southern regions. The
very gentle slope is seen in smaller portions covering all over
the study area. The larger portion of the study area has a
nearly level slope. The slope map is shown in Fig. 7.

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TABLE 2 3.1.6 Aspect Map

SLOPE CATAGORIES IN ANIGUNTA MICRO WATERSHED The aspect values of the output raster will be measured in the
Class Percentage Slope Category compass direction (i.e. 0o -360o in a clockwise direction).
Similarly, flat surfaces which do not possess any direction can
1 0-1 Nearly level also be depicted. Preparation of aspect map is a part of the
hydrological analysis. Aspect map is prepared using
triangulated irregular network map as an input. Slope and
2 1-3 Very gently sloping
aspect maps play a crucial role in addition to flow direction
and flow accumulation in hydrological modelling.
3 3-5 Gently sloping
Aspect is measured clockwise in degrees from 0o north to 360o
north. Aspect is the direction of the slope a hill faces. Flat
4 5-10 Moderately sloping slopes have no direction and are given a value of -1 which is
present in most parts of the study area and very steep slope
5 10-15 Strongly sloping face the north direction in the western part of the study area.
The aspect map is shown in the Fig. 8.
6 15-35 Moderately steep to steep
sloping
7 >35 Very steep sloping

Fig. 8. Aspect map

3.1.7 Flow Direction Map

Flow direction indicates the direction of surface flow. The
output flow direction raster shows eight possible directions.
Preparation of flow direction map is a part of the hydrological
analysis. Slope map is prepared using triangulated irregular
network map as an input.
The direction of flow of rainwater towards east direction
is high and more towards south direction and least flow of
rainwater is towards north and northwest directions
whenever there is rainfall. Flow direction map is shown in Fig.
9.

3.1.8 Flow Accumulation Map

Flow accumulation is generated from the error-free elevation
Fig. 7. Slope map raster data. The high flow areas in the output raster are the

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areas of concentrated flow, which are important to identify
possible stream channels. Similarly, those areas with flow
accumulation value zero (low) are the areas, which are
topographically high like ridges. A stream network is created
by using the results of the high-accumulated flow. Similarly,
this stream network is used as input to generate stream order,
streamline and stream link. Preparation of flow accumulation
map is a part of the hydrological analysis. Slope map is
prepared using triangulated irregular network map as an
input. High flow accumulation of rainwater is indicated by
white colour and it is concentrated mainly in the central
region whenever it rains and other parts of the study area do
not have this high concentration of accumulation which is
indicated by grey lines. Flow accumulation map is shown in
Fig. 10.
Fig. 9. Flow Direction map
3.1.9 Land Use Land Cover (LULC) Map
Thematic land classes can be derived digitally by grouping
pixels that have similar spectral signatures from the
measurements of individual bands throughout the spectrum.
Usually, this classification is made with visible, near-infrared,
and middle infrared part of the spectrum. Image
interpretation was carried out with the help of nine elements
of interpretation key.
Landuse refers to man’s activities and the various uses which
are carried on land covers. Landcover refers to natural
vegetation, water bodies rock/soil artificial cover and others
resulting due to land transformations. Various land use/land
cover features are described here.
Built-up land/settlements are as an area of human
habitation developed due to non-agricultural use and that
which has a cover of buildings, transport and communication,
IJSTR©2012
Industries, Educational Institutes, utilities in association with
water, vegetation and vacant lands. All manmade
constructions covering the land surface are included under
this category. These are human settlements comprising
residential areas, transportation and communication lines,
Industrial and commercial complexes, utilities and services
etc. Their shape and high reflectivity differentiate them from
other classes. Agricultural land is the land primarily used for
farming and for the production of food. It includes land under
crops (irrigated and unirrigated), fallow, plantations etc.
Croplands are further classified into two types depending on
the season in which they are cultivated kharif and rabi. Fallow
land is described as agricultural land which is taken up for
cultivation but is temporarily allowed to rest, un-cropped for
one or more seasons, but not less than one year. These lands
are particularly those which are seen devoid of crops at the
time when the imagery is taken of both seasons. Forest Land is
an area consisting of trees and other vegetation types capable
of producing timber and other forest products. Forests exert
an influence on climate and water regime and also provide
shelter for wildlife and livestock.
Fig. 10. Flow Accumulation map
Water Bodies comprises areas of surface water, either in the
form of lakes, ponds, and reservoirs or flowing as streams,
rivers, canals etc. These are clearly seen on satellite false color
imagery in blue color. Scrubland is the land with scrub these
are the lands with soils that are too shallow, skeletal or
chemically degraded lands with moderate to the steep slope
and are mostly covered in the scrubs of different densities and
varying height. Land without Scrub occupies relatively higher
topography. These lands are generally prone to degradation or
erosion due to various natural and manmade activities.
Landuse/landcover map is prepared by using Survey of India
toposheet number 56G/10/SW of scale 1:25,000 and by using
IRS-P6 LISS IV satellite data of December 2018 in ArcGIS 10.3
software. In Landuse/landcover map various
Landuse/landcover classes are identified and digitized by
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using polygons from the satellite imagery and Survey of India

