Network and Data Communication

OUbs017124 - NETWORK AND DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Table of Contents
COURSE OVERVIEW ................................................................................................................................ 4
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Course Aims and Objectives .............................................................................................................. 4
Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................................................ 4
Assignment and Assessment ............................................................................................................. 5
Course Schedule ................................................................................................................................. 5
STUDENT SUPPORT AND ASSISTANCE ................................................................................................... 5
Academic Support .............................................................................................................................. 5
Study guidelines ................................................................................................................................. 5
Unit 1: Communications Systems Fundamentals .................................................................................. 6
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Unit Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 6
1.3 Communication System ............................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Modulation / Demodulation ........................................................................................................ 8
1.5 Computer Networks ................................................................................................................... 10
1.6 Internet ....................................................................................................................................... 11
1.7 Wireless & Mobile Communications ......................................................................................... 12
1.8 Unit 1 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 14
1.9 Unit 1 Activities .......................................................................................................................... 15
Unit 2: Network Topologies ................................................................................................................. 16
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 16
2.2 Unit Objectives............................................................................................................................. 16
2.3 Network Infrastructure ................................................................................................................ 17
2.4 LAN/PAN/ MAN ............................................................................................................................ 18
2.5 WAN ............................................................................................................................................ 19
2.6 Wireless and Mobile Topologies................................................................................................... 20
2.7 Unit 2 Summary .................................................................................................................... 21
2.8 Unit 2 Activities .......................................................................................................................... 22
Unit 3: Binary Mathematics ................................................................................................................. 23
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 23
3.2 Unit Objectives............................................................................................................................. 23
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3.3 Binary Number System .............................................................................................................. 24

3.4 Hexadecimal Numbers ............................................................................................................... 25
5.5 Conversion techniques ............................................................................................................... 26
3.5 Unit 3 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 27
3.6 Unit 3 Activities .......................................................................................................................... 28
Unit 4: IP Routing and Switching ......................................................................................................... 29
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 29
4.2 Unit Objectives............................................................................................................................. 29
4.3 IPv4 Classes................................................................................................................................. 30
4.4 CIDR ............................................................................................................................................ 31
4.5 NAT ............................................................................................................................................. 32
4.6 Routing Algorithms .................................................................................................................... 32
4.7 Subnetting .................................................................................................................................. 34
4.8 Supernetting ............................................................................................................................... 38
4.9 Switching .................................................................................................................................... 39
3.10 IPv6 features............................................................................................................................. 40
4.11 IPv4 – IPv6 transition schemes ................................................................................................ 44
4.12 Unit 4 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 46
4.13 Unit 4 Activities ........................................................................................................................ 47
Unit 5: OSI Layer Model ....................................................................................................................... 48
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 48
5.2 Unit Objectives............................................................................................................................. 48
5.3 Seven layered model .................................................................................................................. 49
5.4 TCP/IP 4 layered model .............................................................................................................. 50
5.5 Wireless Protocols ...................................................................................................................... 51
5.6 SNA model .................................................................................................................................. 52
5.6 Unit 5 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 54
5.7 Unit 5 Activities .......................................................................................................................... 55
Unit 6: Data Transmission Protocols ................................................................................................... 56
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 56
6.2 Unit Objectives............................................................................................................................. 56
6.3 OSI & TCP/IP Protocols............................................................................................................... 57
6.4 Application.................................................................................................................................. 59
6.5 Presentation ............................................................................................................................... 59
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6.6 Session ........................................................................................................................................ 59

6.7 Transport .................................................................................................................................... 60
6.8 Network ...................................................................................................................................... 60
6.9 Data Link ..................................................................................................................................... 61
6.10 Unit 6 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 62
6.11 Unit 6 Activities ........................................................................................................................ 63
Unit 7: Coding Techniques ................................................................................................................... 64
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 64
7.2 Unit Objectives............................................................................................................................. 64
7.3 Source Coding ............................................................................................................................. 65
7.4 Channel Coding........................................................................................................................... 66
7.5 Code Set ASCII and EBCDIC ........................................................................................................ 67
7.6 Signal Coding / NRZ and RZ Codes ............................................................................................. 68
7.7 Unit 7 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 71
7.8 Unit 7 Activities .................................................................................................................... 72
Unit 8: VoIP Technologies .................................................................................................................... 73
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 73
8.2 Unit Objectives............................................................................................................................. 73
8.3 IP Telephony ............................................................................................................................... 74
8.4 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) ................................................................................................. 75
8.5 Real Time Protocols .................................................................................................................... 75
8.6 CODECS ....................................................................................................................................... 77
8.7 Unit 8 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 80
8.8 Unit 8 Activities .................................................................................................................... 81
Unit 9: Optical Fiber Communications................................................................................................. 82
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 82
9.2 Unit Objectives............................................................................................................................. 82
9.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum ......................................................................................................... 83
9.4 Fibre Optic structure .................................................................................................................. 83
9.5 Propagation Theory .................................................................................................................... 85
9.6 Outbound networks ................................................................................................................... 86
9.7 FTTH and FTTX ............................................................................................................................ 87
9.8 Free Space Optic (FSO) / Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) / SONET ............................. 87
9.9 Unit 9 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 89
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9.10 Unit 9 Activities ........................................................................................................................ 90
COURSE OVERVIEW
Introduction
This module consists of 9 units in the field of network and data communications.
Nowadays everyone using the Internet is de facto connected to a network. In
fact the combination of computer science and traditional telecommunications
has given rise to what is commonly called as ICT. The computerization of the
telecommunication infrastructure has enabled more sophisticated networking
possibilities such as the mobile network communications with the advent of
3G/4G networks and smartphones.
In this module you will learn the basic of communication systems fundamentals
up to more advanced modern technologies such as the VoIP and Fiber Optics.
Course Aims and Objectives

This module will equip learners with the principles of networking and data
communications. Moreover mathematical foundation of digital
communications over computer networks, internetworking models, and
transmission protocols will be covered.
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this course learners should be able to:
 Understand the core concepts of computer networking
 Design network architecture
 Identify network topologies
 Plan IP addressing and routing
 Set up VoIP networks
 Apply the OSI layer model
 Grasp wireless and mobile communications fundamentals
 Become acquainted with optical fibre networks
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Assignment and Assessment

The course is assessed on continuous assessment and a final written
examination. The weight of the continuous assessment (assignment) is 30% and
that of the examination is 70%.
Course Schedule
The course comprises 5 face to face sessions of duration 2 hours each, normally
on Saturdays’ afternoon, however learners are encouraged to use the electronic
means to communicate with their lecturer.
STUDENT SUPPORT AND ASSISTANCE

Academic Support
Online support via the university LMS is accessible on www.oum.ac.mu . Face
to Face sessions are held every two weeks whereby tutorials and answers to
the units’ activities will be provided.
Study guidelines
This course holds 4 credits, an equivalent of 48 hours of effective learning if you
spend 4 hours weekly on the manual during 12 weeks.
Learners are advised to:
 Read the units topics completely before attempting the activities
 Seek to meet the learning outcomes
 Spend some extra reading time with the recommended textbooks
 Prepare your questions for the face to face sessions
 Collaborate and share with your peers online and in the classroom
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Unit 1: Communications Systems Fundamentals

1.1 Introduction
This unit sheds light on the fundamentals of modern electronic communications.
The principle of any network is first and foremost to share resources. For
instance if you consider the CWA network, you will conclude that water is the
resource being shared and distributed across reservoirs and customers outlets.
In a computer network information is sent over short and long distances.
Therefore emphasis will be laid down here on the modulation and demodulation
processes in a communication system. Moreover, satellite and cellular
communications have boosted up wireless networks. With tablets and smart
phones high market penetration, mobile communications are almost pervasive
in modern networks. Internet is today accessible on smartphones and the
former has been an important factor in driving computer networks. As a matter
of fact term ICT has its origin in the merger of telecommunications and computer
science. Thus in this unit you will learn about how communication across a
computer network takes place and will be introduced to the Internet and
wireless networks.
1.2 Unit Objectives

The objectives of this unit are to:
 Illustrate the different components of communication system
 point out the need for modulation /demodulation
 express mathematical foundation of electromagnetic signals
 describe digital computer networks
 highlight the Internet
 introduce a bird view on wireless and mobile networks
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1.3 Communication System

Humans as well as animals communicate over short and long distances from
long ago. Cases of animals communicating over relatively long distances are
whales, dolphins and the bats. The Africans “Tam Tam” and the natives
Americans smoke signals are examples of telecommunications. You know very
well the history of Signal Mountain in Port-Louis. At outset a lantern and Morse
code was utilized to communicate with the boats. Morse code is similar to binary
system with a dot and a line analogous to zero and one. Modern
communications systems transmit information via electric signals or light in
optical fibers, signals can analog or digital. Let us have a look at the physical layer
of a communication system as depicted in Figure 1.3.1.
Figure 1.3.1 Physical layer of a communication system1

As shown in figure 1.3.1 the signal emitted from a source goes through a
modulator, transmitted over a channel (copper cable, fiber optic, free space,
etc.) and get demodulated on the other receiver end. Computer networks
operate in the same manner, whether it is within a local area network or large
area network and transmission over cables, in the air, in water or any media
type. However, computers understand only digital signals, we may have digital
to analog (A/D) converters and other hardware components like routers and
switches on then network. The A/D and D/A converters frequently called
MODEMs which stand for Modulators/Demodulators. Both analog and digital
modulation and demodulation schemes are used. The next section presents an
overview of these schemes.
1
Fundamentals of Communications Systems by Michael P.Fitz Chapter 1
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1.4 Modulation / Demodulation

What is the purpose of a modulating a signal before transmission? There are
actually two main reasons, first is that an electrical signal will get attenuated
over certain distance and secondly the signal frequency band (baseband) needs
to be with the medium bandwidth. Therefore we need a carrier signal that will
support the information or message signal over long distances and shift the
signal from baseband to the channel bandwidth (rf. Figure 1.4.1 (b)). Modulation
implies multiplying the message signal with the modulating or carrier signal (rf.
Figure 1.4.1 (a)). This yields a modulated signal over the transmission channel,
at the receiver end you have surely guessed that we must remove the carrier
signal and correct the message signal from any distortion before the user gets
the message (rf. Figure 1.4.2). In other words for modulation and demodulation
can be labelled as encoding and decoding. Below are examples of analogue and
digital modulation schemes.
Analogue Modulation/Demodulation:
(a) (b)
Figure 1.4.1 Analogue Modulation2
Figure 1.4.2 Analogue Demodulation3
2
Modulation for Analog Communication, Yao Wang, Polytech University, Brooklyn
3
Modulation for Analog Communication, Yao Wang, Polytech University, Brooklyn
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Digital Modulation: A signal can be modulated by its frequency or amplitude or

phase as shown in figure 1.4.3. It can also be modulated by a combination of 2
parameters, for example phase and amplitude. Digital signals are direct current
(DC) signals but computer networks carry alternate current (AC) signals. One
initial digital modulation was the On and Off Shift Keying as depicted in figure
1.4.4 which looks like the Morse code. There are more sophisticated digital
modulation schemes like Phase Shift Keying (8PSK, 16PSK) and Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (16QAM, 64QAM) that enable higher Spectral Efficiency,
the latter is a measure of how fast data is transmitted over a given bandwidth
in bps/Hz.
Figure 1.4.3 Signal Representation
Figure 1.4.4 On Off Keying

Multiplexing/Demultiplexing: They differ from modulation/demodulation in
the sense that multiplexing is the function of combining packets from different
users on a single communication like. Demultiplexing is the inverse, i.e removing
each packet from the stream accruing to its destination. The plus with digital
multiplexing is that all media types audio, video, text, etc. packets are merged,
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this technology led to the famous Integrated Digital Services Network (ISDN)
known for videoconferencing.
1.5 Computer Networks

At the outset of the invention of the computer networks, scientists focused on
how to solve complex mathematical problems and algorithms. Prior to 80’s
computers were own only the military people, industrials and research and
business community. With the advent of operating systems for networking and
with the Graphical User Interface (GUI), users felt more comfortable with
computer networking, few people were conversant with Command Line
Interface (CLI) networking. In 1940 computer teletext over telephone line was
successfully tested (rf. Unit on Binary Maths). We can classify computer
networks as per the list of computer networking paradigms as follows.
Mainframe/Mini Computers: process and storage are centralised, applications
downsized to end users.
Peer to Peer: 2 computers communicating with equal status, for instance 2 PCs
with a direct RJ45 cable without a server.
Client/Server: Generally a more powerful computer providing services

