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ROAD RUNOFF & DRAINAGE:
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
AND MANAGEMENT OPTIONS
Road Runoff & Drainage:
Environmental Impacts and Management Options
First Published 2000
© Austroads Inc. 2000
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968,
no part may be reproduced by any process without the prior written permission of Austroads.
National Library of Australia

Cataloguing-in-Publication data:
Road Runoff & Drainage:

Environmental Impacts and Management Options
ISBN 0 85588
Austroads Project No. N.T&E.9708
Austroads Publication No. AP-R180/00
Project Manager
Ms Jay Stricker, Roads and Traffic Authority, New South Wales
Prepared by
Jencie McRobert, ARRB Transport Research
Gary Sheridan, ARRB Transport Research
Published by Austroads Incorporated

Level 9, Robell House
287 Elizabeth Street
Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 9264 7088
Fax: +61 2 9264 1657
Email: austroads@austroads.com.au
www.austroads.com.au
Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not accept responsibility for
any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should rely on their own skill and
judgement to apply information to particular issues.
q L.
AUSTROADS
Sydney 2000
Austroads Incorporated
Austroads is the association of Australian and New Zealand road transport and traffic authorities whose
mission is to contribute to development and delivery of the Australasian transport vision by:
supporting safe and effective management and use of the road system
developing and promoting national practices
providing professional advice to member organisations and national and international bodies.
Within this ambit, Austroads aims to provide strategic direction for the integrated development, management
and operation of the Australian and New Zealand road system - through the promotion of national
uniformity and harmony, elimination of unnecessary duplication, and the identification and application of
world best practice.
Austroads is governed by a council consisting of the chief executive (or an alternative senior executive
officer) of each of its eleven member organisations.
Member organisations
Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales

Roads Corporation Victoria
Department of Main Roads Queensland
Main Roads Western Australia
Transport South Australia
Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources Tasmania
Department of Transport and Works Northern Territory
Department of Urban Services Australian Capital Territory
Commonwealth Department of Transport and Regional Services
Australian Local Government Association
Transit New Zealand
Part I - Biodiversity and Road Drainage Issues

Part II - A Practical Guide to Reduce Impacts of
Drainage on Ecosystems
Part III- Applications of Improved Drainage Management
Part IV - Identification of Research and Monitoring Needs
Further Information
This document has been prepared by:
Jencie McRobert and Gary Sheridan
Research Scientists
Environment and Sustainable Transport group
ARRB Transport Research Ltd.
arGb
Transport
500 Burwood Highway, South Vermont, Vic
email: jenciem@arrb.org.au Research
Tel. (03) 9881 1633
With input from:

Dr Tony Wong
Assoc. Professor, Civil Engineering
CRC Catchment Hydrology
Monash University, Clayton, Vic. COOPERATIVE RESEARCH CENTRE FOR
email: tony.wong@eng.monash.edu.au CATCHMENT HYDROLOGY
Tel. (03) 9905 2940
Dr Peter Breen
Program Leader, Urban Water Management R ES E AR C H0
Cooperative Research Centre
CRC Freshwater Ecology
for
Monash University, Caulfield East, Vic.
email: Peter. Breen@sci.monash.edu.au FRESHWAT[@ [COLCICI
Freshwater Ecology
Tel. (03) 9903 2577
Adam Muir
Senior Botanist
Ecology Australia Pty Ltd, Eco tra1ia
Flora and Fauna Consultants
272-276 Heidelberg Rd, Clifton Hill, Vic.
email: ecology@ozemail.com.au
Tel. (03) 9489 4191
These people can be contacted for advice and further information on matters relating to road drainage and
biodiversity maintenance.
Essential References
References are listed at the end of each of Parts I to IV of the manual.
Many of these are available through the:
ARRB Transport Research Library
500 Burwood Highway
SOUTH VERMONT VIC 3133
Tel. (03) 9881 1600
email: info@arrb.org.au
Road Runoff & Drainage: Environmental Impacts and Management Options
Executive Summary
Introduction
The impacts of road runoff and drainage on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems have long been overlooked as
the environmental focus has remained on more traditional sources of ecosystem degradation. However, as
progressis made in these traditional areas, attention turns to other activities where the potential
environmental gains will have improved in relative terms. Road runoff and drainage management is one
such area.
The intention of this first edition manual is to bring together the existing knowledge in this field and identify
areas where new approaches could be adopted, or where additional information is required.
The manual has four principal objectives:
1. to identify and quantify the potential impacts of runoff and road drainage on ecosystems;
2. to identify the source of those impacts;
3. to identify remedial measures and best practice approaches to reduce impacts; and
4. to identify priority areas requiring further research and understanding.
These objectives will be met through interpretation and analysis of existing published and unpublished
literature, and through the exploration of a number of real-life case studies concerning road runoff and
drainage. It is intended that this manual will be used as a practical document to assist those in the transport
industry to understand and manage the environmental issues associated with road runoff and drainage.
In simple terms, road runoff and drainage has the potential to impact aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
through changes to water quality, water quantity, and water flowpath.
Water quality impacts
Water quality from roads can be directly related to road construction and maintenance activities, and vehicle
movement and wear. Potential pollutants include gross pollutants and litter, sediment and suspended solids,
toxic organics, nutrients, heavy metals, and hydrocarbons. While gross pollutants such as litter give the
appearance of serious ecological pollution, they are generally more an aesthetic nuisance than a biological
hazard.
Suspended sediment is the next most obvious form of pollutant, as most people can easily distinguish
between clear and turbid water. From an ecological perspective, sediment and suspended solids are also the
most significant of all the road runoff pollutants. Physically, sediment interferes with the respiration and
feeding of aquatic plants and animals. Chemically, many other potential pollutants such as nutrients, heavy
metals and organic substances, are adsorbed to, and travel with, sediments. Sediments and suspended solids
are also particularly important because they are manageable - simple technologies now exist to control and
trap sediments.
Heavy metals of concern in road runoff include cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead and zinc. The
concentrations of metals found in road runoff, especially from heavily trafficked areas, are commonly far in
excess of current ANZECC (1992) guidelines for the protection of fresh and marine waters. However,
although these guidelines are widely used, it is clearly recognised that they simplify the very complex
interface between chemistry and biology and are therefore a very crude indicator of potential toxic effects.
Exceedance values are based on total concentrations, yet the relevant parameter from an ecological
perspective is really the concentration available to the biota. The majority of metals sourced from roads are
in particulate form, and are strongly unavailable to organisms. A revision of the ANZECC guidelines is due
in 2000 and will reportedly go someway towards clarifying these important distinctions. The only Australian
study to have tested the toxicity of road runoff found high total concentrations of metals, yet no acute toxic
effects. More research is required in this area to enable informed and meaningful policy decisions to be
made.
Elevated levels of nutrients such as phosphorous and nitrogen are also found in road runoff and can
contribute to the accelerated growth of nuisance aquatic plants and cause a reduction in the levels of
dissolved oxygen. Nutrification is a principal cause of algal blooms, and the nutrients contained in road
runoff can add to the total nutrient load of the waterway. Nutrients are usually associated with the fine
suspended sediment in the runoff.
Water quantity impacts
Changes to water quantity (stormwater runoff volumes) result from increased impervious surfaces, and lead
to higher peak flow rates in streams. This increases the magnitude and frequency of in-stream habitat
disturbances, causing the loss of species unsuited to such conditions. Up to 70% of the impervious area in
urban catchments has a transport related function, although only about 40-50% is associated with roads, and
a much smaller area is attributed to main roads and freeways. The transport sector is clearly responsible for
a large proportion of the peak flow impacts in urban areas. How this responsibility is distributed between
industry, private residents, and local, state and federal authorities, is an issue that will become increasingly
significant as stormwater management issues become ever more prominent.
Water flowpath impacts
Changes to water flowpath can result when the road interferes with natural flow patterns, and can contribute
to salinity problems (where there is a high water table due to changes in the catchment water balance arising
from clearing or irrigation), waterlogging, draining of wet areas, and inundation of dry areas. These issues
are particularly relevant in the lowland areas of Australia, where drainage patterns are uncoordinated, or
where water travels as broad sheet flow. Interruption of the natural inundation patterns of tidal and
freshwater wetlands are also a significant issue. Changing inundation patterns, or the long term moisture
status of soils, will have implications for the structure and composition of vegetation communities.
However, the changes are often gradual and may go undetected in the short term.
Mitigating impacts
Aquatic impacts can result from the development of greenfield projects, as well as the upgrading and
maintenance of existing road assets. The planning and design phase of road projects offers the greatest
opportunity to minimise the environmental impacts of road runoff and drainage. The route selection process
should consider potential aquatic impacts at all phases of the project. Once the route has been selected, it is
essential that an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) be developed early in the project planning phase to
ensure the issues identified during environmental impact assessment are adequately addressed during all
project phases.
Key activities at this stage should include:

baseline water-quality and aquatic ecosystem studies (pre-impact);
selection and design of appropriate structures and procedures; and
development of specific plans for erosion and sediment control, fauna management, etc.
If appropriate environmental planning has been carried out during the project planning phase, the
construction phase will essentially involve the implementation of the EMP.
Key activities should include:

training and education;
construction of permanent and temporary structures;
monitoring of impacts;
auditing;
feedback on the performance of the EMP; and
reporting.
Research needs
Research relating to the impacts of road runoff and drainage on the environment is relatively new, and most
published work relates to water quality issues. Of the small number of studies undertaken in Australia, only
one has investigated the toxicological impacts of road runoff. The paucity of quality local data in this area
has forced regulators to adopt the `precautionary principle', setting limits on pollutants in order to err on the
side of caution. While this cautionary approach is necessary to avoid potential environmental degradation,
the cost of compliance with such guideline levels is eventually carried by road authorities. Such outcomes
suggest that spending on research in this area could yield both environmental and economic benefits for road
authorities.
Construction sites
While water quality data are often collected before, during, and after construction works, there has been no
systematic compilation and publication of such data on a broad scale to allow an informed assessment of the
effectiveness of erosion control measures. Thus, the scale and impact of sediment movement from road
construction sites is largely unknown, although a number of site specific studies of sediment loads have
revealed levels far exceeding guideline values.
While there are literally dozens of manuals describing the technical aspects of erosion and sediment control
structures, there is virtually nothing reported on the effectiveness of such structures, even if they are installed
and maintained correctly. This is often not the case. A recent study of 68 road construction sites revealed
almost 70% of sites had poor or very unsatisfactory performance in terms of implementing erosion and
sedimentation controls. These results may reflect policy, procedural, training, management, enforcement or
technical deficiencies. Further research in this area may provide the information to identify and remedy
shortfalls, and to evaluate the effectiveness of any innovations.
Sediment basins
Many major road development projects are now designed so that all runoff from the road formation and
batters is intercepted by sedimentation basins during the construction phase. In some areas these types of
structures are being retro-fitted to service existing roads. These basins are designed to be converted to toxic
spill traps during the operational phase. Unfortunately, these two functions are often not compatible at the
same time, as the best sedimentation pond will discharge water from near the water surface, which is where
many petroleum based pollutants will collect. New, simple designs are required to enable both
sedimentation and spill retention functions to be fulfilled simultaneously.
iii
Constructed wetlands
The use of wetlands for the treatment of road runoff has the potential to yield significant water quality gains
in many cases. However the design of such structures is in its infancy, and there is little information
regarding the level of resources required for on-going maintenance for the design life of such systems.
Limited research has shown that the size distribution of road runoff sediment in Australia appears to be an
order of magnitude finer than sediments measured from roads in the United States and Europe. These data
have significant implications for the design of sediment controls such as constructed wetlands and sediment
basins. Further research into a range of wetland related issues is required.
Infiltration measures
The use of infiltration measures (grassy swales, infiltration trenches, etc.) to filter road runoff also requires
more research. Firstly to determine rates of accumulation of pollutants and the environmental pathway, as
they are converted to different forms in the soil. Secondly, from an engineering perspective, to determine
areas where such measures would or would not be suitable in relation to the structural impacts of increased
soil moisture on pavements and road shoulders. Initially, these factors could be estimated using existing
functions for soil water movement, solute movement and chemical adsorption. Model predictions could then
be tested against field measurements.
Lowland drainage patterns
Perhaps the area where the least research has been carried out, and the widespread potential for negative
impacts is greatest, is the impact of roads on natural lowland drainage patterns. Roads intercept and redirect
natural surface and subsurface flows, resulting in regular flooding of dry areas on the high side of the road,
and `drainage shadows' on the low side. Natural flow regimes may also be altered when roads transect
wetland areas. These conditions may cause long term changes to vegetation communities as inundation and
soil moisture regimes are permanently altered. However, these changes may be too gradual to be identified
at the time scales normally associated with environmental management. It is usually only when the impacts
are relatively dramatic, for example when changed subsurface flows result in surface salinity, that the due
level of recognition is given to these processes. There is a need for some long term time series data to
quantify these impacts and assess their extent on a national scale.
Key research needs
Listed below are the key research needs relating to the environmental impacts of road runoff and drainage as
identified in this manual:
environmental pathways & toxicological impacts of road runoff pollutants;

pollutant accumulation in sedimentation structures & infiltration devices;
effectiveness of sediment control structures and on-site procedures;
relationships between road type (eg local, arterial) and pollutant load;
impacts of lowland roads on surface and sub-surface flows;
size distribution of road runoff sediments and pollutant adsorption issues;
resource and skill requirements for maintenance of constructed wetlands;
sediment transport from unsealed roads to waterways;
basin designs to combine sediment trapping and spill retention functions; and
Water Sensitive Urban Design and its effect on urban soil water balance.
iv
Summary
There are clearly very significant and widespread short term detrimental impacts on aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems as a result of road runoff and drainage. The scale of long term impacts cannot presently be
estimated with any certainty. The recognition of these impacts is however a welcome and relatively recent
phenomenon. The development of organisational, legislative, and technical solutions to minimise these
impacts is therefore still in its infancy. Hopefully this manual will go some way towards assisting those in
the transport industry to understand and manage the new and emerging environmental issues associated with
road runoff and drainage.
V
Contents
Executive Summary
Introduction 1
Purpose of this Manual ...................................................................................................................... 2

Structure and Scope of this Manual .................................................................................................. 2
PART I BIODIVERSITY AND ROAD DRAINAGE ISSUES .................................................... 1-1

Chapter 1: Overview - Impacts of Road Runoff and Road Drainage Structures on
Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems .......................................................................1-2
1.1 Classification and characterisation of potential environmental impacts .............................................. 1-3
1.2 Identification of broad mitigation measures ........................................................................................ 1-4
1.3 Commonly occurring impacts of road drainage .................................................................................. 1-5
Chapter 2: Effects of Catchment Urbanisation on Flow Quantity and Quality .................... 1-12
2.1 The contribution of roads .................................................................................................................. 1-12
2.2 Catchment hydrology - flow quantity ............................................................................................. 1-12
2.3 Road runoff - flow quality .............................................................................................................. 1-15
Chapter 3: Impacts on Ecosystems Within Receiving Waters .............................................. 1-20

3.1 Ecological impacts due to increased hydrological disturbance ......................................................... 1-20
3.2 Ecological impacts due to increased pollution .................................................................................. 1-21
3.3 Ecological impacts on natural wetlands ............................................................................................ 1-22
3.4 Factors influencing biological communities and ecosystem health ................................................... 1-24
3.5 Current means of assessing ecological health in streams .................................................................. 1-26
Chapter 4: Water Sensitive Road Design Practices for Urban Settings ............................... 1-29
4.1 Introduction to water sensitive urban design ..................................................................................... 1-29
4.2 Treatment of road runoff ................................................................................................................... 1-30
References - Biodiversity and Drainage Issues .......................................................................................... 1-32
PART II A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO REDUCE THE IMPACTS OF DRAINAGE

ON ECOSYSTEMS ..................................................................................................... 2-1
Chapter 1: Framework for Assessing Biological Impacts of Road Drainage ........................ 2-2
1.1 Introduction and decision making charts ............................................................................................. 2-2
1.2 Minimum or standard set of guidelines for road drainage ................................................................... 2-6
1.3 Potential impacts and mitigation strategies ......................................................................................... 2-9
Vegetation removal / damage ............................................................................................................ 2-10
Drainage discharge and runoff .......................................................................................................... 2-12
Surface hydrology ............................................................................................................................. 2-15
Sub-surface hydrology ....................................................................................................................... 2-17
Instream hydrology ............................................................................................................................ 2-18
vi
Chapter 2: Specific Areas of Interest .......................................................................................2-20

2.1 Treatment options for roads affected by high watertables and salinity
and safeguards to protect adjacent aquatic ecosystems ..................................................................... 2-21
2.2 Table drains 2-31
2.2.1 Alternatives ......................................................................................................................... 2-31
2.2.2 Design to prevent erosion .................................................................................................... 2-31
2.2.3 Table drain linings ............................................................................................................... 2-44
2.2.4 Maintenance ........................................................................................................................ 2-47
2.3 Drainage on unsealed roads ............................................................................................................... 2-47
2.4 Bridge and culvert design .................................................................................................................. 2-50
2.4.1 Culverts ............................................................................................................................... 2-50
2.4.2 Bridges 2-53
References - Practical Rules ....................................................................................................................... 2-54
PART III APPLICATIONS OF IMPROVED DRAINAGE MANAGEMENT ............................3-1

Case Study A: Urban Environments - Road Runoff Management ....................................3-2
Al Introduction 3-2
A2 Scenario 1 3-2
A2.1 Selection of Design Event ..................................................................................................... 3-3
A2.2 Computing the Design Flows ................................................................................................ 3-4
A2.3 Assessment of Stream Ecological Health .............................................................................. 3-5
A2.4 Establishing Runoff Management Targets ............................................................................ 3-7
A2.5 Option 1 - Buffer Strip ........................................................................................................ 3-8
A2.6 Option 2 - Kerb and Channel / Buffer Strip ........................................................................ 3-9
A2.7 Option 3 - Swale Drain and Discharge Pits ...................................................................... 3-10
A2.8 Option 4 - Swale Drain and Bioretention Zone ................................................................ 3-11
A2.9 Worked Examples - Swale Drain and Bioretention Zone ................................................. 3-12
A3 Scenario 23-15
A3.1 Option 1 - Swale Drain and Underground Pipe ................................................................ 3-16
A3.2 Option 2 - Swale Drain and Bioretention Zone ................................................................ 3-17
A3.3 Option 3 - Kerb and Channel & Treatment Systems ........................................................ 3-17
A3.4 Worked Example - Constructed Wetland ......................................................................... 3-19
Case Study B: Lowland Agricultural Regions - Roads in Wheatbelt

Catchments with High Watertables .............................................................3-23
B1 Introduction 3-23
B2 Relevance to the road network .......................................................................................................... 3-24
B2.1 Impacts of roads on catchment hydrology in salt
affected districts .................................................................................................................. 3-25
B2.2 Impact of high watertables and salinity on the road asset ................................................... 3-25
B2.3 Potential effects of road protection or remediation works on
adjacent ecosystems ............................................................................................................ 3-28
B3 Effect of a road crossing on catchment hydrology and salinity
of adjacent ecosystems - case study ................................................................................................ 3-29
B3.1 Issues 3-29
B3.2 Possibilities for treatment at this site ................................................................................... 3-31
B3.3 Increased involvement of Road Authorities in catchment
management ...................................................................3-32
vii
Case Study C: Semi-arid and Non-arable Lands - Road Design in