toposheet and each class is named in the attribute table.
The land use/land cover map is prepared by using
toposheet and satellite data available for December 2018 is
shown in Fig. 11. The area covered by each land use/land
cover category is shown in TABLE 3 and the percentage area
covered by each feature is shown in Fig. 12. It has been
observed that majority of the area is covered with land with
scrub and availability of surface water bodies is less and the
agricultural activities in the study area are carried out with the
help of groundwater resources only.
TABLE 3
LULC CLASSIFICATION FOR ANIGUNTA
S.no. Landuse/landcover Type Area in
hectares
1 Kharif crop 317.92
2 Double crop 77.89

3 fallow land 256.21

4 Forest 254.13

5 land with scrub 422.61

6 land without scrub 123.12

7 settlements 12.21

8 water bodies 13.33 Fig. 11. LULC map

In the present study, various land-use categories of Anigunta

micro-watershed cover an area of about 1477hectares.
Agricultural Land in the study area is of three types they are
Kharif crop, double crop, and fallow land. The major rainfed
crops are cotton, chilies, Paddy, groundnut, maize, jowar,
sunflower, wheat, oilseeds, Millet’s that Red gram, black
grams and etc. There are two different crops identified they
are kharif crop and double crop.Out of the total area, 317.92
hectares is covered by kharif crops, and 77.89 hectares in the
area covered by double crop (kharif and rabi). Fallow lands
devoid of crops at the time when the imagery is taken for both
the seasons and the total area covered with fallow land is
256.21 hectares. The total area covered with forest land is
254.13 hectares.
The land with scrub is present in the western part of the
study area where the steep slope is seen. The total land area
covered with scrub is 422.61 hectares. Land without scrub
occupies some portions of the eastern part of the study area
where the moderate slope is seen. The total land area covered
with without scrub land is 123.12 hectares. There are only four Fig. 12. LULC type in percentages
settlements present in the study area. The total area covered 3.1.10 Soil Map
under settlements is 12.21 hectares. Surface water bodies are
The formation of soils involves many physical, chemical and
very less in the study area. The total area covered under water
biological activities in the layers of the Earth. The soil is
bodies is 13.32 hectares, so the agricultural needs are met only
produced by weathering of rock material by disintegration
with the help of groundwater resources available in the study
process. Soil layers consist of various decayed living
area.

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organisms, water, gas, and minerals. Essentially soil survey is with the study of the nature of the intra and interrelationships
a study and mapping of soils in the field. It is the systematic of different landforms and processes. Geological structure is
examination, description, classification, and mapping of soils the dominant controlling factor in the evolution of landforms.
of an area. Continents, oceans, mountains, plateaus, valleys, deltas, etc.,
The soils in the study area are of four different type’s are some of the examples of landforms. Landforms can be
namely gravelly loam, sandy loam, sandy clay loam, clayey divided into three orders. First order landforms include
loam. The Soil map of the study area is shown in Fig. 13. And continents & oceans, Second order landforms include
the area covered by each type of soil is shown in TABLE 4. mountains, plateaus, and plains and Third-order landforms
TABLE 4 include hills, valleys, and deltas. Geomorphology helps in the
VARIOUS TYPES OF SOIL CATEGORIES mapping of different landforms. Hydro-geomorphology is the
S.No Soil Series Soil Type Area in science of description of various geomorphic units (landforms)
along with their groundwater conditions. Geomorphic maps
Hectares
are prepared for a variety of purposes such as land resource
1 Fine, kaolinitic Gravelly 708.26 mapping, watershed studies, terrain evaluation, and soil
classification in addition to groundwater studies.
Loam
In the study area, thick lateritic plateau covers the larger
2 Fine, kaolinitic Sandy Loam 326.22 portion of the study area which is elevated flat land surface
where the drainage density is moderate. A moderately thick
3 Very fine, Sandy clay 15.28 lateritic valley covers the least area in the study area where the
weathered and fractured zones are present and these are
montmorillonitic loam potential zones for the groundwater occurrence. The
moderately thick lateritic plateau is less thick when compared
4 Fine, mixed Clayey 427.24 with the thick lateritic plateau. The geomorphology map of the
Loam study area is shown in Fig. 14. And the area covered by each
type of geomorphic feature is shown in the TABLE 5.
TABLE 5
3.1.11 Geomorphology Map
VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF GEOMORPHIC FEATURES
Geomorphology is the science of description, systematic S.no Geomorphic feature Area in hectares
interpretation and the study of the genesis of landforms
(secondary topographic features) produced by a variety of
1 Thick lateritic plateau 901.53