(network, database, application, etc.) to other computers. However, a computer
can have both client and server environments.
Distributed Computing: communication is done through message passing and

everything is shared and distributed except the main memory.
Parallel computing: processors are used in parallel from multiple computers to

increase performance. Clustering also has the same objective, Ex: Beowulf
cluster.
Pervasive/Ubiquitous Computing: known as anywhere, anytime, anyone

empowered by computer wearables and sensor networks, this is an extension
of distributed computing.
Cloud Computing: centralised and virtualised infrastructure accessed on the

Internet offering services xAAS. Ex: IAAS, PAAS, SAAS, DAAS, SAAS, etc.
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Internet: short for Internetwork, IP based worldwide network, has transformed

the media, social networks, business and so on.
Wireless Networks: short range transmission for WLANs and Wi-Fi, long range
for mobile cellular networks and satellite communications.
Virtual Networks: VLANs and VPNs (Virtual Private Networks) enforced with
tunnelling for security purpose, common in enterprise networks.
Software Defined Network: emerging technology consists of a centralised and

vendor independent ways of managing network equipment like routers and
switches with an API and a controller.
Network Function Virtualisation: differs from SDN, virtualises the network

functions such as routing, firewall, etc.
1.6 Internet
Computer networks gained momentum with the Client/Server paradigm. With
mainframes, networking was on a limited enterprise scale but with digital
networks like ISDN computers were at the back end of telephony networks. Data
and electronic transfers with the X.25 protocol was the beginning what would
be later the Internet. The precursors to the Internet were Minitel in France and
Prestel in U.K. At the beginning the network was known as ARPANET owned by
the military, the philosophy being that even part of the network is damaged or
bombarded, they would be able to communicate. The search for reliability,
resiliency and fault tolerance was their primary concern. Two major emerging
technologies boosted the used of Internet, firstly the invention of the TCP/IP
protocol suite at Berkeley University and secondly the creation of the www by
CERN scientists in Switzerland namely Time Berners Lee for dissemination of
research findings.
Internet Governance
Internet is the best example of a distributed network. The Internet Country Code
Top Level Domain Name (ccTLD, for Mauritius it is .mu) is governed worldwide
by ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) and the
IANA ((Internet Assigned Numbers Authority). Afrinic is the Regional Internet
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Registry (RIR) responsible for IP addresses, with its head office currently in the
cyber city in Mauritius.
Future Trends
There is a saying that the Internet was the biggest invention after the television.
Well the television has not been exploited as much as the Internet in a very short
span of time. Internet 2.0: This is a special network with immense bandwidth
for research interconnecting universities in the USA, also present in South Korea
and Japan. For instance if you to put a music class on the Internet or the satellite
animated images for cyclones the current Internet will fail, thus Internet 2.0,
which is not an international network. Web 2.0: not to confuse with Internet
2.0, innovations are mostly on light weight programming. Examples are Mashup
and social networks. All IP Networks: IP is the common denominator for
heterogeneous networks including mobile networks. Internet of Things (IoT):
involves the interconnection of objects (human, object and animals) on the
Internet, boosted by IPv6, present in home automation and M2M
communications.
1.7 Wireless & Mobile Communications

Bats and dolphins communicate in free space and water respectively using
acoustic signals, i.e sound waves having very low frequencies. Both animals are
mobile and wireless. You may also have fixed wireless connections such as
between dishes on two distant buildings with line of sight. If you consider the
scenario whereby your satellite dish communicate with a satellite, if it’s a
geostationary satellite, you will tell me that it is a fixed wireless connection
although we know that the earth itself is revolving on itself and around the sun.
Wireless and mobile networks use specific carrier frequencies (Ex: unlicensed
band for WLANs) and standards (like IEEE 802.11 for WLANs) for
communication.
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) / Wireless Personal Area Networks
(WPANs): These are Near Field Communication (NFC), WPAN: IEEE 802.15-1 –
Bluetooth, Zig Bee, RFID and WLANs IEEE 802.11.
Cellular Networks: Mobile networks usually hexagonal cells with clustering and
frequency reuse. Generations are 1G AMPS network, 2G, 2,5G GPRS, 3G GSM &
UMTS, 4G LTE & WiMAX, 5G. Other cellular networks are CAMEL & TETRA, the
latter enables direct calling without going thought base stations, hence useful in
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disaster situations. Cellular networks use the MAC (Mediums Access Control, Ex:
TDMA & CDMA) schemes to allow multiple users to make call simultaneously in
a cell.
Figure 1.7.1 Satellite networks4
4
Mobile Communications by Schiller, Pg 168
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1.8 Unit 1 Summary
 The main elements of a communication system are source, modulator,

channel, demodulator and receiver.
 Digital transmission is better than analogue transmission
 MODEMs are often called Encoders and Decoders.
 TCP/IP , the OSI model and network operating system have boosted up
computer networking
 Computer networking paradigms have evolved from mainframe

computing to pervasive computing and cloud computing.
 The Internet is governed by ICANN, Afrinic is the entity responsible for

the distribution of IP addresses for the Africa.
 Internet is a distributed system “par excellence”.
 Fixed and Wireless LANs use unlicensed frequencies and 802.11 standard.
 All- IP networks implies interconnectivity of all networks having IP as a

common denominator.
 Mobile networks are mainly cellular networks.
 Smartphones and tablets are more and more used to access the Internet
and allow mobile and pervasive computing
 SDN and NFV are cost effective emerging technologies for network
operators and administrators
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1.9 Unit 1 Activities

1. Think about a network other than a computer network. Explain how it is
analogous to a computer network.
2. Illustrate with the help of a diagram the main functions in a communication

system.
3. What is the difference between an analogue signal and a digital signal?
4. Why are modulation and demodulation important functions in a

communication system?
5. What are the characteristics of an electric signal?
6. What was the rationale behind the ARPANET?
7. What is the main difference between a dial-up network and a VoIP network?
8. Explain how is the Internet governed across the world?
9. Briefly describe the need for a carrier in the modulation mechanism.
10. Differentiate between multiplexing, modulation and multiple access

schemes.
11. List and describe the various computer networking paradigms.
12. Explain the term All-IP networks.
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Unit 2: Network Topologies

2.1 Introduction
Today’s computer networks are quite heterogeneous and IP is driving the old
classical telephony towards All-IP networks. Network topologies have
tremendously influenced applications and services. For instance the philosophy
behind the ARPANET as explained earlier was a question how networks can
make optimum use of data transmission. Of course mesh topology is the favorite
for military people but has a huge cost in the civil environment just like for
enterprise networks. As far as local area networks enterprises can use simple
topologies like multipoint, star or hybrid configurations, moreover unlicensed
frequency bands for wireless transmission are allowed. Therefore, the choice for
topology is simpler that if we consider wide area networks (WANs). In a WAN
we don’t interconnect only computers and servers but other network
components such as routers and switches and over large geographical areas.
This is why special attention is given in this unit about cellular networks given
today the smartphone and the tablet are widely used on 3G networks. This unit
covers the different physical topologies of computer networks followed by
architectures pertaining to telecommunication networks.
2.2 Unit Objectives

 compare the different network topologies
 differentiate between local and wide area networks
 describe wireless networks architectures
 exemplify cellular networks
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2.3 Network Infrastructure

Networks consist of nodes and links which are transmitters, receivers, antennas,
databases, copper cables, satellites, stations, servers, clouds, computers, etc.
However, communications can be classified as follows:
Simplex: communication flows in only one direction from a sender to a receiver.
Ex: CPU-monitor, TV.
Half Duplex: both stations/terminals can send and receive but not at the same
time. Ex: Walkie Talkie
Full Duplex: both stations/terminals can send and receive at the same time. Ex:
mobile phones.
Let us now study the network topologies portrayed in figure 2.3.15 below:
a. Point to Point v/s Multipoint b. Mesh c. Star
d. Bus e. Ring Hybrid: Star+ Bus
Figure 2.3.1
For the mesh network, we can derive the formula for the number of nodes (n)
and links.
Number of links = n (n- 1)/ 2, Ex. if n = 5 then number of links = 10
5
Data & Communications Networking by Forouzan
Page 17 of 90
2.4 LAN/PAN/ MAN
LAN/HyperLAN/MAN: LANs are local area networks using unlicensed band and
802.11x standard whereas MAN are metropolitan area networks meant for
cities and towns. You do have WLAN, WPAN and WMAN. HyperLAN are special
types of LAN that guarantees QoS and allows faster rate. HyperLANs are
categorized into HyperLAN1, HyperLAN2, HyperLAN3 and HyperLAN46.
Personal Area Network (PAN): a PAN is not new, you will recall the SOHO (Small
Office Home Office) network. But with the advent of Wi-Fi zones with WAPs,
home users can design and personalize small residential networks. You have
probably encountered sharing Internet or cable network for movies in a
residential area. However, there are legal issues that you need to respect when
building a PAN.
Smart Homes & Buildings: these are modern intelligent homes and buildings
making use of emerging technologies like IPv6, IoT (Internet of Things) and
mobile communications to provide a wide range of services like remote security
and comfort to users. For example you can switch on or off your washing
machine remotely or monitor your rooms with a smartphone.
Controller Area Network (CAN): it is a serial bus system, which was originally
developed for automotive applications in the early 1980s7. These networks are
principally found in embedded systems. Your barking system for instance is
controlled with a CAN. Controllers are actually microprocessors but with
dedicated controller functions.
Near-Field Communication (NFC): is a short range wireless communication

similar to RFID, however has proven to be more sophisticated than Bluetooth as
it works with unpowered tags. Some mobile phones now use electric-field NFC
(operating at a frequency of 13.56 MHz, corresponding to a wavelength of 22.11
m) for certain special transactions because the very short range of NFC makes it
difficult to eavesdrop on.8 NFC is present in mobile payments and social
networking.
6
Mobile Communications by J. Schiller
7
www.can-cia.org › Home › System design › Technology
8
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_field_communication
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2.5 WAN
At the outset Data on Voice in wide area computer networks was rendered
possible using modems and ISDN. Progressively we have witnessed Voice over
Frame Relay, Internet, ATM, etc. WANs have evolved from traditional telephone
networks to the Internet combined with emerging technologies like VoIP, IoT
and M2M. Figure 2.5.1 portrays large scale system architecture of a banking
system.
Figure 2.5.1 Banking System9

9
Large Scale System Architecture, A Practical Guide Using UML by Jeff Garland & Richard Anthony
Page 19 of 90
2.6 Wireless and Mobile Topologies

Spectrum allocation is a major constraint for the operators and the authority
namely for high frequencies networks like WiMAX and LTE. Wireless topologies
are driven by the terrain topography and the technology adopted. You have
probably encountered situations where local population have protested against
construction of 3 sectored antennas in residential areas. Actually it also
happened with 3G antennas in European countries.
WLANs/ Wi-Fi: Wireless LANs as fixed LANs make use of the IEEE 802.11x
protocol and transmit in the range of unlicensed band 2.4 GHz UHF and 5 GHz
SHF radio waves. Wireless Access Points (WAPs) and hotspots are the key
components of a WLAN and Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) for Internet connectivity.
Some WAPs have advanced routing capabilities and security features like the
Wired Encryption Privacy (WEP) keys or more secure ones like the Wi-Fi
Protected Access Pre-Shared Key (WPA PSK) or WPA2 PSK, the latter to being
more difficult to crack.
Cellular Network: a cellular network is characterized by the geographical
representations of urban and rural areas into cells generally of hexagonal
shapes. A cell comprise a base station (BS) with a Home Registry and Antennas.
The base station is important for handing over between one cell to another
based on the signal to noise ratio. Many base stations are connected to a
switching that does billing and interconnection with other regions or countries.
MANETs & VANETs /Sensor Networks: Mobile Ad hoc Networks differ from
fixed infrastructure network in the way packets are routed and connectivity and
services take place. Thus a MANET uses dynamic routing algorithms namely
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Temporary Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
and Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV). Vehicular Ad hoc Network
(VANET) is an Ad hoc network on transport systems like Car to Car (C2C). Sensor
networks are networks that route packets according to energy levels of the
nodes or physical parameters like temperature, pressure, etc.
Other Wireless Networks: there exist a number of non-cellular networks like the
Citizen Band (CB) commonly used by heavy weight lorries’ drivers on long
distance travel, Radio Amateur networks , direct mode terrestrial networks
(TETRA) useful in disaster recovery management, satellite communication, the
latter is covered in unit 1.
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2.7 Unit 2 Summary
 Communications can be classified into simplex, half duplex and full

duplex.
 A network topology is often driven by the physical and economic factors.
 Hybrid topologies are the ones combining two or more topologies, for
example bus and ring topologies.
 Mesh topology is preferred by the military but very expensive in civil

infrastructure.
 Cellular networks are composed of hexagonal cells with small sizes for
urban regions.
 Frequency re-use and cells clustering enable efficient use of frequencies

and increase number of users per cell.
 MANETs are mobile ad hoc networks, they differ from fixed network
infrastructure from a routing perspective
 Internet of Things is about humans, animals and objects interconnected

on the Internet via sensors of special IP SIM cards.
 Smart homes and smart buildings are emerging Personal Area Networks.
 Spectrum allocation for wireless WANs is a major issue for the authority.
 M2M stands for Machine to Machine communications
 Controller Area Networks are found in embedded systems like in a car

electronic system.
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1. Consider a mesh network of 24 devices. Calculate the possible number of
links and the number of ports?
2. Give 2 examples of simplex, half duplex, full-duplex communications.
3. Draw a hybrid topology with a star backbone and three ring networks.
4. Draw a hybrid topology with a ring backbone and two bus networks.
5. Describe the term “cellular network”.
6. Explain mobile backhaul. How could satellite communications help in mobile

backhaul?
7. Illustrate the outbound network infrastructure around Mauritius. Some

stakeholders complained about the single point of failure. Discuss.
8. Give one advantage and one disadvantage of a mesh network.
9. Describe the infrastructure of a TETRA network. In which circumstances a