Regions with Uncoordinated Drainage Systems .......................................3-34
C1 Introduction 3-34
C2 Road drainage to minimise disruption to natural surface hydrology ................................................. 3-35
C3 Low formation roads in semi-arid lands - case study ..................................................................... 3-38
Case Study D: Major Roadworks Projects - Erosion and Sediment Control ................3-41
D1 Introduction 3-41
D2 Erosion and sediment control ............................................................................................................ 3-41
D3 Benefits of soil erosion and sediment control measures .................................................................... 3-42
D4 Erosion and sediment control methods .............................................................................................. 3-44
D5 Erosion prediction ............................................................................................................................. 3-44
D6 Best practice for erosion and sediment control .................................................................................. 3-45
D7 Case study -The Bulahdelah to Coolongolook deviation ................................................................ 3-48
D7.1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 3-48
D7.2 Environmental management plan ........................................................................................ 3-49
D7.3 Fauna management plan ...................................................................................................... 3-49
D7.4 Erosion and sediment control plan ...................................................................................... 3-51
D7.5 Self assessment, monitoring and environmental audits ....................................................... 3-52
D7.6 Record keeping and documentation .................................................................................... 3-52
D7.7 Construction ........................................................................................................................ 3-55
D7.8 Maintenance ........................................................................................................................ 3-55
D7.9 Training ............................................................................................................................... 3-57
D7.10 Operational phase ................................................................................................................ 3-58
Case Study E: Creek Realignments and In-stream Works ................................................3-60

El Introduction 3-60
E2 Road construction and waterways ..................................................................................................... 3-60
E2.1 Identify objects of works .....................................................................................................3-60
E2.2 Legislation ........................................................................................................................... 3-62
E2.3 Environmental management plans ....................................................................................... 3-62
E2.4 Design considerations .......................................................................................................... 3-62
E2.5 Decision checklist ............................................................................................................... 3-62
E2.6 Water quality management during construction .................................................................. 3-64
E2.7 Road runoff discharge ......................................................................................................... 3-64
E3 Case Study - Realignment of the Koonung Creek for the Eastern
Freeway Extension, Melbourne ......................................................................................................... 3-65
E3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3-65
E3.2 Design objectives ................................................................................................................ 3-65
E3.4 Construction ........................................................................................................................ 3-66
E3.5 Stability issues ..................................................................................................................... 3-66
E3.6 Aesthetics ............................................................................................................................ 3-67
E3.7 Stream bed ........................................................................................................................... 3-70
E3.8 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 3-70
References - Case Studies .......................................................................................................................... 3-71
viii
PART IV IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING NEEDS .............................4-1

4.1 Important areas of current research ..................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Further research and monitoring needs ............................................................................................... 4-7
Water quality 4-7
Water quantity 4-9
Water movement ............................................................................................................................... 4-10
Summary of research needs ...............................................................................................................4-10
References - Research and Monitoring ...................................................................................................... 4-11
APPENDIX
Appendix 1 Biodiversity assessment sheet ..................................................................................................... 2
Appendix 2 Vegetation and fauna / habitat assessment .................................................................................. 3
Appendix 3 A decision checklist of biological considerations for creek
realignments or in-stream works ................................................................................................. 4
Appendix 4 Decision making chart 1 - Assessment of values and
sensitivity of site and nearby areas (downstream or upstream) ................................................... 5
Appendix 5 Decision making chart 2 - Impacts and mitigation strategies ................................................... 6
GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................................1
ix
Introduction
This first edition manual explores the impact of road runoff and drainage on aquatic and terrestrial
biodiversity.
The manual aims to assist road infrastructure planners, designers, environmental officers and
project managers in achieving improvements in road drainage management and at the same time
maintaining biodiversity. The information relates to protection of habitat areas along the road
reserve and in adjacent ecosystems, notably the biodiversity dependent on habitat quality in
receiving waterways.
Careful consideration of improved drainage design and management principles will greatly reduce
the impacts of the road network on biodiversity. The manual highlights a wide range of drainage
related environmental issues and provides direction where more information can be found on
particular subject areas.
While the manual is focused on protecting aquatic biodiversity, reference is also made to terrestrial
habitats adversely impacted by road drainage management practices. The approach uses case
studies to illustrate good practice and identifies research and ecological monitoring needs to ensure
protection of ecosystems threatened by road drainage related processes.
This project has been sponsored by the Austroads National Strategic Research Program,
(Technology and Environment Program) and the manual is intended for use by all member
authorities across Australia.
Plate 1. Constructed wetland system treating runoff from Roe Highway, Perth (1997)
- designed to have low lying islands, mud flats and extensive shallow areas
x
Purpose of this Manual

The purpose of this document is to assist the roads industry in meeting the important objective of
maintaining biodiversity.
The intention is that roads be planned, designed, constructed and maintained in such a way to
ensure that:
Drainage and management of runoff will have minimal negative impact on the conservation
values of roadsides or adjacent downslope or downstream vegetation or fauna habitat; and
Minimal detrimental change to natural hydrological regimes will occur.
Structure and Scope of this Manual

The document firstly raises many of the commonly occurring drainage related biodiversity issues,
and then describes how biodiversity can be maintained in the sequence shown below.
Introduction Introduces the manual and gives a comprehensive

PART I outline of the threats to biodiversity posed by
Biodiversity and Road Drainage Issues inappropriate and conventional road drainage design
and operation.
l Provides information on aspects of road drainage

PART II planning, design and construction including decision
Practical Rules to Reduce Impacts of making charts, identification of potential biological
Drainage on Ecosystems impacts and mitigation strategies.
Presents a number of case studies illustrating how the

l hydrological and ecological impacts of road drainage can
be minimised in different environments.
PART III
Applications of Improved Drainage
Management - Case Studies
Highlights important areas of current research and
identifies further research and monitoring needs of the
1 roads industry.
PART IV
Identification of Research and Monitoring
Needs
Provides a short explanation and index of the main
technical terms used in the manual.
1
Glossary of Terms
Index
xi
Road Runoff and Drainage: Environmental Impacts and Management Options
PART I - BIODIVERSITY AND ROAD DRAINAGE ISSUES
Purpose
0-H
The purpose of Part I of the manual is to:

introduce the commonly occurring impacts of road drainage on biodiversity;
describe the effects of catchment urbanisation, including the road transport infrastructure, on
hydrology;
highlight the impacts on ecosystems within receiving waters; and
identify suitable road runoff management measures.
Chapter 1: Overview - Impacts of road runoff and road drainage

structures on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
This chapter begins by broadly classifying and rating each of the identified road drainage related
environmental impacts according to road class.
The ecological disturbances outlined in this manual relate to the effects of roads on:
(i) surface and sub-surface hydrology
i.e. changes in surface flow regimes, peak discharges, and groundwater conditions
(ii) instream hydrology and geomorphology
i.e. changes in stream powers, shear forces and erosion and deposition features of streams, and
(iii) water quality
i.e. changes in amounts of sediment, nutrients, heavy metals and organic compounds in receiving
waters.
Various levels of ecological disturbance arise from these types of changes. These affect both
terrestrial (or roadside) and aquatic biodiversity.
To introduce some of the issues, Table 1 on page 1-3 summarises the potential drainage related
environmental impacts according to road class during the operational phase. Table 2 on page 1-4
outlines broad mitigation strategies to reduce the ecological impacts of road drainage at the
planning, design, construction and operation stages.
Refer to the Glossary for an explanation of the hydrological and ecological terms frequently used in
the manual.
Part I -Biodiversity and Road Drainage Issues
1.1 Classification and characterisation of potential environmental impacts

Table 1 -The relative significance of potential road runoff and drainage related impacts according to road class (operational phase)
Drainage related Environmental Issue or Impact Urban Environment Rural Environment Natural Environment
Freeway Highway Local Freeway Highway or Unsealed Highway or Unsealed
or Main Road Main/Local Local Road Main/Local Local Road
Road (sealed) Road Road
1. Hydrological Disturbances
Disruption in surface and sub-surface flows due to:
Changes in flows and peak discharge
-------------------- --------------------------
Changes in local catchment surface hydrology
------------------- ------------------- -------------------- -------------------- --------------------------
Changes in local recharge/discharge of groundwaters
2 Water Quality Disturbances

Deterioration in quality of receiving waters due to:
Increased Sediment (turbidity/suspended solids)
Nutrients
Increased Heavy metals and Organic compounds
3. Ecological Disturbances
MEME M I Boom
---------------------- -------- ----------------
--------------------- ------------------------- --------------------
..........................
--------------------------
- arising from hydrological and water quality changes

(above) and direct habitat disturbance
Changes in habitat structure and diversity due to:
Roadside and Riparian vegetation removal and decline
Pollution or habitat destruction of aquatic species
Disruptions to corridor values
Transport of weed seeds and disease
0 -------------- ---- --------------------
lie: table provides a guide only to the likely relative significance of inpacts within a rarge of envirrxrments- Actual inpacts will depend on nwry factors, irclucf'ng the nature of the receiving
envdirxrment- .jedfic cases should always be assessed indviobally on nBrit
Potential level of impact High Medium Low Low= potential impact is relatively minor
1
Colour Code Medium = potential impact may be significant

High = potential impact very significant
Part I -Biodiversity and Road Drainage Issues
1.2 Identification of broad mitigation measures

- To minimise hydrological, water quality and ecological disturbances
Table 2-Mitigation measures to reduce the ecological impacts of road drainage

Road Development Phase Zone or Environmental Setting
Urban environment Rural environment Natural environment
Planning Consider alternative transportation options Select corridor and alignment to Select corridor and alignment to avoid disruption of
Ensure suffident space to install water quality avoid disruption of flows into or away flows into or away from sensitive areas
treatment structures from sensitive areas Seek to control secondary developments arising
from introducing the road
Design Characterise and assess urban catchment Characterise rural catchment Characterise rural catchment hydrology impacts
hydrology impacts hydrology impacts Design hydraulic structures to perform well and
Design performance of water treatment Design hydraulic structures to avoid scour
structures according to water quality targets perform well and avoid scour Ensure table drains resist scour
Undertake risk analysis to ensure design of Ensure table drains resist scour Design for treatment of bridge deck drainage
spill containment structures meets before discharge to natural waterways
environmental and cost objectives
Incorporate runoff water treatment measures
Construction Mnimise erosion and sedimentation through Enforce procedures to minimise Enforce procedures to nininise disturbance of
- including road realignments, best management practices on-site disturbance of remnants natural areas
widening and other significant works
Mninise erosion and sedimentation Mnimise erosion and sedimentation through best
through best management practices management practices on-site
on-site
Operation Ensure correct operation and maintenance of Implement sound table drain (and Manage table drain (and other hydraulic
water quality management structures other hydraulic structures) structures) maintenance practices to protect
maintenance practices sensitive roadside communities (both terrestrial
and aquatic)
Note: table provides mitigation measures related to hydrological impacts only. Other ecological factors such as the need to accommodate terrestrial fauna movement in the design of culverts need also
to be considered.
1.3 Commonly occurring impacts of road drainage