2 Moderately thick lateritic 38.74

valleys
3 Moderately thick lateritic 536.73
plateau

Fig. 13. Soil map Fig. 14. Geomorphology map

exogenetic and endogenetic forces. Geomorphology deals

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4 PROPOSED ACTION PLAN
Proposing different soil and water harvesting structures play a
very important role. Priority locations are identified by
overlaying various thematic maps in ArcGIS 10.3 using raster
calculations. Various water harvesting structures are proposed
at appropriate locations depending on the priority location by
using drainage, slope, land use land cover, soil, groundwater
prospectus and hydro geomorphology maps in the present
study area. The action plan is proposed is shown in Fig. 15.
Fig. 15. Proposed Action Plan for Anigunta watershed
Two percolation tanks are constructed by earthen
bunds one across third order stream on the south-eastern part
of the study area and other across fourth order stream which
is present in the central part of the study area for which slope
should be less than two percent.
Ten check dams are constructed for stabilizing the
slope and harvesting runoff water from the watershed. These
are made with locally available materials and are temporary
structures. These are constructed across first and second order
streams, with medium sloping areas. Seven check dams are
proposed on first order streams most which are located in the
western part of the study area and the remaining three on
second-order streams.
Contour bunding is the semi-permanent measure,
suitable for all areas irrespective of rainfall and types of soils.
Contour bunding is closely placed dense plantations like
grasses, legumes, and shrubs etc. which are generally grown
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in few parallel rows along the contours for effective control of
soil erosion in agricultural lands and for groundwater
recharge with flat to steep topography. Most of the contour
bunding is proposed in the western part of the study areas it
has a steep slope where the contours are concentrated
maximum.
5 CONCLUSION
The following are the few conclusions drawn from the
present study.
i. The drainage pattern of the study area is a dendritic
type of network which provides information for
understanding both structural controls of surface flow
as well as recharge zones.
ii. The highest elevation contour is 660 meters and the
lowest elevation contour identified is of 590 meters
above the mean sea level.
iii. The hydrological analysis is carried with the help of
the prepared raster. The very steep slope is present
towards the northern direction in the western region
and most the study area has a nearly level slope in the
study area. Flow direction is mainly seen in east and
south direction and maximum flow accumulation is
in the central region of the study area.
iv. From the Land use/ Land cover map prepared, it is
concluded that land with scrub and crop covered
most part of the study area and the main source for
irrigation is groundwater.
v. Most of the study area is covered with lateritic
plateau but there are few weathered zones where the
ground is moderate to good. The study area is mainly
characterized by loamy soils.
vi. In the study area ten check dams of which seven are
proposed on first-order streams. Two percolation
tanks are proposed on fourth order streams and those
areas have less than two percent slope. Contour
bunding is proposed on steep slope areas of the study
area. All these structures are proposed at appropriate
locations based on the raster theme weights.
6 RECOMMENDATIONS
Strip cropping, Mixed cropping is a practice of growing more
than one crop in the same field so there will be one main crop and
one or two subsidiary crops. These two methods can be
recommended in the existing fields which can help in the
prevention of soil erosion, land capability, improves soil.
Wastelands can be regenerated by sowing seeds of grasses, and
leguminous plants can be grown to increase the green canopy
and for improving soil moisture, raising levels of groundwater
levels and also serves as a fodder for animals. Artificial recharge
methods and various types of irrigational practices can be
adapted to recharge groundwater in the vast unutilized area like
land without scrub. Proper Planning and care have to be taken in
the selection of sites for bore wells in the future with the help of
Remote Sensing maps, geophysical and hydro-geological studies.
Awareness among farmers has to be created at village or Mandal
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level by organizing campaigns.

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