TETRA network would be very effective?
10. Explain with the help of examples the difference between wireless and
mobility.
11. How does a WAN differ from a LAN?
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Unit 3: Binary Mathematics
3.1 Introduction
Number bases have played an influential role in coding and encryption. Numbers
as we write them are currently called Arabic numbers and with the invention of
zero as number, decimal number system appeared. In 1854, British
mathematician George Boole published a landmark paper detailing an algebraic
system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra. His logical
calculus was to become instrumental in the design of digital electronic
circuitry.10One for the on state and zero for the off state. With the advent of
transistors and electronic semiconductor components, more sophisticated
computers arrive on the market. So this unit is different from the others in the
sense it’s more about the foundation of data communication. You will
appreciate the use of binary digits and hexadecimal notations for computing
data. You might wonder why it’s worth studying binary digits when applications
and networking problems are mostly solved at the application level. You will
surely grasp its significance as you go through this unit.
3.2 Unit Objectives

 illuminate the use of binary system as computer language
 differentiate between binary, decimal and hexadecimal number systems
 provide the basic conversion formulas from on number system to
another
 familiarize with the foundation of binary arithmetic
10
Understanding Binary Numbers Slide 7
Page 23 of 90
3.3 Binary Number System

Computers use the binary number system to manipulate and store all of their
data including numbers, words, videos, graphics, and music. The Complex
Number Computer, completed January 8, 1940, was able to calculate complex
numbers. In a demonstration to the American Mathematical Society conference
at Dartmouth College on September 11, 1940, Stibitz was able to send the
Complex Number Calculator remote commands over telephone lines by a
teletype. It was the first computing machine ever used remotely over a phone
line.11
Figure 3.3.1 Model K, The first Relay Based Computer to use Binary
Numbers (1937)12
Why do we need to know about Binary?
• It is the building block of all data
• In order to understand storage capacity and sizes, you need to know
how data is read and saved
• The data is fragile, each digit is need to be whole
Binary system has enabled the design of logic gates such as OR, AND, Inverter
gates by representing on state by a “1” and off state by “0”. Thus more complex
digital circuits with transistors representing advanced computational functions
were made possible. As a matter of fact a computer understands only binary
language. Hence the need for digital modulation demodulation and transmission
is required for telecommunications using computers at the ends. For memory
addresses hexadecimal notation is commonly used. The next section deals with
hexadecimal number system and section after you will learn some conversion
techniques from one number base system to another.
11
12
Page 24 of 90
3.4 Hexadecimal Numbers

The base 16 number system needs 16 symbols. The first ten symbols can be the
common digits 0 through 9, for the remaining six symbols we will use the
symbols A, B, C, D, E, and F.
Hexadecimal Decimal Binary
0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
A 10 1010
B 11 1011
C 12 1100
D 13 1101
E 14 1110
F 15 1111
Table 3.4.1 Code Conversion table

OCTAL or BASE-8 numbers uses eight symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 (count
them!) and position plays a major role in expressing their meaning. For example
53,7028 means 5 x 84 + 3 x 83 + 7 x 82 + 0 x 81 + 1 x 80 4096’s 512’s Sixty-fours
Eights Ones (Units)
To change this number to base 10, multiply each placeholder by the amount its
location represents and add: (5 x 4096) + (3 x 512) + (7 x 64) + (0 x 8) + (1 x 1) =
20,480 + 1536 + 448 + 0 + 1 = 22,46510
HEXADECIMAL
Page 25 of 90
For example 537CA16 means

5 x 164 + 3 x 163 + 7 x 162 + C x 161 + A x 160
65,536’s 4096’s 256’s Sixteens Ones (Units)
To change this number to base 10, multiply each placeholder by the amount its
location represents and add: (5 x 65,536) + (3 x 4096) + (7 x 256) + (12 x 8) +
(10 x 1) = 327,680 + 12,288 + 1792 + 96 + 10 = 341,86610
5.5 Conversion techniques
Changing Bases Back and Forth between Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal
Systems:
1. From Binary to Octal – Count off from right to left by three and translate each
triad into base 10. These digits will be the base-8 symbols to express this binary
number in octal.
2. From Binary to Hexadecimal - Count off from right to left by four and translate
each quad into base 10. These digits will be the base-16 symbols to express this
binary number in hexadecimal.
3. From Hexadecimal OR Octal to Binary – Change each symbol to binary and

you are done!
4. From Octal to Hexadecimal OR from Hexadecimal to Octal – Change the higher

base to binary and then use #1 or #2 above to change the binary number to the
base desired.
Convert each hex digit into 4 bits.

Convert binary to decimal.
Example:
0x94D3 = 1001 0100 1101 0011 = 215 + 212 + 210 + 27 + 26 + 24 + 21 +20
= 32768 + 4096 + 1024 + 128 + 64 + 16 + 2 + 1 = 38099 (decimal)
Page 26 of 90
3.5 Unit 3 Summary
 Boolean algebra is the foundation of binary arithmetic and mathematics

used in computer communication.
 Memory addresses and storage are often represented in hexadecimal

notation.
 Binary to hexadecimal and vis versa conversion is important for data

acquisition and transmission in computer networks.
 Performance of computers is often measured in the capacity to process

large values of floating points.
 A packet sniffer is used to capture packets into binary format in a wireless

network.
 A protocol analyzer is used to study packets transmissions for examples

bit losses on a network.
 In an integer binary representation, If the integer is positive, the left most

bit is 0. If the integer is negative, the left most bit is 1.
 Floating point values have two parts - the characteristic (exponent or

power) and the mantissa (fractional part).
Page 27 of 90
1. What is the importance of studying binary system in computer science?
2. Describe the following numbering systems:

(i) Decimal
(ii) Binary
(iii) Hexadecimal
3. Write the binary equivalent of decimals 145 and 315.
4. Write the decimal equivalent of binary 00110011101010110.
5. Write the binary equivalent of hexadecimal 3C9AA53E.
6. What is the largest positive value given a 64-bit integer?
7. What is the binary result of adding 110100101 to 101011110?
8. Name a 4G programming language that allows you to program at low level

and address memory spaces.
9. Explain how floating points are represented.
10. Explain how integer and 2’s complement are represented.
11. What was the role of Boolean algebra on computer data communication?
12. Packets over a network are made of binary digits, what is the tool to visualize
these packets in a wireless network? Give one example of such a tool.
13.Express each number as a binary number.

a. BAC916
b. 4009D16
Page 28 of 90
Unit 4: IP Routing and Switching
4.1 Introduction
The paradigm shift from circuit switching to packet switching and the advent of
IP networks are driving traditional networks towards All-IP networks also called
as 4G in mobile communications. Routing and switching are the two most
popular network functions in a network. Routers and Switches are hardware
components that work like a computer with and operating system and a user
interface for programming and configuring the settings. As these components
are often at the border or entry point of enterprise networks, they must be
properly set to avoid security and efficiency problems. In an IP network, packets
are transmitted from one node to another. These packets contain source and
destination addresses, the data payload, the transport protocol (TCP/UDP), etc.
Thus it is important to understand how IP addresses are organized and assigned.
IPv4 addresses are near to depletion, so most network operators have upgraded
their core networks to support IPv6 packets. However, many enterprise
networks and access networks are still on IPv4, hence transition schemes from
IPv4 to IPv6 is also tackled in this unit.
4.2 Unit Objectives

 classify IPv4 addresses
 introduce routing algorithms
 showcase basic sub netting
 introduce IPv6 features
 study different IPv4- IPv6 transition schemes
Page 29 of 90
4.3 IPv4 Classes

IP short for Internet Protocol was established by Dr Vint Cerf, Google’s Vice
President. IP addresses are logical addresses that are expressed in binary/
hexadecimal form or decimal notation, they are mapped with the physical MAC
addresses of computer hardware and also with readable domain names. For
address resolution with the MAC we use the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
or Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) protocols and for domain names
we use a Domain Name System (DNS) server. More about these protocols is
explained in Unit 8. IPv4 uses 4 bytes address length, classified into 5 Classful
classes A, B, C, D, and E as shown in figure 4.3.1 and Classless addresses. The
address space of IPv4 is 232 = 4,294,967,296.
Figure 4.3.1 IPv4 classes13

To find the class address we can look at the bits in the bit notation as depicted
in the flowchart in figure 4.3.2 or at the first byte in the decimal notation as in
figure 4.3.3.
13
Network Fundamentals by Forouzan Pg 54
Page 30 of 90
Figure 4.3.2
Figure 4.3.3
The Internet Corporation for Assigned Named and Numbers (ICANN) is the
private non-profit corporation with responsibility for IP address space
allocation, protocol parameter assignment, domain name system management,
and root server system management functions. Afrinic is the regional registry
for IP addresses, their head office is located in Ebene, Mauritius.
4.4 CIDR
A class B address is far too large for most organizations and a class C network,
with 256 addresses is too small. This leads to granting Class B address to
organizations who do not require all the address in the address space wasting
most of it. This is resulting in depletion of Address space. A solution is CIDR
(Classless InterDomain Routing) The basic idea behind CIDR, is to allocate the
Page 31 of 90
remaining IP addresses in variable-sized blocks, without regard to the classes.