A number of the commonly occurring road drainage related biodiversity issues are introduced in
this chapter.
These are:
urbanisation and aquatic biodiversity,
roadside remnants and adjacent aquatic ecosystems in rural areas,
rural roads and catchment hydrology (surface water and groundwater),
erosion and sedimentation problems with unsealed roads, and
weed and disease spread via road drainage operation.
Box 1. Urbanisation and aquatic biodiversity

Up to 70% of the impervious area of an urban catchment is transport-related, ie. roads, driveways, car-parks,
garages and carports' A smaller percentage is associated with roads only (around 40-50%) while a much
smaller percentage is associated with main roads, highways and freeways. Despite this, significant
concentrations of pollutants ranging from gross pollutantsii,iii to particulate and soluble contaminants iv (eg.
trace metals and hydrocarbons) are generated from main road surfaces, with some studies indicating a
correlation between the amount of pollutants generated and the traffic volume of the roads.°'
Stormwater runoff from highways and freeways contain pollutants, especially heavy metals, which are
comparable to commercial and industrial land use°. The average or median contaminant levels, measured in
recent preliminary highway runoff studies in Australian cities, exceed environmental water quality objectives
and guideline values for the protection of freshwater aquatic ecosystems.°ii Pollutant concentrations can
often be an order of magnitude higher than levels typical of medium density residential areas.°iii
While the concentrations of pollutants from main roads is often high, the total load of pollutants relative to
the remainder of the catchment may be relatively low. This is due to the relatively small area of the total
catchment occupied by main roads.
Road runoff from urban catchments can affect the ecology of receiving waters by:
causing disturbance of aquatic habitats through increased size, frequency and duration of peak
dischargeslX; and
discharging water contaminated with heavy metals and other common toxicants exceeding benchmark
expected.X,Xi,Xii.
levels above which chronic sub-lethal effects on aquatic biology can be
Note:
1. More information on the effects and management of road runoff in urban areas is outlined in Part I
(chapters 2-4) and Part III (case study 1).
2. Plates 2-4 illustrate some of the issues relating to urbanisation and aquatic biodiversity.
Plate 2.
A channelised section
of Wolli Creek, Sydney
(1998)
- it is conventional
practice to channelise and
concrete urban waterways
to improve hydraulic
efficiency. This practice
results in an increase in
the magnitude of
catchment discharge due
to both increasing
impervious area and
increasing the efficiency
in which runoff is
conveyed to receiving
waters.
Plate 3.
Coarse sediment deposits along Western Ring road, Melbourne
(1998)
sediments deposit in curb sides of metropolitan freeways
following storm or wind events. When transported into
receiving waters, these pollutants are a threat to aquatic
ecosystems through sheer physical impacts as well as
contamination.
Plate 4.
High sediment loads can runon to the
roadway from access driveways,
Malaney-MontvilleRd, SouthEast
Queensland (1999)
- once sediment laden water becomes part of
the road drainage system it is often
efficiently delivered to aquatic ecosystems.
Box 2. Roadside remnants and adjacent aquatic ecosystems in rural areas

Highly vulnerable remnant habitat can be threatened even by incremental tree removal. Clearing and other
physical damage to vegetation is likely to present the most serious threat to the biological values of roadside
vegetation. There is likely to be a threshold corridor width below which it will be difficult to preserve
existing values causing substantial disruption of corridor values of roadside
remnantsxiii
Road drainage water and drainage structures impact both roadside terrestrial vegetation and aquatic
communities. Riparian (or streamside) vegetation is amongst the most depleted and poorly reserved
ecosystems in Australia, particularly in lowland agricultural districtsxi°
Road drainage works impact road and streamside remnants by:
physical disturbances (such as extending culverts to meet clear zone requirements)
- causing changes in hydrology, ground cover, light, and soil nutrient status
- leading to direct habitat loss and weed invasion;
heavy machinery, placing or stockpiling spoil, from drain and shoulder maintenance around trunks of
trees
- causing soil compaction and leading to root death and smothering of ground cover and understorey
species;
altering natural drainage flows
- causing dehydration to some areas and waterlogging to others; and
- erosion of table drains and wider verge areas threatening roadside vegetation.
Note: More information about drainage impacts on roadside remnants is outlined in Part II.
Plate 5.
Road drainage works
affecting remnants along
Murray Valley Highway,
w -4 North east Victoria (1997)
- table drain construction with
steep batters are prone to
erosion
- stockpiling spoil underneath

trees can damage roadside
remnants.
;IF. ;......
*
Plate 6.
Erosion of table drains caused by
increased runoff and inadequate
protection against high flow velocities,
Northern Highway, Central Victoria (1998)
- remnant Grey Box threatened by erosion of
roadside verge with dispersible clay subsoils.
Box 3. Rural roads and catchment hydrology (surface water and groundwater)
Roads can have dramatic effects on catchment hydrology. Hydrological impacts on wetlands, streams and
other aquatic environments are largely due to changed groundwater recharge and surface runoff
characteristics.
The hydrological impacts of rural roads include:

direct obstruction of overland flow
- where significant quantities of water can pond along the upstream side of the road;
direct obstruction of groundwater flows
- by structures including abutments, retaining walls and sheet pilings;
direct displacement of floodplain areas
- when highways are constructed parallel to stream and/or wetland systems;
poor design and maintenance of table drains
- can pond surface water and/or intercept sub-surface flow, therefore modifying local groundwater and
surface water flows.
the general modification of drainage patterns which affect infiltration, deep percolation, and soil storage
- leading to diversion of the natural flow of water away from or into environmentally sensitive areas such
as wetlands
- local water tables may be affected, particularly if they are already high, causing increased salinity of
wetlands and streams.
Note: More information about the hydrological impacts of rural roads is outlined in Part II (chapter 2) and
Part III (case studies B and C).
Plate 7.
Inadequate culvert capacity
causing local flooding,
Mingenew-Morawa Road,
WA (1998)
- catchment water ponding
upstream of rural highways can
alter local recharge conditions
and influence local salinity.
':
k
:..
Plate 8.
Multiple cell box and slab
culvert, Great Northern
Highway, Mt Magnet, WA
(1998)
- attempting to preserve
current flow patterns
associated with periodic
sheet flooding of semi-arid
lands.
Box 4. Erosion and sedimentation problems with unsealed roads

Once runoff occurs along an unsealed road surface, the amount of soil lost will be a function of runoff
velocity and the level of turbulence, which is very much affected by slope steepnessX°. The detached soil
particles can be transported into waterways by the channelled runoff of surface water. The coarse particles
will usually be deposited downstream and the colloidal (or insoluble/non diffusible) particles will stay in
suspension almost indefinitely.
The potential erosion and sedimentation impacts includes:

smothering of aquatic vegetation with sediment
- leading to a reduction in water depths which can affect both wetland and stream habitats
- any permanent changes to water depth will modify vegetation zones, influencing fauna species
associated with that aquatic community
extreme siltation which may lead to increased and sustained turbidity
- which reduces light available to underwater plants and visibility for feeding animals.
Note: More information about drainage and unsealed roads is outlined in Part II (chapter 2).
::
Plate 9.
Unsealed Heemskirk Development Road, North-
west Tasmania (1997)
- unsealed roads which are not stable can produce large
amounts of sediment which is then transported to
waterways.
::
Box 5. Weed and disease spread via road drainage operation

Weed invasion and disease spread has potential to disrupt the corridor values of remnant vegetationx°i. It is
important to note that chemical control of weeds is particularly undesirable in the vicinity of waterways and
wetlands due to the vulnerability of frogs, fish and invertebrates.x°ii The only practical way of containing the
spread of disease such as die back is to prevent or restrict its spread through vehicle hygiene and by using
dieback free imported
materials.xviii
The weed and disease impacts of road drainage include:

weeds displace native plants and change the food and habitat conditions available to wildlife - can
especially invade roadside remnants where moisture is concentrated in essentially dryland vegetation
communities or where soil is disturbed for road maintenance
spread of `die back' or Phytophthorax'x (a fungal disease which attacks plant roots)
- spores can be transported by surface or sub-surface water and be sourced from road construction and
maintenance vehicles and equipment, and occasionally human or animal vectoring through the soil.
Note: More information about the management of weeds and disease in road drainage is outlined in Part II
(chapter 1).
Plate 10.
Weed invasion of roadside remnants,
Toolleen Road, Central Victoria (1998)
- Phalaris grass is highly invasive and out-
competes native grasses where moisture is
increased along road reserves. In this
instance, it is also restricting natural
regeneration of remnant White Box.
Plate 11.
Attempt at stabilising a batter
slope with Kikuyu grass, Princes
Highway, north of Eden (NSW)
- Kikuyu is a highly invasive and
serious environmental weed.
Chapter 2: Effects of Catchment Urbanisation on Flow Quantity and

Quality
This chapter presents an overview of the effects of urbanisation on the hydrology and runoff
pollutants generated within a catchment.
This section includes the main ideas and conclusions presented in chapters 2 and 4 of the background report,
Water Sensitive Road Design Guidelines: A discussion paper on designing roads for protection of aquatic
ecosystems (1998), prepared by Tony Wong, Peter Breen and Sara Lloyd, from the CRC for Catchment
Hydrology and the CRC for Freshwater Ecology, Monash University.
2.1 The contribution of roads

Urbanisation dramatically increases the amount of impervious area within a catchment.XX Road
infrastructure and its relative contribution to the volume of stormwater runoff is directly related to the
percentage of roads making up the total catchment impervious area.XXi
Box 1. Key points

There is a close correlation between the runoff coefficient and the percentage of impervious area of a
catchment;
Up to 70% of the area made impervious has a transport related function in an urban setting;XXii
A significant proportion of this will be associated with private driveways, local streets and parking areas.
The responsibilities for the design and maintenance of these are with local authorities;
Although data is scarce, arterial roads, highways and freeways will make up a small fraction of the 70%
of catchment impervious areas that are transport related;
For this reason, the expected contribution of urban highways and freeways to increases in stormwater
runoff, and consequently increased magnitude and frequency of aquatic habitat disturbances, is not
expected to be significant in the general case. However, impacts may be significant at specific discharge
points from main roads and freeways;
There is however evidence to suggest that the contribution of highways and freeways to increased
pollutant concentrations in receiving waters can be highly significant. Contaminant levels can be as much
as typical industrial and commercial areas, and around 10 times higher than typical levels of medium
density residential areas.XXiii
2.2 Catchment hydrology - flow quantity

Urban development in a rural catchment can lead to significant changes to its hydrology with the most
obvious effect being the increase in the magnitude of stormwater flow events in urban creeks and the
consequential impact on flooding and public safety. With progressive development, urban waterways
become increasingly taxed in their ability to convey the significant increases in the quantity and rate of
stormwater runoff generated, with bank erosion and increased frequency of flooding being the obvious
symptoms. The standard approach to resolving these problems in the past was to increase the hydraulic
capacity of these natural waterways by a combination of channelisation and partial, or complete, concrete
lining. These conventional approaches are now being replaced with more water sensitive urban design
principles.
Box 2. Key points

1 Urbanisation causes the following changes to the runoff hydrograph:
increased peak discharges and runoff volume;
decreased time of concentration;
increased frequency and severity of flooding;
stream flows changing from an ephemeral to a perennial system, or less frequently, from a perennial to an
ephemeral system.
2 The increases in the magnitude of catchment discharges resulting from catchment urbanisation
are attributed to two factors, these are:
the increased impervious areas in the catchment; and
the increased hydraulic efficiencies by which the catchment runoff is conveyed to the receiving waters (as
illustrated in Plate 2. Chapter 1).
Figure 1 shows the computed flood frequency curves for a hypothetical rural catchment becoming
increasingly urbanised and less impervious.
Figure 1 - Flood frequency curves from varying degrees of urbanisation
Source: Wong et al. (1998)

Box 3. Key points

Typically, the flood hydrograph generated from an urban catchment is up to 20 times that of a rural
catchment.
The peak discharge (rather than the total runoff volume) generated from an urbanised catchment can be as
much as 35 times that generated from a rural catchment, with the relative differences between rural and
events.xxiv
urban conditions being greatest for frequent storm
Urban development with just 20% of its area becoming impervious would be sufficient to cause
significant increases in peak discharges and the frequency in which the bankfull discharge of the natural
stream is exceeded
- it has been estimated that the bankfull discharge of a rural upland creek, that would normally be
exceeded at an average recurrence interval of approximately 5 years, would occur (on average) twice a
year following catchment urbanisation with just 20% of its area becoming
impervious.xxv
The consequential impact on stream degradation, alteration to habitat structure, water quality and
biodiversity of the aquatic system is significant even at this low level of catchment urbanisation.
The increases in the magnitude of catchment discharges resulting from catchment urbanisation are
attributed to the increased impervious areas in the catchment; and the increased hydraulic efficiencies by
which the catchment runoff is conveyed to the receiving waters.
Research evidence has shown that increased hydraulic efficiencies account for up to 95% of the increase in
peak discharge during a flood event in an urbanised catchment with all its drainage network channelised and
concrete-lined. Figure 2 demonstrates how catchment peak discharge responds to varying degrees of
waterway hydraulic efficiencies. The graph shows the relative peak discharge levels from:
concreted lined urban channels (highest hydraulic efficiency),
upland streams (in a near natural condition), and
rural streams.
Figure 2-Contribution of waterway hydraulic efficiencies to increases in catchment discharge (Fraction Impervious = 0.6)
Source: Wong et al. (1998)
2.3 Road runoff - flow quality

A significant amount of pollutants ranging from gross pollutants to particulate and soluble contaminants
accumulate on transport related surfaces and these are conveyed into stormwater drainage networks during
runoff events.
This has contributed to a progressive deterioration of the environmental values of the aquatic ecosystem in
urban environments. The problem becomes further exacerbated by a hydraulically efficient stormwater
drainage system.
Box 4. Key points

1 Stormwater pollutants from urban developments originate from a variety of sources in the
catchment.
The most common sources include the atmosphere, motor vehicles, construction activities, erosion and
surface degradation, spills, leachates, and miscellaneous surface deposits.
Many factors affect the constituents of highway runoff. These include:
vehicular generated inputs
- nature of traffic/usage levels (eg. average vehicles per day, their type, accidental spills);
highway design - road configuration, geometry, pavement area and materials, drainage design (eg.
surface and sub surface, area of impervious surface, nature of roadside vegetation);
road construction management practices
- erosion control procedures, runoff containment;
maintenance activities - herbicide and fertiliser usage and application practices, road cleaning operation
and repair techniques;
adjacent land use - industrial activity, residential, commercial, agricultural, mining; and
climatic factors - characteristics of precipitation: volume, duration and intensity, wind speed and
direction, and temperature.
2 The pollutants that originate from these sources are grouped according to their impact on water
quality.
They include:
Gross pollutants and Litter
Sediment and Suspended solids
Nutrients (primarily phosphorous and nitrogen)
Biological oxygen demand & Chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD and COD)
Micro-organisms
Toxic organics and trace metals
Oils and surfactants
There is evidence to suggest that for highways and freeways:
the contaminant levels of runoff are as high as typical industrial and commercial areas, and an order of
magnitude higher than typical levels of medium density residential areas;
gross pollutant management is less important because the load generation will be small in comparison to
streets and parking areas in typical commercial and industrial areas; and
the emphasis in stormwater quality management for the protection of aquatic ecosystems in the receiving
water is that of managing the export of suspended solids and associated contaminants - namely heavy
metals, nutrients and organic compounds.
The most common sources and types of pollutants found in highway stormwater runoff are listed in Table 3
below.
Table 3- Key sources of highway pollutants
Pollutant Source
Particulates Bitumen wear, vehicles, atmosphere, maintenance

Nitrogen, Phosphorus Atmosphere, roadside fertiliser application
Lead Leaded petrol, tyre wear, lubricating oil and grease, bearing wear
Zinc Tyre wear, motor oil, grease
Iron Auto body rust, steel highway structures, moving engine parts
Copper Plating, bearing/brushing/brake wear, engine parts, insecticides
Cadmium Tyre wear, insecticide application
Chromium Metal plating, moving engine parts, brake lining wear
Nickel Fuels, oils, metal plating, brushing wear, brake lining wear, asphalt
Manganese Moving engine parts
Bromide Exhaust
Sodium, Calcium Grease
Hydrocarbons Spills, lubricants, antifreeze and hydraulic fluids, asphalt,

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),
Organic compounds Pesticides, atmospheric deposition, catalysts in synthetic tyres
(other) - poly chlorinated biphenyl (PCBs), organo chlorines,
organo phosphates
Pathogenic bacteria Soil, litter, bird droppings, livestock waste
Rubber Tyre wear
Asbestos Clutch and brake lining wear
Source: adapted from Sieber (1995)
Plate 12.
Fine sediment generated during road construction
and deposited behind a geotextile fence
- the adoption of erosion and sediment controls, specified

in a construction Environmental Management Plan can
minimise the movement of sediment into adjacent
waterways.
Some limited data is available for pollutant loads from major Australian roads. Recent work has been carried
Sydneyxxvi Brisbanexxvii Perth.xxviii
out in and other studies are currently under way in and These results are
compared with international data and ANZECC guidelines for the protection of aquatic ecosystems in Table
4.
The concentrations of metals found in road runoff, especially from heavily trafficked areas, are commonly in
excess of current ANZECC guidelines for the protection of fresh and marine waters. These guidelines are
presently being updated and revised guidelines are due to be published some time in 2000. The guidelines
provide recommendations to help managers of road assets and other contributors to water quality pollution
take actions to maintain environmental values in waterways. They are not standards because there is an
immense range of aquatic environments and ecosystem types in Australia and New Zealand.
Table 4-Some constituents of highway runoff reported in the literature and the ANZECC guidelines
for the Protection of Aquatic Ecosystems. Units represent the total concentration in µg/L.
(Source: Drapper et al, 1997)
Constituent Gold Sydney (Batley Average US Gateway Moggil Rd ANZECC*

Coast et al. 1994) (Barrett, 1993) Mwy (Drapper et guidelines
(Bell , (Dra pper et al , 1997)
1997) min max min max al , 1997)
Aluminium 1287
Cadmium 0.7 2 49 nd 0.04 0.2-2
Chromium 5 nd 0.04
Copper 27 8 327 22 7033 230 65 2-5
Iron 2012 80 17940 2429 10,300
Manganese 39 110 432
Nickel 2
Lead 61 22 439 73 1780 500 175 1-5
Zinc 17 35 1576 56 929 1700 150 5-5
TP 2300 310 5-50
TKN 15000 2300 100-500
TPH 2700 27000 4624 264 -
TP = total phosphorous, TKN = total kjeldahl nitrogen, TPH = total petroleum hydrocarbons,
* Caution should be exercised when comparing measured values against ANZECC guidelines, as these guidelines represent total
concentrations, not the bio-available level of a constituent. A high proportion of road runoff pollutants are in particulate form and
are therefore strongly unavailable to organisms.
Work undertaken in the USA found statistical differences between the concentration of pollutants generated
from road surfaces of different traffic volumes. Table 5 (over page) provides median values for pollutant
loads from sampling 993 storms across the USA. The data shows the Event Mean Concentration (EMC) of
pollutants can be up to four times as high on highways with traffic volume greater than 30,000 vehicles per
day compared to those highways with lesser traffic volumes.
Recent research in Brisbane suggests that factors other than the level of traffic may influence pollutant levels
in runoff, such as the time between rainfall events. This research also found greater levels of copper in
runoff collected from freeways near exit lanes, where vehicles were braking heavily and generating greater
brake lining wear, a constituent of which is copper. The results from Australian studies are inconclusive,
however, it is anticipated that as more data is collected more evidence on the relative factors affecting
pollutant concentrations will be gathered for interpretation. The ultimate use of this kind of information will
be the design of Best Environmental Management Practices appropriately sized to meet pollutant loads
coming off roadways.
Table 5- US Highway runoff concentrations for various stormwater pollutants
Pollutant EMC for highways with EMC for highways with
< 30,000 vehicles/day > 30,000 vehicles/day
(mg/I) (mg/I)
Total Suspended Solids 41 142
Copper 0.022 0.054
Zinc 0.08 0.329
Lead 0.08 0.4
Nitrite & Nitrate 0.46 0.76
TKN 0.87 1.83
Phosphate 0.16 0.4
Volatile Suspended Solids 12 39
Total Organic Carbon 8 25
Chemical Oxygen Demand 49 114
EMC : Event Mean Concentration. TKN = Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (Source: Driscoll et al., 1990)
A significant percentage of stormwater pollutants are transported as sediment-bound contaminants. A