The CIDR addresses can be recognized by the slash notation /.
4.5 NAT
The primary purpose of a NAT (Network Address Translation) server is to
translate public IP addresses into private addresses and vice versa. The scarcity
of network addresses in IPv4 led to the development of IPv6. IPv6 uses a 128 bit
address, hence it has 2128 addresses in its address space which is larger than
232 addresses provided by IPv4. Transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is slowly occurring,
but will take years to complete, because of legacy hardware and its
incompatibility to process IPv6 address. NAT was used to speed up the transition
process. The only rule is that no packets containing these addresses may appear
on the Internet itself. The three reserved ranges are:
10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255/8 (16,777,216 hosts)

172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255/12 (1,048,576 hosts)
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255/16 (65,536 hosts)
4.6 Routing Algorithms

Routing tables contain information used by switching software to select the best
route. Routing algorithms have used many different metrics to determine the
best route. Sophisticated routing algorithms can base route selection on
multiple metrics, combining them in a single (hybrid) metric. All the following
metrics have been used:
• Path length
• Reliability
• Delay
• Bandwidth Load
• Communication cost
Page 32 of 90
Figure 4.6.1 Next Hop Routing14
Figure 4.6.2 Network-specific Routing
Figure 4.6.3 Host-Specific Routing Figure 4.6.4 Default Routing
14
Page 33 of 90
Static against Dynamic Routing:
Static routing manually sets up the optimal paths between the source and the
destination computers. On the other hand, the dynamic routing uses dynamic
protocols to update the routing table and to find the optimal path between the
source and the destination computers.
The routers that use the static routing algorithm do not have any controlling
mechanism if any faults in the routing paths. These routers do not sense the
faulty computers encountered while finding the path between two computers or
routers in a network. The dynamic routing algorithms are used in the dynamic
routers and these routers can sense a faulty router in the network. Also, the
dynamic router eliminates the faulty router and finds out another possible
optimal path from the source to the destination. If any router is down or faulty
due to certain reasons, this fault is circulated in the entire network. Due to this
quality of the dynamic routers, they are also called adaptive routers. The static
routing is suitable for very small networks and they cannot be used in large
networks. As against this, dynamic routing is used for larger networks. The
manual routing has no specific routing algorithm. The dynamic routers are based
on various routing algorithms like OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), IGRP (Interior
Gateway Routing Protocol) and RIP (Routing Information Protocol)15.
4.7 Subnetting
It allows a network to be split into several parts for internal use but still act like
a single network to the outside world. To implement subnetting, the router
needs a subnet mask that indicates the split between network + subnet number
and host. Ex. 255.255.252.0/22. A‖/22‖ to indicate that the subnet mask is 22
bits long.
A subnet mask is defined for each IP address. The subnet mask identifies which
portion of the 4 octets is used to identify the data link, with the remaining bits
identifying the node. If you want no subnetting, use these default masks (255 −
strictly follow number, 0 − wildcard):
Class A: 255.0.0.0
15
https://sites.google.com/site/assignmentssolved/mca/semester6/mc0087/10
Page 34 of 90
Class B: 255.255.0.0
Class C: 255.255.255.0
Let's use these two addresses for some examples: 171.68.3.3 and 171.68.2.3. If
the subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, the first 24 bits are masked, so the router
compares the first 3 octets of the two addresses. Since the masked bits are not
the same, the router knows that these addresses belong to different subnets.
2 hierarchy not subnetted, subnetting as from 3 hierarchy networks.
Figure 4.7.1 Figure 4.7.2
Figure 4.7.3
The network address is the beginning address of each block. It can be found by
applying the default mask to any of the addresses in the block (including itself).
Page 35 of 90
It retains the netid of the block and sets the hostid to zero. We must not apply
the default mask of one class to an address belonging to another class.
Short-Cut Method
** If the byte in the mask is 255, copy the byte in the address.
** If the byte in the mask is 0, replace the byte in the address with 0.
** If the byte in the mask is neither 255 nor 0, we write the mask and the address
in binary and apply the AND operation.
What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is 19.30.80.5 and the
mask is 255.255.192.0?
The number of subnets must be a power of 2.
An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with 190.100.0.0/16. The ISP

needs to distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as follows:
1. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256 addresses.
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2. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128 addresses.
3. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64 addresses.
Design the subblocks and give the slash notation for each subblock. Find out
how many addresses are still available after these allocations.
Group 1
For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This means the suffix
length is 8 (28 = 256). The prefix length is then 32 - 8 = 24.
01: 190.100.0.0/24 190.100.0.255/24
02: 190.100.1.0/24 190.100.1.255/24
…………………………………..
64: 190.100.63.0/24190.100.63.255/24
Total = 64  256 = 16,384
Group 2
For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This means the suffix
length is 7 (27 = 128). The prefix length is then 32 - 7 = 25. The addresses are:
001: 190.100.64.0/25 190.100.64.127/25
002: 190.100.64.128/25 190.100.64.255/25
003: 190.100.127.128/25 190.100.127.255/25
Total = 128  128 = 16,384
Group 3
For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This means the suffix length
is 6 (26 = 64). The prefix length is then 32 - 6 = 26.
001:190.100.128.0/26 190.100.128.63/26
002:190.100.128.64/26 190.100.128.127/26
…………………………
Page 37 of 90
128:190.100.159.192/26 190.100.159.255/26
Total = 128  64 = 8,192
Number of granted addresses: 65,536
Number of allocated addresses: 40,960
Number of available addresses: 24,576
4.8 Supernetting
Figure 4.8.1
Rules:
** The number of blocks must be a power of 2 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, . . .).
** The blocks must be contiguous in the address space (no gaps between the
blocks).
** The third byte of the first address in the superblock must be evenly divisible
by the number of blocks. In other words, if the number of blocks is N, the third
byte must be divisible by N.
Page 38 of 90
A company needs 600 addresses. Which of the following set of class C blocks
can be used to form a supernet for this company?
198.47.32.0 198.47.33.0 198.47.34.0
198.47.32.0 198.47.42.0 198.47.52.0 198.47.62.0
198.47.31.0 198.47.32.0 198.47.33.0 198.47.52.0
198.47.32.0 198.47.33.0 198.47.34.0 198.47.35.0
1: No, there are only three blocks.
2: No, the blocks are not contiguous.
3: No, 31 in the first block is not divisible by 4.
4: Yes, all three requirements are fulfilled.
In subnetting, we need the first address of the subnet and the subnet mask to
define the range of addresses. In supernetting, we need the first address of the
supernet and the supernet mask to define the range of addresses.
4.9 Switching
Switching algorithms is relatively simple; it is the same for most routing

protocols. In most cases, a host determines that it must send a packet to another
host. Having acquired a router‘s address by some means, the source host sends
a packet addressed specifically to a router‘s physical (Media Access Control
[MAC]-layer) address, this time with the protocol (network layer) address of the
destination host.
As it examines the packet‘s destination protocol address, the router determines

that it either knows or does not know how to forward the packet to the next
hop. If the router does not know how to forward the packet, it typically drops
the packet. If the router knows how to forward the packet, however, it changes
the destination physical address to that of the next hop and transmits the
packet. The next hop may be the ultimate destination host. If not, the next hop
is usually another router, which executes the same switching decision process.
As the packet moves through the internetwork, its physical address changes, but
its protocol address remains constant.
Page 39 of 90
The preceding discussion describes switching between a source and a

destination end system. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
has developed a hierarchical terminology that is useful in describing this process.
Using this terminology, network devices without the capability to forward
packets between subnetworks are called end systems (ESs), whereas network
devices with these capabilities are called intermediate systems (ISs). ISs are
further divided into those that can communicate within routing domains
(intradomain ISs) and those that communicate both within and between routing
domains (interdomain ISs).
A routing domain generally is considered a portion of an internetwork under

common administrative authority that is regulated by a particular set of
administrative guidelines. Routing domains are also called autonomous systems.
With certain protocols, routing domains can be divided into routing areas, but
intradomain routing protocols are still used for switching both within and
between areas.
Figure 4.9.1
3.10 IPv6 features

As mentioned in section 4.5, compared to IPV4 which has a 4 bytes (32 bits)
address length, IPv6 has a 16 bytes (128 bits) address length. Thus the address
Page 40 of 90
space for IPv6 is 2128 = 3.4×1038 addresses, or more than 7.9×1028 times as many
as IPv4. IPv6, IP version 6 was designed to counter the depletion of IPv4
addresses but also has new features in areas like, security, global addressing,
auto configuration, any-casting, DHCP, address resolution, ICMP, etc.
Figure 4.10.1 IPv4/IPv6 Comparison
Global Addresses:
Addresses are assigned to interfaces
Change from IPv4 mode:
_ Interface “expected” to have multiple addresses
_ Addresses have scope
Link Local
Unique Local
Global
_ Addresses have lifetime Valid and preferred lifetime
Page 41 of 90
Auto configuration:
An important feature of IPv6 is that it allows plug and play option to the network
devices by allowing them to configure themselves independently. It is possible
to plug a node into an IPv6 network without requiring any human intervention.
This feature was critical to allow network connectivity to an increasing number
of mobile devices.
IPv6 offers two types of auto-configuration: Stateful auto configuration and
stateless auto configuration. Stateful auto-configuration: This configuration
requires some human intervention as it makes use of the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol for IPv6 (DHCPv6) for installation and administration of
nodes over a network. The DHCPv6 server maintains a list of nodes and the
information about their state to know the availability of each IP address from
the range specified by the network administrator.
DHCPv6:
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) facilitates the addition of new
machines in a network. Around October 1993, DHCP began to take shape as a
standard network protocol. The protocol allows the network devices to obtain
the different parameters that are required by the clients to operate in an
Internet Protocol (IP) network. The DHCP protocol significantly reduces the
system administration workload as the network devices can be added to the
network with little or no change in the device configuration. DHCP also allows
network parameter assignment at a single DHCP server or a group of such server
located across the network. The dynamic host configuration is made possible
with the automatic assignment of IP addresses, default gateway, subnet masks
and other IP parameters. On connecting to a network, a DHCP configured node
sends a broadcast query to the DHCP server requesting for necessary
information. Upon receipt of a valid request, the DHCP server assigns an IP
address from its pool of IP addresses and other TCP/IP configuration parameters
such as the default gateway and subnet mask. The broadcast query is initiated
just after booting and must be completed before the client initiates IP-based
Page 42 of 90
communication with other devices over the network. DHCP allocates IP

addresses to the network devices in three different modes: dynamic mode,
automatic mode and manual mode. In the dynamic mode, the client is allotted
an IP address for a specific period of time ranging from a few hours to a few
months. At any time before the expiry of the lease, a DHCP client can request a
renewal of the current IP address.
ICMPv6:
Internet Control Message Protocol version 6 is the implementation of the
Internet Control Message Protocol for Internet Protocol version 6 defined in RFC
4443. ICMPv6 is an integral part of IPv6 and performs error reporting and
diagnostic functions, and has a framework for extensions to implement future
changes.
Neighbour Discovery Protocol: The Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) is a

protocol in the Internet protocol suite used with IPv6. It operates in the link layer
of the Internet model (RFC 1122) and is responsible for address
autoconfiguration of nodes, discovery of other nodes on the link, determining the
link layer addresses of other nodes, duplicate address detection, finding
available routers and Domain Name System (DNS) servers, address prefix
discovery, and maintaining reachability information about the paths to other
active neighbor nodes (RFC 4861). The protocol defines five different ICMPv6
packet types to perform functions for IPv6 similar to the Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP) and Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Router Discovery
and Router Redirect protocols for IPv4. 16
Types of IPv6 Addresses: IPv6 supports three types of addresses:
Unicast: A unicast address identifies a single interface within the scope of the
type of unicast address. With the appropriate unicast routing topology, packets
addressed to a unicast address are delivered to a single interface. To
accommodate load-balancing systems, allows multiple interfaces to use the
same address as long as they appear as a single interface to the IPv6
implementation on the host.
16
Wikipedia
Page 43 of 90
Multicast: A multicast address identifies multiple interfaces. With the

appropriate multicast routing topology, packets addressed to a multicast
address are delivered to all interfaces that are identified by the address. A
multicast address is used for one-to-many communication, with delivery to
multiple interfaces.
Anycast: An anycast address identifies multiple interfaces. With the appropriate

routing topology, packets addressed to an anycast address are delivered to a
single interface, the nearest interface that is identified by the address. The
nearest interface is defined as being closest in terms of routing distance. An
anycast address is used for one-to-one-of-many communication, with delivery
to a single interface.
4.11 IPv4 – IPv6 transition schemes

Dual stack – support of both IPv4 and IPv6 on network devices
Figure 4.11.1 Dual Stack Transition Mechanism

Tunneling – encapsulation of an IPv6 packet within an IPv4 packet for
transmission over an IPv4 network
Figure 4.11.2 Tunneling 6to4