primary stormwater treatment objective is consequently directed at the removal of suspended solids from the
water column. The particle size distribution of suspended solids transported in urban stormwater will
influence the export of associated contaminants and the selection of appropriate management techniquesxxix
(discussed in more detail in Part I, Chapter 4).
Metals of most concern found in stormwater include cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead and zinc. The
impacts of high metal concentrations in the receiving waters are complex and their relative effects on toxicity
levels in the waterbody are highly varied. Toxicity is affected by interactions associated with the water
physico parameters such as pH, redox potential and temperature. Exceedance values are based on total
concentrations, yet the relevant parameter from an ecological perspective is really the concentration
available to the biota. A majority of the metals (sourced from roads) may exist in particulate form and are
generally unavailable for organism uptake and bio-accumulation under conditions of high redox potential.
More local research is required in this area to enable informed and meaningful policy decisions and actions
by road managers.
Box 5. Key points

Contaminants of most concern to road managers
In terms of ecosystem impacts the most important road runoff contaminants of concern are suspended solids,
heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbon compounds. The source of these pollutants are directly related to
vehicle movement and wear and are of primary importance for the development of urban water sensitive road
design guidelines.
Sediment and suspended solids
Suspended solids is the term used to describe soil and other fine particles (sediment) in water
- high levels of sediment can be generated from road construction activities
- these solids often have other pollutants attached to them
- sediments can smother aquatic habitat and also diminish the channel capacity of the waterway
Turbidity of watercourses results from the presence of suspended solids and refers to the cloudiness of the
water
- this has the effect of reducing the penetration of light through water with the consequential impact on the
feeding and respiration of aquatic plants and animals.
Heavy metals
Heavy metals of concern in road runoff include cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, lead and zinc
- levels of toxicity: highest to lowest are cadmium, copper, chromium, lead, zinc and nickel
- all are closely associated with suspended solids
A wide variety of metals are present in stormwater at levels exceeding guideline values for the protection
of aquatic ecosystems
- at these levels they may be toxic to humans, birds and animals, though it is important to stress that
toxicity is heavily dependent on the bio-availability of the constituent
- their toxic effects can be either chronic or acute and some of these can be transferred up the food chain
accumulating in higher chain species
- they are more likely to cause damage to ecosystems than petroleum hydrocarbons
Organic compounds
Road runoff often contains high concentrations of petroleum by-products from road materials and as a
result of vehicular activities. Contaminants include oils, tar products and polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Studies have found a significant increase in the levels of PAHs in road runoff compared to runoff from
rural catchments
- PAHs such as Naphthalene, Fluoranthene and Benzo-compounds have been measured at levels between
10 - 100 times greater concentrations than in rural catchment runoff
The establishment of contamination threshold levels for phytotoxicity and impairment of plant growth or
reproduction due to PAH contamination is in a developmental phase in Australia.
Chapter 3: Impacts on Ecosystems Within Receiving Waters

This chapter presents an overview of the impacts on ecosystems within receiving waters of road
drainage in rural and urbanised catchments.
This section includes the main ideas and conclusions presented in chapter 3 of the background report, Water
Sensitive Road Design Guidelines: A discussion paper on designing roads for protection of aquatic
ecosystems (1998), prepared by Tony Wong, Peter Breen and Sara Lloyd, from the CRC for Catchment
3.1 Ecological impacts due to increased hydrological disturbance

As a result of the clearing of native vegetation for rural settlement, natural waterways in rural environments
are usually substantially modified and commonly highly degraded. However, the occurrence of flood events
of sufficient stream power to scour stream beds and banks may still be relatively infrequent. Subsequent
urbanisation can dramatically alter the hydrological environment, resulting in high stream power flood events
becoming much more common (as described in the previous chapter).
Changes in catchment hydrology directly impact aquatic ecosystems in a number of ways. Of most
importance, is the loss of aquatic habitats and bio-diversity due to increased frequency and severity of habitat
disturbances.
Box 1. Key points

1 The potential effects of increased frequency of hydrological disturbance due to roads, and
urbanisation in general, include the following:
possible changes in stream bed characteristics as a result of the removal of the more easily eroded
materials;
increased rates of bed and bank erosion changing the form or morphology of streams;
higher sediment transport rates; and
disturbance and loss of riparian (streambank) vegetation.
2 These geomorphological impacts ultimately lead to reduced aquatic biodiversity.

As a result, urban stream communities are likely to be dominated by:
those species which can tolerate increased physical disturbance to their habitat;
- for instance, those species adapted to large cobbles, hard surfaces and mobile sediments (the likely
environment following frequent disturbance events) will survive whereas there will be fewer species
adapted to burrowing and an overall loss of benthic fauna due to a reduction in refuge and habitat; and
also those species with short life cycles i.e. less than 6 months, due to the inability of the longer lifecycle
species to recover from frequent disturbances.
3.2 Ecological impacts due to increased pollution

Aquatic ecosystems are exposed to numerous pollutants following road development and increasing
catchment urbanisation.
Road runoff contains a range of contaminants, including suspended solids, nutrients, heavy metals and
organic pollutants. These are usually transported and directly discharged into natural waterways via concrete
kerb channelling, or grassed or earthen table drains. Contamination also occurs in soil at close proximity to
the roadside and, depending on soil properties, groundwaters may be affected.
Box 2. Key points

1 The impacts generally fall into 4 broad categories:
Siltation - an accumulation of particulate matter in a wetland or stream system;
Acute toxic pollution - including those toxic effects from high-level, short-term exposures to pollutants;
Chronic toxic pollution - occurs following long-term, low-level exposure; and
Eutrophication - the accelerated accumulation of nutrients and organic matter in a water body (usually a
lake or pool where water is not flowing).
2 The types of pollutants and their loading largely determine the level of response in an ecosystem.
The frequency, duration, and intensity of pollutant exposure will govern the degree of recovery expected.
3 The major potential toxicants from road runoff include:

inorganic indicators such as, aluminium, ammonia, arsenic, cadmium, copper, cyanide, iron, lead,
mercury, nickel, zinc and sulphide; and
organic compounds such as, pesticides (organochlorines - DDT, Dieldrin; organophosphates -
Malathion, Chloropyrifos), polyaromatic compounds (polychlorinated biphenyls - PCBs, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons - PAHs), monocyclic aromatic compounds (benzene, chlorinated benzenes,
toluene), detergents and oil dispersants.
4 The main ecological impacts of water quality changes include:

flora and fauna population structure and communities will alter as the concentration of pollutants increase
and approach levels lethal for some species; a drop in species diversity and number of individuals occurs;
species tolerant to a wide range of environmental variables will dominate aquatic communities exposed to
increased levels of stormwater pollutants;
soluble pollutants will have adverse effects on algae and zooplankton (and subsequently may impact on
species higher in the food chain) while those in suspension will restrict the respiration of invertebrates and
fish;
sedimentation causing turbidity reduces light penetration and reduces photosynthesis and 02 production
by aquatic plants; and
nutrients may induce colonisation and accelerated growth of nuisance aquatic plants; Phosphorus in
particular, becomes mobilised when adsorbed to sediment which is transported into waterways, and is a
principal cause of algal blooms, including outbreaks of toxic blue-green algae.
3.3 Ecological impacts on natural wetlands

Natural wetlands are valuable for many reasons, yet they are an ecosystem which is often degraded by
human activities. This is partially due to the fragility of the wetlands system, and partially due to a lack of
appreciation of the many benefits provided by wetlands. Box 3 outlines some of these values.
Plate 13.
A natural wetland on the Swan
Coastal Plain (Perth) showing a
diversity of aquatic and semi-aquatic
vegetation. This provides important
habitat for birds, fish and other
wildlife.
Box 3. Values of natural wetlands

Flood conveyance - riverine wetlands and adjacent flood plain lands often form natural flood ways that
convey flood waters from upstream to downstream points.
Flood storage - inland wetlands may store water during floods and slowly release it to downstream areas,
reducing peak flows and the potential for erosion in waterways.
Sediment control - wetlands slow flows and allow time for the deposition of sediment.
Fish - wetlands are important habitat and are often used as spawning and nursery areas.
Habitat for waterfowl and other wildlife - wetlands provide essential breeding, nesting, feeding, and
predator free habitats for many species of waterfowl, mammals, and reptiles.
Recreation - wetlands serve as recreation sites for fishing and observing wildlife.
Water quality - wetlands contribute to water quality by removing excess nutrients and many chemical
contaminants.
Aesthetic values - wetlands are areas of great aesthetic beauty and provide open space for recreational and
visual enjoyment.
Education and research - wetlands provide educational opportunities for observation and scientific research
into natural ecosystems. The growth in the use of constructed wetlands for water quality improvement
purposes has rekindled interest in the study of these areas.
Nursery for constructed wetlands - constructed wetlands are often stocked with plant propagules sourced
from local natural wetlands.
The natural wetland ecosystem is highly susceptible to even minor changes to local hydrological patterns and
water quality. The construction of a road can affect natural drainage patterns by restricting or altering the
flow of water into the wetland, or by altering the drainage pattern from the wetland. In either case, the
altered frequency, depth and duration of inundation will adversely impact the flora and fauna values of the
wetland.
Aquatic plant species are often adapted to a specific regime of water level changes and ecosystems will
quickly deteriorate following alteration of the natural regime. For example, some species will not be able to
complete a full life-cycle if the flooding frequency is increased. Box 4 summarises the factors to consider
when constructing roads adjacent to wetlands.
Box 4. Factors to consider

Construction - draining of wetlands temporarily to facilitate construction may result in irreversible changes
to the ecosystem.
Road surface drainage - road surface drainage discharging directly into a wetland can contain toxic levels
of pollutants. To reduce impacts, drainage can be dispersed through a vegetated zone (for low flows), or
treated via a constructed sedimentation pond for larger flows.
Natural flow volumes - culverts should be of sufficient capacity so as not to restrict natural flow rates.
Flow patterns - consideration should be given to the placement of culverts to ensure minimal disturbance to
natural surface flow patterns. Concentration of flows should be minimised.
Movement of aquatic species - the road formation may form a barrier to the movement of some aquatic
fauna species. Fish ladders can be incorporated into drainage structures to assist fish movement and
modifications can be made to culverts to improve usage by amphibians (see Part II, section 2.4 for
information on preferred waterway crossings and case study E, Part III for more details on wildlife tunnels
for aquatic species).
Acid sulphate soils - constructions adjacent to coastal wetlands should always check for the presence of acid
sulphate soils, and manage works so as not to generate acid leachates.
Maintenance - regular cleaning of culverts to remove sediment and accumulated debris is essential to
maintain natural flow regimes.
There is little Australian data available to confirm frequently made general statements about the potential
impacts of road drainage systems on wetlands. There is, however, some reporting of these kinds of impacts
on the Swan Coastal Plain, which extends along the west coast of south west Western Australia.
Large complexes of swamps and marshes have been and continue to be drained and converted to suburbs
surrounding Perth. The changes to the local hydrological cycle brought about by urbanisation (as described
in the previous section 2.2) also affect these wetland areas. Vegetation communities have been damaged by
changes in ground water levels which rapidly leads to damage to other components of the ecosystem.XXX
Roadwork drainage has also led to death of fauna, increased eutrophication and problems with insect
breeding leading to unhealthy wetland environs.XXXi
Swamp,XXX"
An environmental study on the Barragup a seasonal wetland south of Perth, has measured
dramatic changes to the biological condition of the swamp in response to a presumed rise in maximum water
levels during winter (there is a lack of definitive historical water level records). Although land clearing is
believed to be mostly responsible for a regional rise in the water table level the wetland also now receives
additional runoff from local roadways, which is believed to be a contributing factor in the decline of
vegetation communities in the wetland.
3.4 Factors influencing biological communities and ecosystem health
The major factors influencing stream communities and ecosystem health are listed in Table 6. Depending on
the sensitivity of the remaining environment and the general characteristics at each site, roads will have
varying impact on a number (if not all) of these factors. Box 5 (over page) explains the significance of roads
and associated drainage characteristics on some of the more important factors.
Table 6-Factors influencing ecosystem health

Biological Geomorphology In-stream habitat
Reproduction Catchment geology Particle size of benthos
Emigration/Immigration Position in catchment Organic content of benthos
Competition Channel characteristics Large woody debris (LWD)
Predation Macro-habitat Vegetation
Longevity of individuals (pool, riffle, run, etc.)
Hydrology Hydraulics Water quality

Frequency, magnitude and Water velocity Suspended particles
duration of events (i.e. Water depth Nutrients
ecological disturbance) Turbulence Ionic composition and concentration
Predictability of flow Benthic shear forces Dissolved oxygen
Stability of flow /Biochemical oxygen demand
Influence of groundwater Toxicants
Sediment quality Riparian habitat Continuity and barriers

Particle mineralogy Food resources Proximity to other ecosystems
/adsorption capacity Habitat resources Barriers to movement
Carbon content Channel form and stability (mechanical, hydraulic, chemical,
Redox potential Microclimate (canopy and channel atmospheric)
/dissolved oxygen light, temperature humidity and
Toxicants wind velocity)
Plate 14.
Streambank erosion along Koonung
Creek, Eastern Freeway construction site,
Melbourne (1997)
- several degraded reaches of the Koonung
Creek were realigned during construction of
the Eastern freeway. Extensive rock beaching
has been used to stabilise degraded banks like
this one. For more detail, see Case Study E.
Box 5. Key points

Major ecosystem health factors and how roads may impact these:
Geomorphological
Any changes to natural channel geomorphology through human activities (e.g. increases in hydraulic
efficiency, straightening, rock lining or erosion) can be expected to have an impact on stream biota and
ecosystem health
- for instance, particular steam biota tend to prefer either pools or riffle, or upland versus lowland
channels.
In-stream habitats
Any physical changes to the stream made by roads or other developments will impact on stream biota and
ecosystem health. The in-stream habitat of a particular reach is determined by an interaction between
local geomorphology, the particle size of bottom sediments, the organic content of these, the amount of
large woody debris or snags in the channel and the aquatic and riparian vegetation.
For instance:
- different taxa could be expected to occur in riffles and pools so any changes to the natural pool and
riffles sequence will result in some change in stream biota e.g. different macro-invertebrates prefer
different sediment sizes ranging from silt to fine to course sand, course gravel, cobbles and boulders
- aquatic vegetation in the channel of streams provide shelter and food for stream fauna e.g. larger scale
riparian vegetation provide habitat through the fall of large woody debris and leaf litter into the channel.
Hydrology
Provides the major source of disturbance to stream ecosystems in the form of event or flood flows.
Changes in stream hydrology such as changes in the discharge/probability relationship, brought about by
roads and urbanisation, can have a dramatic influence on the biota of stream communities
- for instance, long life cycle organisms may not be able to complete a breeding cycle following increased
flood frequencies and peak discharges.
Hydraulics
As discharge increases within a confined channel bed, the shear forces will increase:
- ideally need to design so that changes in water velocity for the 1.5 year ARI should not exceed the
critical velocity of the dominant bed material in the channel
- any long term or regular changes to normal water velocities in a channel will result in changes to the
particle size distribution of the bottom sediments which will change the composition of stream
communities e.g. the rougher the stream bed the greater refuge area for biota.
Water quality
There is a strong relationship between stream biota and water quality:
- increases in sediment, nutrient, heavy metal and organic compounds have varying impacts on ecosystem
health, such as a decrease in the species diversity and number of individuals within the population.
3.5 Current means of assessing ecological health in streams

A number of stream health assessment procedures exist.xxxiii,xxxiv,xxxv At present no single approach is widely
applicable in all situations. The adoption of a particular approach needs to be considered with the scale of
the project and site specific details of the situation in mind.
For example a potential impact could be viewed as more significant if it was to occur at the top of an
undisturbed sub-catchment that drained into a catchment with considerable potential for remediation e.g.
space for flood retarding basins and runoff treatments systems, natural stream channels, remnant riparian
vegetation, wide floodways or undeveloped floodplains.
In contrast an impact may be considered less significant if it were to occur at the lower end of a highly
developed urban catchment where there was little potential for ecosystem remediation up stream e.g. no
space for flood retarding basins and runoff treatments systems, piped and/or concreted channels, no riparian
vegetation or space for it to be re-established, narrow floodways and developed floodplains.
However these distinctions are only a matter of scale, because for any conservative pollutant like sediment,
phosphorus and heavy metals, the impact on the ultimate receiving water remains the same. In the first
situation more damage also occurs to intermediate environments that transport the pollutants to the receiving
waters.
Three main approaches to ecosystem assessment can be adopted:

1. surrogate physicochemical measures,
2. direct assessment of biota (usually algae and invertebrate species), and
3. integrated assessments of the broad physical, chemical and biological environment.
A very wide range of approaches have been used in ecosystem health assessment. Three examples are
described below.
1. Physicochemical WQ criteria
This approach sets physicochemical water quality criteria that are expected to protect aquatic ecosystems.
Levels are set through the accumulation of field and bio-assay experience. Stream health assessment using
this method should be made by measuring physicochemical variables both on a routine and event basis.
Various statistical summaries of the physicochemical data (mean, median, % exceedance) are compared
against the criteria. The ANZECC guidelines for the protection of aquatic ecosystems are an example of this
type of approach.
2. Direct evaluation of biological communities.

algae,xxxvi,xxxvii
This approach involves evaluating the community structure of particular stream biota such as
macrophytes or
macroinvertebrates,xxxviii
At present the most developed procedures use benthic

fish.xxxix,xt
macroinvertebrates.
The two most prominent approaches that have developed published procedures are:
SIGNAL - a biotic indexxii

AUSRIVAS - an Australian River Assessment Systemxtii (http://AusRivAS.canberra.edu.au/ausrivas)
Both approaches involve sampling stream benthic macro-invertebrates from the survey area.
SIGNAL involves the following procedure:

1. allocating pollution sensitivity grades to the common taxa (usually at the family level) found in streams
2. the grades of families found in an benthic stream sample are then summed and the total is divided by the
number of families to produce a SIGNAL value (Stream Invertebrate Grade Number - Average Level)
3. the condition of a sampling site can then be assessed according to the following rating:
- SIGNAL > 6 clean water, 5-6 possible mild pollution, 4-5 probable moderate pollution, <4 probable
severe pollution.
AUSRIVAS is a model for predicting macro-invertebrate community composition and has the following
features:
it is a multivariate statistical relationship between the physical characteristics of a site and the
composition of its macroinvertebrate community;
it is developed from a regional series of reference sites that have experienced little or no anthropogenic
impact;
test sites are sampled for macroinvertebrates (the observed community composition = 0 ) and the
physical characteristics of the sites recorded;
it is used to predict a list of macroinvertebrate taxa (usually families) that are likely to occur at the test site
(the expected community composition = E) based on its physical characteristics; and
to assess the condition of test sites WE ratios are compared. To simplify assessment, WE ratios are
normally grouped into bands.
The numerical range of the bands are specific to each model and Table 7 describes the bands used in the
AUSRIVAS model.
Table 7 -AUSRIV model parameters
Band O/E Ratios