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Translation – address or port translation of addresses such as via a gateway

device or translation code in the TCP/IP code of the host or router. This stage is
planned at the end of the roll process, when more that 80% to 90% of the
network would have switched to IPv6. The Table 3.10.1 contains examples of
IPv4 to IPv6 and IPv6 to IPV4 packets header translations.
Table 4.11.3 IPv4/IPv6 header translations17
17
Diamond IP
Page 45 of 90
4.12 Unit 4 Summary
 IPv4 is a 32-bit address whereas IPv6 is a 128-bit address.
 IPv4 is close to complete depletion, there for enterprise networks,

access networks and core networks need to be IPv6 compliant.
 The IPv4 address space is divided into five classes A, B, C, D, and E. An IP

address has a host id and a network id.
 Class A was designed for large organizations with many hosts, Class B for
midsize organizations and Class C for small organizations. Class D was
designed for multicast and E for research and future use.
 The mask is used to find the host id and the networked.
 Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR) shows the mask with a / notation.
 In a subnet computers have the networked in common.
 Supernetting is about combing small blocks of Class C addresses into a

larger range of addresses.
 AODV is a popular routing algorithm.
 IPv6 has a global addressing scheme with enhanced security features.
 There are 3 techniques for IPv4 to IPv6 transition schemes namely Dual
Stack, Tunneling and Packet Translation.
Page 46 of 90
1. Describe the different Classful addresses in IPv4.
2. Compare the IPv4 and IPv6 addressing types.
3. What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is 19.30.80.10

and the mask is 255.255.192.0?
4. List some benefits of IPv6.
5. Explain the IPv4 – IPv6 transition schemes. At which stage each scheme
appropriate?
6. Describe the different routing algorithms.
7. Expose the specificities of IPv6 namely auto configuration and global

addressing.
8. Why is subnetting useful?
9. What is the rationale behind CIDR?
10. Describe the role of a NAT router, why is the NAT irrelevant in IPv6?
11. In case of mobile nodes what is the burden on the routing tables?
12. State one example of routing based of energy levels of the nodes.
13.How are MANETs and fixed infrastructure networks’ routing different?
Page 47 of 90
Unit 5: OSI Layer Model
5.1 Introduction
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model is a layered model developed in
the 70’s by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in Geneva. The idea
was to lay down a standard so that any hardware can interconnect thus
communicate with each other. The analogy is from 2 persons looking at each
other and talking. The senses (mouth, nose, eyes, ears and touch) can modeled
in form of layers one above the other. In the same way two computers
communicating in a peer to peer set up send the data though a physical layer up
to an application layer. In this unit you will first learn about the 7 layered model,
then a 4 layered model. The layer model applies also to wireless networks and
architectures different from the peer to peer. For instance client/server
architecture and WANs too network according to the layered model. Thus, you
must be able to situate the different hardware like routers and switches within
the OSI model. However, you will easily guess that different protocols would be
required at different layers, this part is not within the scope of this unit but
undertaken in unit 8.
5.2 Unit Objectives

 explicit the OSI 7 layered and TCP/IP 4 layered models
 compare the IBM SNA model with OSI model
 adapt wireless protocols with OSI model
 allocate network components(router, switch,..) at different layers
Page 48 of 90
5.3 Seven layered model

As mentioned earlier in Unit 1, the OSI is a 7 layered conceptual framework for
interconnection between network devices as depicted in figure 5.3.1.
Figure 5.3.1 OSI model18

Layer 7—Application layer: Establishes communications among users and
provides basic communications services such as file transfer and e-mail.
Examples of software that runs at this layer include Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and File Transfer Protocol
(FTP).
Layer 6—Presentation layer: Negotiates data transfer syntax for the application
layer and performs translations between different data formats, if necessary.
For example, this layer can translate the coding that represents the data when
communicating with a remote system made by a different vendor.
Layer 5—Session layer: Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between

applications. Wireless middleware and access controllers provide this form of
connectivity over wireless networks. If the wireless network encounters
18
Forouzan
Page 49 of 90
interference, the session layer functions will suspend communications until the
interference goes away.
Layer 4—Transport layer: Provides mechanisms for the establishment,

maintenance, and orderly termination of virtual circuits, while shielding the
higher layers from the network implementation details. In general, these circuits
are connections made between network applications from one end of the
communications circuit to another (such as between the web browser on a
laptop to a web page on a server). Protocols such as Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) operate at this layer.
Layer 3—Network layer: Provides the routing of packets though a network from
source to destination. This routing ensures that data packets are sent in a
direction that leads to a particular destination. Protocols such as Internet
Protocol (IP) operate at this layer.
Layer 2—Data link layer: Ensures medium access, as well as synchronization and
error control between two entities. With wireless networks, this often involves
coordination of access to the common air medium and recovery from errors that
might occur in the data as it propagates from source to destination. Most
wireless network types have a common method of performing data link layer
functions independent of the actual means of transmission.
Layer 1—Physical layer: Provides the actual transmission of information

through the medium. Physical layers include radio waves and infrared light.
5.4 TCP/IP 4 layered model
Figure 5.4.1 TCP/IP v/s OSI19
19
Forouzan Data Communications & Networking 2nd Ed. Ch2 Network Models
Page 50 of 90
The TCP/IP 4 layer model mapped with the OSI 7 layer model is depicted in figure
5.4.1. This topic is further detailed in section 6.3 in unit 6.
5.5 Wireless Protocols

There is a number of wireless protocols for short distances. Examples are
Bluetooth, Zig bee, 802.11x, NFC (Near Field Communications range ~ < 1 m).
However, there are other wireless protocols meant for Internet and Cellular
networks. Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a technical standard for
accessing information over a mobile wireless network. A WAP browser is a web
browser for mobile devices such as mobile phones that uses the protocol.
The basic construction of WAP architecture can be explained using the following
model. The order of the independent levels – which are a hierarchy - has the
advantage that the system is very flexible and can be scaled up or down. Because
of the different levels – or stacks - this is called the "WAP Stack", which is divided
into 5 different levels.
 Application Layer: Wireless Application Environment (WAE).

 Session Layer: Wireless Session Protocol (WSP).
 Transaction Layer: Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP).
 Security Layer: Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS).
 Transport Layer: Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP).
Figure 5.5.1 GSM Protocol Architecture for Signalling20
20
Mobile Communications by J. Schiller
Page 51 of 90
The main tasks of the physical layer comprise channel coding and error
detection/correction, which is directly combined with the coding mechanisms.
Channel coding makes extensive use of different forward error correction (FEC)
schemes. FEC adds redundancy to user data, allowing for the detection and
correction of selected errors. The power of an FEC scheme depends on the
amount of redundancy, coding algorithm and further interleaving of data to
minimize the effects of burst errors. The FEC is also the reason why error
detection and correction occurs in layer one and not in layer two as in the ISO/OSI
reference model. The GSM physical layer tries to correct errors, but it does not
deliver erroneous data to the higher layer.
5.6 SNA model
Figure 5.6.1 SNA v/s OSI21 Figure 5.6.2 SNA Communication22
SNA has many similarities with the OSI 7 layers reference model as shown in
figure 5.6.1. However, the SNA model has only six layers and it does not define
specific protocols for its physical control layer. The physical control layer is
assumed to be implemented via other standards. The functions of each SNA
component are described as follows:
• Data Link Control (DLC)—Defines several protocols, including the Synchronous

Data Link Control (SDLC) protocol for hierarchical communication, and the Token
Ring Network communication protocol for LAN communication between peers.
SDLC provided a foundation for ISO HDSL and IEEE 802.2.
21
Network Protocols Handbook, Javvin Technologies, Inc., Page 8
22
Network Protocols Handbook, www.javvin.com, Page 8
Page 52 of 90
• Path control—Performs many OSI network layer functions, including routing

and datagram segmentation and reassembly (SAR)
• Transmission control—Provides a reliable end-to-end connection service
(similar to TCP), as well as encrypting and decrypting services
• Data flow control—Manages request and response processing, determines

whose turn it is to communicate, groups messages and interrupts data flow on
request
• Presentation services—Specifies data-transformation algorithms that

translate data from one format to another, coordinate resource sharing and
synchronize transaction operations
• Transaction services—Provides application services in the form of programs

that implement distributed processing or management services
In SNA networks, programs that exchange information across the SNA network
are called transaction programs (TPs). Communication between a TP and the
SNA network occurs through network accessible units or NAUs (formerly called
“network addressable units”), which are unique network resources that can be
accessed (through unique local addresses) by other network resources. There
are three types of NAU: Physical Unit, Logic Units and Control Points.
Communication between Transaction Programs (TP) and Logic
Units (LU) is shown in figure 5.6.2.23
23
Network Protocols Handbook, Javvin Technologies Inc.
Page 53 of 90
5.6 Unit 5 Summary
 The OSI is conceptual framework for interconnection standardized by the

ISO.
 The OSI model consists of 7 layers that can be memorized with “All People
Seem To Need Data Processing”.
 The upper layers (5, 6, 7) deal with applications whereas the lower layers
(1, 2, 3, 4) deal with data transport.
 The data link and physical layers are implemented in hardware or

software.
 Layers 1, 2, 3 are related to network devices like routers, switches, hubs,

etc.
 The TCP/IP is a 4 layered model namely Application, Transport, Network,

and Network Access.
 Other networking models are IBM SNA (Systems Network Architecture)

and DEC DNA (Digital Network Architecture).
 IBM SNA is a 6 layered model namely: Data Link Control, Path Control,
Transmission Control, Data Flow Control, Presentation Services, and
Transaction Services.
Page 54 of 90
1. What is the meaning of OSI being a conceptual framework?
2. Give an example of a layered model other than for computer networks. Use
a diagram to explain your answer.
3. Describe the 7 layers of the OSI model.
4. Describe the 4 layers of the TCP/IP protocol stack.
5. Explain the 6 layers of the IBM SNA model.
6. Compare the OSI model with the IBM SNA model.
7. Describe the 4 types of addresses used in TCP/IP: Physical, Logical, Port, and
Specific.
8. State the maximum range of the addresses describe in 7.
9. Using diagram show how wireless protocols are mapped onto the TCP/IP
model.
10. Using diagram show how wireless protocols are mapped onto the OSI model.
Page 55 of 90
Unit 6: Data Transmission Protocols
6.1 Introduction
Protocols are inherent to computer networks. They exist at the 7 layers of the
OSI model. Fortunately protocols are something that all networks agree upon,
else we need gateways to convert on protocol to another. As a matter of fact in
you with connect a Packet Switched Network (PSN) to a Circuit Switched
Network (CSS) you must place a gateway in between. Gateways, middleware,
APIs are everywhere to ensure smooth communication. You must be familiar
with the famous TCP/IP suite or protocol stack, the latter meaning that within
one layer or one protocol you may have a number of protocols. TCP/IP like
sockets were invented at the Berkeley University in the USA. There is no license
or copyright in using in these protocols. In this unit we are focusing on network
and transport protocols, nevertheless you will see also protocols at the other
layers like application, session, presentation, data link and physical.
6.2 Unit Objectives

 describe the importance of network protocols
 explicit the TCP/IP protocol stack
 segregate the OSI layers in terms of protocols
Page 56 of 90
6.3 OSI & TCP/IP Protocols
Figure 6.3.1 OSI & TCP/IP Suite
IP is a combination of four protocols:

1. ARP
2. RARP
3. ICMP
4. IGMP
1. ARP – Address Resolution Protocol

I. It is used to resolve the physical address of a device on a network, where its
logical address is known.
II. Physical address is the 48 bit address that is imprinted on the NIC or LAN card,
Logical address is the Internet Address or commonly known as IP address that is
used to uniquely & universally identify a device.
2. RARP– Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

I. It is used by a device on the network to find its Internet address when it knows
its physical address.
3. ICMP- Internet Control Message Protocol
Page 57 of 90
I. It is a signaling mechanism used to inform the sender about datagram

problems that occur during transit.
II. It is used by intermediate devices.

III. In case and intermediate device like a gateway encounters any problem like
a corrupt datagram it may use ICMP to send a message to the sender of the
datagram.
4. IGMP- Internet Group Message Protocol

I. It is a mechanism that allows to send the same message to a group of
recipients.
TCP – Transmission Control Protocol

I. TCP is a reliable connection-oriented, reliable protocol. i.e. a connection is
established between the sender and receiver before the data can be
transmitted.
II. It divides the data it receives from the upper layer into segments and tags a
sequence number to each segment which is used at the receiving end for
reordering of data.
2. UDP – User Datagram Protocol

I. UDP is a simple protocol used for process to process transmission.
II. It is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not require

flow control or error control.
III. It simply adds port address, checksum and length information to the data it
receives from the upper layer.
3. SCTP – Stream Control Transmission Protocol

I. SCTP is a relatively new protocol added to the transport layer of TCP/IP
protocol suite.
II. It combines the features of TCP and UDP.
III. It is used in applications like voice over Internet and has a much broader
range of applications
Page 58 of 90
6.4 Application
BOOTP: Bootstrap Protocol
DCAP: Data Link Switching Client Access Protocol
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DNS: Domain Name Systems
FTP: File Transfer Protocol
Finger: User Information Protocol
HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol
S-HTTP: Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol (S-HTTP)
IMAP & IMAP4: Internet Message Access Protocol
IPDC: IP Device Control
IRCP (IRC): Internet Relay Chat Protocol
LDAP: Lightweighted Directory Access Protocol
MIME (S-MIME): Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (Secure
MIME)
NAT: Network Address Translation
NNTP: Network News Transfer Protocol
NTP: Network Time Protocol
POP & POP3: Post Office Protocol (version 3)
RLOGIN: Remote Login in Unix
RMON: Remote Monitoring MIBs in SNMP
SLP: Service Location Protocol
SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol
SNTP: Simple Network Time Protocol
TELNET: TCP/IP Terminal Emulation Protocol
TFTP: Trivial File Transfer Protocol
URL: Uniform Resource Locator
X-Window: X Window or X Protocol or X System
6.5 Presentation
LPP: Lightweight Presentation Protocol
6.6 Session
RPC: Remote Procedure Call protocol
RMI: exclusively in Java
Page 59 of 90
6.7 Transport
ITOT: ISO Transport over TCP/IP
RDP: Reliable Data Protocol
RUDP: Reliable UDP
TALI: Transport Adapter Layer Interface
TCP: Transmission Control Protocol
UDP: User Datagram Protocol
Compressed TCP
6.8 Network
Routing
BGP/BGP4: Border Gateway Protocol
EGP: Exterior Gateway Protocol
IP: Internet Protocol
IPv6: Internet Protocol version 6
ICMP/ICMPv6: Internet Control Message Protocol
IRDP: ICMP Router Discovery Protocol
Mobile IP: IP Mobility Support Protocol for IPv4 & IPv6
NARP: NBMA Address Resolution Protocol
NHRP: Next Hop Resolution Protocol
OSPF: Open Shortest Path First
RIP (RIP2): Routing Information Protocol
RIPng: RIP for IPv6
RSVP: Resource ReSerVation Protocol
VRRP: Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol
Multicast
BGMP: Border Gateway Multicast Protocol
DVMRP: Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol
IGMP: Internet Group Management Protocol
MARS: Multicast Address Resolution Server
MBGP: Multiprotocol BGP
MOSPF: Multicast OSPF
MSDP: Multicast Source Discovery Protocol
MZAP: Multicast-Scope Zone Announcement Protocol
PGM: Pragmatic General Multicast Protocol
PIM-DM: Protocol Independent Multicast - Dense Mode
PIM-SM: Protocol Independent Multicast - Sparse Mode
Page 60 of 90
MPLS Protocols
MPLS: Multi-Protocol Label Switching
CR-LDP: Constraint-Based Label Distribution Protocol
LDP: Label Distribution Protocol
RSVP-TE: Resource ReSerVation Protocol-Traffic Engineering
6.9 Data Link
ARP and InARP: Address Resolution Protocol and InverseARP in IPv4

IPCP and IPv6CP: IP Control Protocol and IPv6 Control Protocol
RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
SLIP: Serial Line IP
NDP, INDP in IPv6
Page 61 of 90
6.10 Unit 6 Summary
 The TCP/IP protocol suite has 4 layers namely: Host to Network Layer,
Internet Layer, Transport Layer and Application Layer.
 IP is a combination of four 4 protocols ARP, RARP, ICMP and IGMP.
 TCP is a reliable connection oriented protocol.
 UDP is an unreliable connectionless protocol.
 Transport protocols are usually TCP, UDP and SCTP
 Examples of Application Layer protocols are HTTP, SMTP, DNS, and FTP.
 The Application Layer in the TCP/IP protocol suite is a combination of the

Application, Presentation and Session Layers of the OSI model.
 Lightweight Presentation Protocol (LPP) is a Presentation Layer protocol.
 ICMPv6 is the ICMP for IPv6.
 Routing, Multicast and MPLS form part of the Network Layer protocols.
 Remote Procedure Call, SIP and SDP (VoIP) are Session Layer Protocols.
 In OSI model the physical Layer and Data Link Layer are mapped onto the
Host to Network (also referred as Network to Access) Layer in the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
Page 62 of 90
1. Use a diagram to illustrate the mapping of the OSI model and the TCP/IP
protocol suite model.
2. Describe the 4 protocols within the IP protocol.
3. Differentiate between unreliable and reliable transport protocols.
4. Explicit the following Application Layer protocols:

(i) DNS
(ii) SMTP
(iii) S-HTTP
(iv) SMTP
(v) SNMP
(vi) DHCP
(vii) FTP
(viii) TELNET
5. What is a routing protocol?
6. Explain the concept of MPLS.
7. What is a multicast protocol?
8. Explain the IPv6 changes brought to the Host to Network and Network Layers
protocols under IPv4.
9. Explain the new IPv6 Application Layer protocols such as DHCPv6.
10. What is the role of a protocol engineer?
Page 63 of 90
Unit 7: Coding Techniques
7.1 Introduction
In the previous unit data was brought down to its physical form in terms of bits
and bytes, subsequently into electric signals for transmission. One step above,
we need to represent the data that is text, alphabets, sound, video, images, etc.
into bits and bytes. For example if we type the letter “A” on the keyboard, that
letter should be represented by some bits that will be interpreted by the
circuitry and the operating system to finally display the shape A in my text editor
for instance. For alphabets and numbers, most computers and networks use the
ASCII code. In this unit you will see the different coding techniques including
source coding and channel coding. Non Return to Zero (NRZ) and Return to Zero
(RZ) codes are likewise covered. Audio and video coding commonly called as
CODEC is dealt with in the next unit on VoIP technologies. Coding techniques are
today the core of security measures. The level of math and abstraction is high,
you will learn more in the third year of your programme.
7.2 Unit Objectives

 enlighten learners about the importance of data and information coding
 distinguish between source coding and channel coding
 emphasize on NRZ & RZ codes
 apply popular code set like ASCII
Page 64 of 90
7.3 Source Coding

In information theory and computer science, a code is usually considered as an
algorithm which uniquely represents symbols from some source alphabet, by
encoded strings, which may be in some other target alphabet.
Source coding is about data compression thus reducing the network load and
educing file size. One example is the Zip compression over networks. There are
various mathematical models for data compression examples are Hamming
Codes, Huffman Codes and Shannon Theory.
Entropy of a source is the measure of information. Basically, source codes try to
reduce the redundancy present in the source, and represent the source with
fewer bits that carry more information. Data compression which explicitly tries
to minimize the average length of messages according to a particular assumed
probability model is called entropy encoding. Various techniques used by source
coding schemes try to achieve the limit of Entropy of the source. C(x) ≥ H(x),
where H(x) is entropy of source (bitrate), and C(x) is the bitrate after
compression. In particular, no source coding scheme can be better than the
entropy of the source.24 In mobile communications source coding is present in
the Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) scheme. The data signals sent to
multiple users are combined with spreading codes which are orthogonal (i.e
scalar product = 0) to each other, therefore uncorrelated. In this way a particular
mobile user can decode only his/her data signal, the other data signals would be
low level noise.
Suppose a word ‘Zebra’ is going to be sent out. Before this information can be
transmitted to the channel, it is first translated into a stream of bits (‘0’ and ‘1’).
The process is called source coding. There are many commonly used ways to
translate that. For example, if ASCII code is used, each alphabet will be
represented by 7-bit so called the code word. The alphabets ‘Z’, ‘e’, ‘b’, ‘r’, ‘a’,
will be encoded as ‘1010101’, ‘0110110’, ‘0010110’, ‘0010111’, ‘0001110’
The ASCII code is an example of fixed-length code, because each of the code word
is of the same length (7 bits). However, in the view of efficient communication,
the occurrence of ‘Z’ is not as often as that of ‘e’ and ‘a’. If there is a way of
encoding information such that the alphabets with higher probability of
occurrence are assigned with shorter code words, and longer for the other letters
24
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coding_theory#Definition
Page 65 of 90
which seldom come out, then on the whole it may be able to conserve the
number of bits to be sent to the channel while sending the same information.
This is what the variable length code can do.
7.4 Channel Coding
Channel coding is about error correction to ensure robust and accurate data
transmission. One technique is to add an extra bit usually called the checksum
in order to verify the data integrity. Forward Error Correction (FEC) is a common
channel coding scheme. FEC is a technique used for controlling errors in data
transmission over unreliable or noisy communication channels. The central idea
is the sender encodes his message in a redundant way by using an error-
correcting code (ECC).
The redundancy allows the receiver to detect a limited number of errors that may
occur anywhere in the message, and often to correct these errors without
retransmission. FEC gives the receiver the ability to correct errors without
needing a reverse channel to request retransmission of data, but at the cost of a
fixed, higher forward channel bandwidth. FEC is therefore applied in situations
where retransmissions are costly or impossible, such as one-way communication
links and when transmitting to multiple receivers in multicast. FEC information is
usually added to mass storage devices to enable recovery of corrupted data, and
is widely used in modems.25 Channel coding consists of Block Codes and
Convolutional Codes.
Figure 7.4.1 Block Coding

As depicted in figure 6.4.1 a block of m bits is changed into a block of n bits
where n > m. For example 4B/5B encoding implies that a 4 bit code is changed
to a 5 bit code.
25
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_error_correction
Page 66 of 90
7.5 Code Set ASCII and EBCDIC
Data representation
ASCII : this is ANSI’s (American National Standard Institute)
7-bit American Standard Code for Information Interchange
• ASCII code(7-bit) is often used with an 8th bit known as parity bit used for
detecting errors during Data Transmission
• Parity bit is added to the Most Significant bit (MSB)
The name ASCII is an acronym for: American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. It is a character encoding standard developed several decades ago
to provide a standard way for digital machines to encode characters. The ASCII
code provides a mechanism for encoding alphabetic characters, numeric digits,
and punctuation marks for use in representing text and numbers written using
the Roman alphabet. As originally designed, it was a seven bit code. The seven
bits allow the representation of 128 unique characters.
All of the alphabet, numeric digits and standard English punctuation marks are
encoded. The ASCII standard was later extended to an eight bit code (which
allows 256 unique code patterns) and various additional symbols were added,
including characters with diacritical marks (such as accents) used in European
languages, which don’t appear in English.
There are also numerous non-standard extensions to ASCII giving different

encoding for the upper 128 character codes than the standard. For example, the
character set encoded into the display card for the original IBM PC had a non-
standard encoding for the upper character set. This is a non-standard extension
that is in very wide spread use, and could be considered a standard in itself.
Notice also on the ASCII code chart that the numeric characters are in the range
30h-39h. Conversion between an ASCII encoded digit and an unpacked BCD
(Binary Coded Decimal- 4 bits) digit can be accomplished by adding or
subtracting 30h. Subtract 30h from an ASCII digit to get BCD, or add 30h to a BCD
digit to get ASCII. Again, as with upper and lower case conversion for alphabetic
characters, it is necessary to ensure that the character is in fact a numeric digit
Page 67 of 90
before performing the subtraction. The digit characters are in the range 30h-
39h.
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) is an 8-bit

character encoding used mainly on IBM mainframe and IBM midrange computer
operating systems. EBCDIC descended from the code used with punched cards
and the corresponding six bit binary-coded decimal code used with most of
IBM's computer peripherals of the late 1950s and early 1960s. It is also employed
on various non-IBM platforms such as Fujitsu-Siemens' BS2000/OSD, OS-IV,
MSP, MSP-EX, HP MPE/iX, and Unisys VS/9 and MCP26.
Baudot Teletype Code

It is a 5-bit code also known as ITA2 (International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2).
• 32 codes are possible. With the help of Letter shift & Figure shift key same
code is used to represent two symbols.
• Maximum symbols in this code are 58
• Used in Telegraphy/Telex
7.6 Signal Coding / NRZ and RZ Codes
Data can be analog or digital, so can be the signal that represents it. Signal
encoding is the conversion from analog/digital data to analog / digital signal.
Modulation and demodulation schemes are actually signal coding schemes. For
transmission of bits into electrical signals for two binary states simple +ve and –
ve voltages are not sufficient.
• Sufficient Signal transition should be present to recover the clock properly at
the receiving end
• Bandwidth of the signal should match with transmission medium
• Several ways to represent the bits as electrical signals
• Two broad classes are:
– Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) and
– Return to Zero (RZ)
Non Return to Zero (NRZ) Coding
26
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EBCDIC
Page 68 of 90
Figure 7.6.1 NRZ Coding27

NRZ-L : Non-Return to Zero Level (coded according to binary values of the
Data bits)
NRZ-M : Non-Return to Zero on Mark (Voltage Transition takes place on
Mark (1)
NRZ-S : Non-Return to Zero on Space (Voltage Transition takes place on Space
(0)
Return to Zero (RZ) Coding
If there is continuous string of ‘0’s or ‘1’s in NRZ code it is very difficult to
recover the clock signal
• Hence Return to Zero code (RZ) was implemented
• Clock can be extracted from the Return to Zero code by the receiver using lot
of transitions
• RZ signals are the combination of “NRZ-L Signal +
Clock Signal”
• Various RZ codes are:
– Manchester Code
– Bi-phase-M Code
– Bi-phase-S Code
– Differential Manchester Code
27
Courtesy ALTTC/NP/KKD/Data Communication
Page 69 of 90
Figure 7.6.2 NRZ Coding28

Manchester Code: Binary 1 is logical AND of ‘1’ & Clock & binary 0 is logical AND
of ‘0’ & Clock. Also known as Bi-phase-L code
Bi-Phase-M Code: Transition always at the beginning of bit interval and Binary
‘1’ has another transition in the middle of the bit interval
Bi-Phase-S Code: Transition at the beginning of bit interval as in Bi-Phase-M
code and Binary ‘0’ has another transition in the middle of the bit interval
Differential Manchester Code: Transition always at the Middle of bit interval
and Binary ‘0’ has another transition in the beginning of the bit interval
28
Courtesy ALTTC/NP/KKD/Data Communication
Page 70 of 90
7.7 Unit 7 Summary
 The two types of coding are source coding and channel coding.
 ASCII is a fixed length code.
 EBCDIC code, is an 8-bit code allowing 256 possible combinations of

textual symbols.
 Data code is the set of all textual characters or symbols and their
corresponding binary patterns.
 Sampling is about converting continuous signal (analogue) into discrete

signal (digital).
 Quantization is about assigning numbers to discrete values (digital signal)

based on their amplitudes.
 Signal encoding is about representing bits as electrical signals.
 To major types of signal encoding are Non-Return to Zero and Return to

Zero.
 The Clock signal should be recovered from the transmitted signal, RZ code
is used for that purpose.
 The bit rate is the number of bits transmitted per second.
Page 71 of 90
1. Explain the different ways of converting data to signal and vice versa.
2. Describe the following coding techniques:

(i) ASCII
(ii) EBCDIC
(iii) Baudot teletype code
(iv) CODEC
(v) BCD
3. What is channel coding?
4. What is signal encoding?
5. Explain spread spectrum coding in cellular networks.
6. Why is each user code unique in a cellular network?
7. What are the different ways of converting analog data to digital data?
8. Define the NRZ codes, give some examples, you may wish use bits signal
representation to illustrate your answer. What has led to RZ codes?
9. Describe the 3 steps in converting sound in a digital signal, namely

Sampling, Quantization, and Encoding.
10. Define the term ANSI.
Page 72 of 90
Unit 8: VoIP Technologies
8.1 Introduction
VoIP pronounced as “Voyp” often referred to as IP telephony has taken
ascendance in computer networking the past decade. You are probably using
Skype and What’s App on your PC and smartphone respectively. Other long
distance call solutions were already present in the 90’s, one example is
net2phone. At that time the sound quality was bad so users preferred the dial
up phone although the price was 5 to 8 times more. Today, VoIP has
considerably improved in terms of quality and security. VoIP is not only about
telephony but comprises multimedia communication such as video streaming,
graphics, etc. The specific features of VoIP like the SIP and CODEC are covered
here. At the beginning you will be introduced with the existing signaling system
and what is the trend towards VoIP. You will have the opportunity to work on
settings of IP Phone in your assignment. Many companies are gearing towards
this technology for telephony solutions as it provides a number of services
almost impossible with the Plain Old Telephone System (POTS).
8.2 Unit Objectives

 draw the attention from PSTN to IP telephony
 explain the change in signaling protocol
 offer a broad overview on SIP capabilities
 highlight the need for real time protocols
 give a brief apercu of media servers and CODECs
Page 73 of 90
8.3 IP Telephony
Traditionally telephony was based on analogue transmission and circuit
switching networks (CSN) commonly known as the Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN). When you wish to place a call, you need to dial up, that is to
compose at telephone number each single number corresponding to a tone,
therefore a signal frequency. Once the switching centre establishes a circuit
between the caller and callee through a signalling system (SS7), the
communication line is open. For long telephony was exclusively audio
communication.
• Real Time applications on the Internet
• Telephony
• VoIP
• Teleconference
• IPTV
• Video streaming
• Multicast Audio/Video Conference
Figure 8.3.1 VoIP protocol layer model
Page 74 of 90
8.4 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

In order to enable VoIP, the network infrastructure should support a signalling
protocol other than the SS7. Common signalling protocols for VoIP are SIP,
MGCP and H.323. SIP separates the signalling streams from the media streams.
SIP entities are as follows:
• User Agent (UA)
• User Agent Client (UAC) – initiates a SIP request
• User Agent Server (UAS) – handles and eventually sends a response to a
request
• Proxy server – routing of SIP requests
• Registrar server – registration of user’s contact addresses
• Location server – providing of user location details
• Redirect server – return callee’s addresses to caller
• Application server – providing advanced services for users
Figure 8.4.1 SIP architecture with legacy networks
8.5 Real Time Protocols
• IP Telephony quality issues

• QoS not guaranteed
Page 75 of 90
• Packet loss, delay, jitter, bandwidth allocation

• The need for another Transport protocol for voice :
• TCP introduces important delays due to acknowledgments &
retransmissions
• UDP introduces packet loss as it does not enable packets re-
arrangement due to absence of Sequence Number
• Translator
• Convert flux of different codes without mixing the flux
• Mixer
• Combine RTP packets from different senders into a single output
flow, without changing the codec for the output flow
• The RTP control protocol (RTCP) is based on the periodic transmission of

control packets to all participants in the session, using the same
distribution mechanism as the data packets.
• Control an RTP session
• RTP & RTCP of the same session hold the same addresses but different
ports
• RTCP port number = RTP port number + 1
• RTCP limit the debit to 5% of the session debit(bw)

• 75% of the RTCP debit is allocated to receivers and 25 % of the RTCP
debit is allocated to the emitters/senders
The period (arrival time) between 2 RTPC packets for a sender:
Ts = (Number of Senders / 0.25 x 0.05 x session bandwidth) x average RTCP

packet size
The period (arrival time) between 2 RTCP packets for a receiver:
Tr = (Number of Receivers / 0.75 x 0.05 x session bandwidth) x average RTCP

packet size
Example: For a 32 kbps DVI4 audio conference with 100 participants (5 senders,
95 receivers) with an average packet size 100 bytes. Calculate Ts and Tr.
Page 76 of 90
8.6 CODECS
Bandwidth is easily quantified but Voice quality is subjective. MOS, Mean

Opinion Score, ITU-T Recommendation P.800:
Excellent: 5
Good: 4
Fair: 3
Poor: 2
Bad: 1
VoIP – Per Call Bandwidth

These protocol header assumptions are used for the calculations:
40 bytes for IP (20 bytes) / User Datagram Protocol (UDP) (8 bytes) / Real-Time
Transport Protocol (RTP) (12 bytes) headers.
Compressed Real-Time Protocol (cRTP) reduces the IP/UDP/RTP headers to 2 or

4 bytes (cRTP is not available over Ethernet).
6 bytes for Multilink Point-to-Point Protocol (MP) or Frame Relay Forum (FRF).12
Layer 2 (L2) header.
1 byte for the end-of-frame flag on MP and Frame Relay frames.
18 bytes for Ethernet L2 headers, including 4 bytes of Frame Check Sequence

(FCS) or Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
Sample Calculation
For example, the required bandwidth for a G.729 call (8 Kbps codec bit rate)
with cRTP, MP and the default 20 bytes of voice payload is:
Total packet size (bytes) = (MP header of 6 bytes) + (compressed IP/UDP/RTP

header of 2 bytes) + (voice payload of 20 bytes) = 28 bytes
Total packet size (bits) = (28 bytes) * 8 bits per byte = 224 bits
Page 77 of 90
PPS = (8 Kbps codec bit rate) / (160 bits) = 50 pps
Note: 160 bits = 20 bytes (default voice payload) * 8 bits per byte
Bandwidth per call = voice packet size (224 bits) * 50 pps = 11.2 Kbps
CODEC information Bandwidth requirements
Bandwidth Bandwidth Bandwidth
MP or w/cRTP Ethernet
Bit Codec Code Voice Voice
FRF.12
rate(kbps) sample sample payload payload MP or (kbps)
CODEC MOS PPS (kbps)
size(B) interval size (B) size(ms) FRF.12
(ms) (kbps)
G.729 8 10 10 3.92 20 20 50 26.8 11.6
G.723.1 6.3 24 30 3.9 24 30 33.3 18.9 8.8
G.722 64 80 10 4.13 160 20 50 82.8 67.6
Ilbc 13.3 50 30 N/A 50 30 33.3 25.867 15.73
G.711 64 80 10 4.1 160 20 50 82.8 67.6
Table 8.6.1
Page 78 of 90
Codec Based on the codec, this is the number of bits per second that need to be
Bit Rate transmitted to deliver a voice call. (codec bit rate = codec sample size /
(Kbps) codec sample interval).
Codec Based on the codec, this is the number of bytes captured by the Digital
Sample Signal Processor (DSP) at each codec sample interval. For example, the
Size (Bytes) G.729 coder operates on sample intervals of 10 ms, corresponding to 10
bytes (80 bits) per sample at a bit rate of 8 Kbps. (codec bit rate = codec
sample size / codec sample interval).
Codec This is the sample interval at which the codec operates. For example, the
Sample G.729 coder operates on sample intervals of 10 ms, corresponding to 10
Interval (ms) bytes (80 bits) per sample at a bit rate of 8 Kbps. (codec bit rate = codec
sample size / codec sample interval)
MOS MOS is a system of grading the voice quality of telephone connections. With
MOS, a wide range of listeners judge the quality of a voice sample on a scale
of one (bad) to five (excellent). The scores are averaged to provide the MOS
for the codec.
Voice The voice payload size represents the number of bytes (or bits) that are
Payload filled into a packet. The voice payload size must be a multiple of the codec
Size sample size. For example, G.729 packets can use 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, or 60
(Bytes) bytes of voice payload size.
Voice The voice payload size can also be represented in terms of the codec
Payload samples. For example, a G.729 voice payload size of 20 ms (two 10 ms codec
Size samples) represents a voice payload of 20 bytes [ (20 bytes * 8) / (20 ms) =
(ms) 8 Kbps
PPS PPS represents the number of packets that need to be transmitted every
second in order to deliver the codec bit rate. For example, for a G.729 call
with voice payload size per packet of 20 bytes (160 bits), 50 packets need
to be transmitted every second [50 pps = (8 Kbps) / (160 bits per packet) ]
Table 8.6.229
29
Voice Over IP-Per Call Bandwidth Consumption Pg 3,4
Page 79 of 90
8.7 Unit 8 Summary

 VoIP is about multimedia (audio, video, text, graphics, etc.) transmission
over IP networks.
 The main differences between VoIP and dial up networks are the
signaling protocols and real time transmission.
 SIP is a dominant signaling protocol together with SDP in VoIP.
 SIP messages consist of requests and responses.
 TCP and UDP are not appropriate for VoIP, RTP and RTCP are preferred.
 Audio and video are coded using CODECs starting with “G” for audio and
“H” for video.
 Non uniform quantization µ-law for North America, A-law for the other
countries
 The Mean Option Score (MOS) is used by the ITU to assess quality of
speech, it ranges from 5 (Excellent) to 1 (Poor)
 Examples of VoIP products are Skype and What’s App.
 Non IP networks can communicate VoIP networks through gateways and

gatekeepers.
 There are Open Source IP-PBX like Asterisk and Elastic but they are limited
in terms of capacity of users. For thousands of users Cisco Call Manager is
one solution.
 Emergency services are not available on VoIP applications such as Skype.
Page 80 of 90
1. Are IP telephony and VoIP the same?
2. What is a signaling protocol in a network? Why SIP is used instead of SS7 for
VoIP networks?
3. Illustrate with the help of a diagram the different entities in a SIP based
network infrastructure.
4. How would you communicate from a SIP network to a PSTN or a GSM

network and Vis versa?
5. Why are TCP and UDP transport protocols not suited for multimedia
transmission?
6. Explain the gain in having a compressed RTP (cRTP)?
7. Study the example on bandwidth calculation in section 7.6. Complete the

empty cells in the table 7.6.1.
8. What is the role of the RTCP?
9. Describe the functions of the translator and the mixer in an IP telephony

network.
10.Define the following terms:

(i) CODEC bit rate
(ii) MOS
(iii) CODEC sample size
(iv) PPS
(v) Voice payload size
11. State one limitation and one benefit of Skype.
Page 81 of 90
Unit 9: Optical Fiber Communications
9.1 Introduction
Optical fiber presents very interesting characteristics like immunity to
electromagnetic interference and high channel bandwidth that has propelled its
use as backbone and outbound transmission medium. Moreover we are
witnessing now Fiber To The Cabinet (FTTC) and in some areas Fiber To The
Home (FTTH). On the other hand Optical devices and cables are very expensive,
if you are wearing eyeglasses, you have an idea about the price of a good pair of
spectacles. Light is normally in the visible part of the spectrum with a frequency
higher than microwave but due to its attenuation over long distances in free
space, it is transmitted in glass or plastic cables. In this unit you will learn about
different transmission modes in optical fibers and current corporate solutions.
Just like IPv6, optical fiber is not yet at the level of access networks in many
countries in the African region, Mauritius inclusive, except in some areas where
the optical fiber follows the electricity pillars. This unit is the last one in this
module, you should be having now a global picture of network and data
communications.
9.2 Unit Objectives

 pinpoint the frequency range of the optical spectrum
 briefly describe the propagation modes in optical fibers
 showcase FTTH and FTTC in the local context
 analyze outbound backbone surrounding Africa
 relate services such as FSO
Page 82 of 90
9.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Optic is another word for light which is an electromagnetic wave, thus its
maximum speed in free space is 3 x 108 m/s. The particles transmitting light
energy are photons which are lighter than electrons which are responsible for
the conduction of electric signals. Electronics and Photonics are two areas that
are correlated in the communication systems. You have probably heard about
photodiodes and optoelectronics devices. The range for optical transmission is
in the order of Tera Hertz (1012Hz) as portrayed in figure 9.3.1. Infrared is used
for research and military purpose, ultra violet in beauty parlour.
Figure 9.3.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

9.4 Fibre Optic structure
An optical fiber data link is made up of three elements as shown in figure 9.4.1.
1. A light source at one end (laser or light-emitting diode [LED]), including a
connector or other alignment mechanism to connect to the fiber. The light
source will receive its signal from the support electronics to convert the
electrical information to optical information.
2. The fiber (and its cable, connectors, or splices) from point to point. The
fiber transports this light to its destination.
3. The light detector on the other end with a connector interface to the fiber.
The detector converts the incoming light back to an electrical signal,
producing a copy of the original electrical input. The support electronics
will process that signal to perform its intended communications function.
Page 83 of 90
Figure 9.4. 1 Fibre Optic’s Data Link30
Figure 9.4. 2 Optical Fibre structure31

When light goes from one material to another of a different index of refraction,
its path will bend, causing an illusion similar to the “bent” stick stuck into water.
At its limits, this phenomenon is used to reflect the light at the core/cladding
boundary of the fibre and trap it in the core. By choosing the material differences
between the core and cladding, one can select the angle of light at which this
light trapping, called total internal reflection, occurs. This angle defines a
primary fibre specification, the numerical aperture.
30
Fiber Optics, Technician’s Manual 2nd Edition by Jim Hayes, Ch2 Pg 17
31
Fiber Optics, Technician’s Manual 2nd Edition by Jim Hayes, Ch2 Pg 18
Page 84 of 90
9.5 Propagation Theory
Figure 9.5.1 Light propagation in fibre optics

Light propagation in fibre optics follows rules of electromagnetic theory. In a
single mode transmission which occurs around 3 THz, light travels along the core
conductor in the TEM mode (Transvers Electro Magnetic) as shown in figure
9.5.1. With multimode step index and multimode graded index propagation
occurs at higher band of the optical frequency range and the propagation
undergoes reflections on the cladding. Transmissions modes in this case are
quite complex.
Page 85 of 90
9.6 Outbound networks

As depicted in figure 9.5.1 the African continent is largely serviced by undersea
fibre optic cables with EIG amounting to 3840 gigabits. As you can see the
outbound capacity is quite large. For long there has been a debate about a single
point of failure around Mauritius that could have been a risk element. Recent
laid cables are also owned by a consortium of stakeholders and operators that
make it more competitive on the cable bandwidth market implying that ISPs can
resell bandwidth allocations.
Figure 9.5.1 Africa Undersea Cables
Page 86 of 90
9.7 FTTH and FTTX
Figure 9.7.1 FTTN, FTTC, FTTH32

As portrayed in figure 9.7.1, broadband optical access networks are denoted by
FTTX. Fibre To The Node (FTTN) links the provider to the node, Fibre To The
Cabinet (FTTC) links the node to an exchange point close to the customer
premises and Fibre To The Home (FTTH) is the last mile connection from the
cabinet to the residential home. Besides FTTN, FTTC and FTTH there are other
fibre settings like Fibre To The Street (FFTS) and Fibre To The Building (FFTB).
9.8 Free Space Optic (FSO) / Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) / SONET
FSO: Free space optics technology (abbreviated as FSO), also referred to as open-
air photonics or optical wireless or infrared broadband, transmits data from
point-to-point and multipoint using low-powered infrared lasers. Unlike
traditional copper wires or fiber-optic technology, which transmits data by light
across glass, FSO uses laser technology to send optical signals through the air
using lenses and mirrors to focus and redirect the beams and send data from one
chip to another. And unlike radio frequencies, FSO technology does not require a
spectrum license. An FSO system uses optical amplifiers and a telescope that
sends multiple wavelengths of light in direct line of sight through the atmosphere
to another telescope waiting to receive the information. The receiving telescope
is connected to a highly sensitive receiver through an optical fiber and a DWDM
demultiplexer. Since the system is bidirectional, each telescope can
32
DPS Telecom, htttp://www.dpstele.com
Page 87 of 90
simultaneously send and receive information. The only weather condition that
affects an FSO transmission is fog. Fog can corrupt the direct line of sight
between the two telescopes because the moisture particles in the air are so small
and dense that they act as millions of tiny prisms dissipating the band of light
sent from the laser. Free space optics provides a higher bandwidth to the end
user at a faster speed. The photons transmitted by the laser are much quicker
than electrons moving along a wire and they can pass straight through each
other, which charge-bearing electrons cannot do. Because of this, large amounts
of data, such as IP -based voice and video, can be transmitted through a narrow
corridor of space.33
Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a 100 Mbps high-speed LAN standard
that was developed specifically for fibre optics by the ANSI X3T9.5 committee,
and products are readily available. FDDI has a dual counter-rotating ring
topology with dual-attached stations on the backbone that are attached to both
rings, and single-attached stations that are attached to only one of the rings
through a concentrator. It has a token passing media access protocol and a
100Mbit/s data rate. FDDIs dual ring architecture makes it very fault tolerant, as
the loss of a cable or station will not prevent the rest of the network from
operating properly.34
SONET: Synchronous Optical Network, a standard for connecting fiber-optic
transmission systems. SONET was proposed by Bellcore in the middle 1980s and
is now an ANSI standard. SONET defines interface standards at the physical layer
of the OSI seven-layer model. The standard defines a hierarchy of interface rates
that allow data streams at different rates to be multiplexed. SONET establishes
Optical Carrier (OC) levels from 51.8 Mbps (OC-1) to 9.95 Gbps (OC-192). Prior
rate standards used by different countries specified rates that were not
compatible for multiplexing. With the implementation of SONET, communication
carriers throughout the world can interconnect their existing digital carrier and
fiber optic systems.35 SONET is also referred to as SDH (Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy).
33
Webopedia http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/F/free_space_optics.html
34
Fibre Optics Technician’s Manual, 2nd Ed. by Jim Hayes, Pg 35
35
http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/S/SONET.html by Vangie Beal
Page 88 of 90
9.9 Unit 9 Summary
 Fiber Optic communication has numerous advantages in terms of

bandwidth, interference, attenuation over copper wires but remains
expensive.
 The three types of propagation in optical fibers are multimode step index,
multimode graded index and single mode.
 Total internal reflection helps to direction the transmission energy along

the core conductor in plastic or glass.
 Fiber optics connections are quite delicate and fragile and is one of the
causes of leakage or attenuation.
 An optical fibre can be made up of glass or plastic, it normally has a

cladding, a core and a buffer coating.
 FTTC and FTTH are at the level of access networks.
 Africa is surrounded by undersea cables for outbound communications,

examples are Lion, Lion2, SAFE, EASsy, SEACOM, TEAMS and SEAS.
 Fiber Space Optic (FSO) is convenient in urban regions but requires line
of sight (LOS).
 Fibre Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a high-speed LAN standard.
 Synchronous Optical NET work (SONET) would allow interoperability

between various manufacturers’ transmission equipment.
Page 89 of 90

1. How would differentiate electrons from photons?
2. What are the main advantages of fiber optic communication?
3. Describe the three layers of an optical fiber.
4. A fibre optic data link is made up of 3 components. With the help of a diagram
illustrate these three components.
5. State the factors limiting the transmission capacity of fiber optics.
6. Why is light/laser transmission not appropriate for satellites?
7. Explain the following terms:

a. FTTN
b. FTTC
c. FTTH
d. FDDI
e. FTTS
f. FTTB
8. Describe different propagation modes in a fiber optic.
9. What is the specificity of plastic in fiber optic communication?
10. What is the frequency range for optical transmission?
11. How is total internal reflection ensured in an optical fiber?
12. Surely you have observed objects larger, bent and closer in the sea when
looking from outside. Explain this phenomenon.
13. Name 2 fiber optic networks implemented by local operators.
Page 90 of 90

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OUbs017124 - NETWORK AND DATA COMMUNICATIONS

3.3 Binary Number System .............................................................................................................. 24

6.6 Session ........................................................................................................................................ 59

9.10 Unit 9 Activities ........................................................................................................................ 90

Course Aims and Objectives

Assignment and Assessment

STUDENT SUPPORT AND ASSISTANCE

Unit 1: Communications Systems Fundamentals

1.2 Unit Objectives

1.3 Communication System

Figure 1.3.1 Physical layer of a communication system1

1.4 Modulation / Demodulation

Figure 1.4.1 Analogue Modulation2

Figure 1.4.2 Analogue Demodulation3

Digital Modulation: A signal can be modulated by its frequency or amplitude or

Figure 1.4.3 Signal Representation

Figure 1.4.4 On Off Keying

1.5 Computer Networks

Client/Server: Generally a more powerful computer providing services

Distributed Computing: communication is done through message passing and

Parallel computing: processors are used in parallel from multiple computers to

Pervasive/Ubiquitous Computing: known as anywhere, anytime, anyone

Cloud Computing: centralised and virtualised infrastructure accessed on the

Internet: short for Internetwork, IP based worldwide network, has transformed

Software Defined Network: emerging technology consists of a centralised and

Network Function Virtualisation: differs from SDN, virtualises the network

1.7 Wireless & Mobile Communications

Figure 1.7.1 Satellite networks4

1.8 Unit 1 Summary

 The main elements of a communication system are source, modulator,

 Digital transmission is better than analogue transmission

 MODEMs are often called Encoders and Decoders.

 Computer networking paradigms have evolved from mainframe

 The Internet is governed by ICANN, Afrinic is the entity responsible for

 Internet is a distributed system “par excellence”.

 All- IP networks implies interconnectivity of all networks having IP as a

 Mobile networks are mainly cellular networks.

1.9 Unit 1 Activities

2. Illustrate with the help of a diagram the main functions in a communication

3. What is the difference between an analogue signal and a digital signal?

4. Why are modulation and demodulation important functions in a

5. What are the characteristics of an electric signal?

6. What was the rationale behind the ARPANET?

8. Explain how is the Internet governed across the world?

9. Briefly describe the need for a carrier in the modulation mechanism.

10. Differentiate between multiplexing, modulation and multiple access

11. List and describe the various computer networking paradigms.

12. Explain the term All-IP networks.

Unit 2: Network Topologies

2.2 Unit Objectives

2.3 Network Infrastructure

a. Point to Point v/s Multipoint b. Mesh c. Star

d. Bus e. Ring Hybrid: Star+ Bus

Number of links = n (n- 1)/ 2, Ex. if n = 5 then number of links = 10

2.4 LAN/PAN/ MAN

Near-Field Communication (NFC): is a short range wireless communication

Figure 2.5.1 Banking System9

2.6 Wireless and Mobile Topologies

2.7 Unit 2 Summary

 Communications can be classified into simplex, half duplex and full

 A network topology is often driven by the physical and economic factors.

 Mesh topology is preferred by the military but very expensive in civil

 Frequency re-use and cells clustering enable efficient use of frequencies

 Internet of Things is about humans, animals and objects interconnected