X - richer than reference Greater number of observed taxa than expected
very high quality biodiverse site or one experiencing mild
nutrient enrichment
A - similar to reference Number of observed taxa similar to that expected

water and habitat quality equivalent to that at reference sites or
impact on water or habitat quality that does not result in a loss
of families
B - poorer than reference Several expected taxa not found

impairment of either water and/or habitat quality
C - much poorer than reference Many expected families not found

substantial impairment of water and/or habitat quality
D - far poorer than reference Very few of the expected families found
severe impairment of water and/or habitat quality
3. Integrated measures of stream condition
While stream health is often defined and assessed in biological terms, ecosystem health is actually controlled
by a complex interaction of physical, chemical and biological factors. Integrated measures of ecosystem
example.xiiii
condition are a response to this recognition. The Index of Stream Condition (ISC) is a local
The ISC assesses 5 components of stream ecosystems:
Hydrology
Physical form
Riparian zone
Water quality
Aquatic life
The assessment for each component is based on one or more indicators that have been chosen to simply but
effectively evaluate change from the natural condition. Data is collected on sites to score the relevant
indicators for each component. The indicator scores are combined and scaled from 0-10 to form a
component sub-index. The five sub-indices are combined to form the ISC which has a maximum value of
50. While the ISC is an integrated assessment tool it is useful to report the results of the sub-indices so the
distribution of scores is evident and potential limiting components
identified.xtiv
Chapter 4: Water Sensitive Road Design Practices for Urban Settings

Previous chapters have demonstrated how changes in catchment hydrology and runoff water quality have
direct impact on the ecological health of waterways and associated vegetation communities. A number of
broad principles to achieve stormwater management for ecosystem protection emerge. These include:
treat runoff quality before discharging to natural waterways;
reduce the disturbance frequency of habitats through appropriate waterway design aimed at maintaining
the physical habitat structure to sustain those aquatic species with relatively long life cycles;
to achieve stream bed stability, the hydraulics should be designed so that:
- the 1.5 ARI peak discharge is maintained at pre-road development levels
- peak flow velocities (for events with recurrence intervals of < 1.5 years) are kept below levels which
will transport bottom sediments, whereby the coarser fraction such as pebbles, cobbles and boulders
should not be disturbed within stream channels; and
where opportunities arise, re-establish a wide diversity habitats.
This section includes the main ideas and conclusions presented in chapters 4 and 5 of the background report,
Water Sensitive Road Design Guidelines: A discussion paper on designing roads for protection of aquatic
ecosystems,prepared by Tony Wong, Peter Breen and Sara Lloyd, from the CRC for Catchment Hydrology
and the CRC for Freshwater Ecology, Monash University.
4.1 Introduction to water sensitive urban design

Water sensitive urban design is the integration of urban planning and utilisation of best practices to achieve
sustainable water and ecological resource management. The selection of appropriate Best Management
Practices (BMPs) to include within a treatment train involves an assessment made within a variety of
disciplines (drainage engineering, landscape architecture, ecology etc) in order to account for site specific
characteristics and limitations.
Best Practice Environmental Management Guidelines were published in 1999 by the Victorian Stormwater
Committee and provide a detailed account of issues relevant to stormwater management planning, water
sensitive urban design, source controls and structural treatment measures.
Water flow and water quality management, following road development, can be achieved through
implementing a combination of strategies aimed at:
source control
- reduction of catchment runoff
maintenance of the natural channel
- where possible, maintaining catchment watercourses in their natural state
flow detention and treatment, and
- to compensate for increased hydraulic efficiencies and pollution of runoff water
channel design
to avoid excessive transport of channel sediments.
Stormwater characteristics are highly varied and the effectiveness of individual BMPs and the treatment train
as a whole will differ from one event to another. There are a number of published guidelines available which
provide descriptions of structural and non-structural stormwater management techniques to facilitate their
train.xtvxtvi,xtvii
appropriate utilisation in the formation of the BMPs treatment A detailed analysis of these
techniques is not presented in this manual. Relevant and current guidelines are referenced at the end of Part
I.
4.2 Treatment of road runoff

It follows, from the evidence presented in previous chapters that prioritization of available stormwater
management measures should consider first addressing the impact of increased hydraulic efficiency in the
flow conveyance system of the catchment i.e. in-transit control.
Again it is worthwhile noting that the contribution of highways and freeways to increased stormwater runoff
is likely to be small due to the linear form of the impervious area. Treatment of road runoff is therefore more
directed at the removal of suspended solids and associated contaminants. However, it is often necessary to
provide some degree of flow attenuation, and temporary storage of runoff to promote effective water quality
treatment. This pre-treatment of flows forms part of the treatment train which can be particularly necessary
when the target sediment size to be removed is in the fine silt to clay range.
The removal of sediment from a water column to improve the quality is not always straight forward. There
will need to be a number of considerations when designing an appropriate treatment train, including:
defining the target particulate size when selecting the appropriate treatment techniques,
a significant proportion of pollutants are attached to the smaller size fraction of particulates (as shown in
Table 8), and
the removal of particulates finer than 10 µm is difficult as they are held in suspension for relatively long
periods of time and are not easily removed by sedimentation processes. For example, assuming average
conditions, a clay sized particle (2,u) will settle at a rate of 0.0025 millimetres per second. A detention
time of more than 4.5 days would therefore be required to settle this sediment a distance of lm.
Table 8 - Pollutant fractions associated with particle sizes. (Source: Sartor et. al. 1974)
Fraction of total (% wei ht

Pollutant <4314 43 - 246 >246
Total suspended solids 5.9 37.5 56.5
Biological Oxygen demand 24.3 32.5 43.2
Chemical oxygen demand 22.7 57.4 19.9
Volatile solids 25.6 34.0 40.4
Phosphates 56.2 36.0 7.8
Nitrates 31.9 45.1 23.0
Kjeldahl nitrogen 18.7 39.8 41.5
All heavy metals 51.2 48.7
All pesticides 73 27.0
In many instances, the use of conventional sedimentation basins would result in excessively large basins.
The most appropriate treatment train will involve combinations of the following principles and treatments:
flow detention and infiltration,
swale drains and buffer strips, and
wetlands and ponds.
The design and appropriate use of these treatment trains have been demonstrated in Case Study A in Part III
of the manual.
Box 1. Key points

Pollutant characteristics - implications for design of water quality treatment measures.
A significant percentage of stormwater pollutants are transported as sediment-bound contaminants. A
primary stormwater treatment objective is consequently directed at the removal of suspended solids from the
water column. The particle size distribution of suspended solids transported in urban stormwater has a
significant implication on the export of associated contaminants and the selection of appropriate management
techniques.
In terms of road runoff the most important contaminants of concern are suspended solids and attached
heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbon compounds.
Various studies overseas have specified a typical particle size range to be between 0.05 - 4 mm.
- there is some evidence to suggest that the particle size range for Australian catchments will extend
significantly below the 0.05 mm lower range into the sub-micron levels, typically an order of magnitude
finer than typical European and United States sediment size. See Part IV of this manual "Identification
of research and monitoring needs" for more details.
It is expected that pollutants will more readily adsorb to relatively fine graded sediment due to the
greater surface area per unit mass available for ions to attach, however, research results show that
contaminants also appear to have a higher association with coarser sized particles.
- there is evidence that metals, hydrocarbons by-products, nutrients and pesticides readily attach
to sediments finer than say 0.040-0.050 mm, as well as particles greater than 0.10 mm
(coarser fraction).
- it has been suggested that the irregular shape of solids transported from an urban roadway will
facilitate pollutant attachment onto relatively coarser particles (>0.10 mm).
The organic contaminants such as oils, tar products and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have
been found to be not so directly associated with the particle size distribution but highly associated with
the presence of organic materials, and more specifically the chemical composition of the organic
material.
A catchment with a larger proportion of coarse silts and sands will achieve higher removal efficiency of
heavy metals as these sediments are relatively easier to remove from the stormwater with relatively
conventional sedimentation basins.
Similarly, for a catchment with a high proportion of finely graded sediment it will be significantly more
difficult to achieve similar pollutant removal efficiencies and more complicated techniques (possibly
involving a combination of grass filter strips, wetlands and infiltration systems) may be necessary.
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xtv
VICTORIAN STORMWATER COMMITTEE. (1999). Urban Stormwater: Best practice
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xtvi
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AUTHORITY - DRAFT. (1996a). Best Practice Environmental
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xtviixtviixtvii
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Other suggested reading
ALLISON, R.A., WALKER, T.A, CHIEW, F.H.S., O'NEILL, I.C. AND MCMAHON, T.A. (1998). From
Roads to Rivers: Gross Pollutant Removal from Urban Waterways, Report in preparation, Cooperative
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Part II A Practical Guide to Reduce Impacts of Drainage on Ecosystems
PART II - A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO REDUCE THE IMPACTS OF

DRAINAGE ON ECOSYSTEMS
Purpose
The purpose of Part II of this manual is to:
provide decision charts giving direction to practitioners about the potential for significant
biodiversity values to be threatened by hydrological changes due to road development;
provide information on potential impacts and mitigation strategies to protect high to moderate
values;
provide a minimum set of guidelines which should be adopted where conservation values are
known to be low;
identify practical road drainage principles that need to be applied to both drain roads yet
maintain biodiversity; and
by using specific areas of interest, illustrate some of these practices in detail.
Chapter 1: Framework for Assessing Biological Impacts of Road

Drainage
Chapter 1 has been adapted from the background paper, Hydrological Change and the Potential Impacts on
Terrestrial Biodiversity (1998), prepared by Adam Muir, Andrew McMahon, Brett Lane and Geoff Can
from Ecology Australia Pty. Ltd. and Neil Craigie from Craigie and Assoc. Pty. Ltd.
1.1 Introduction and decision making charts

This chapter presents general information on the impacts that hydrological changes associated with road
construction and operation can have on biodiversity in Australia.
Two decision making charts are presented:

Figure 3 provides a guide to the assessment of the values and sensitivity of the site and nearby areas, and
Figure 4 provides a guide to the relevant impacts and mitigation strategies
The broad objectives of this decision making process are to ensure:

drainage and management of runoff will have no negative impact on conservation values of roadsides or
adjacent downslope/downstream vegetation, and
no detrimental change to natural hydrological regimes will occur as a result of road construction and
operation.
Initial assessment criteria will need to be broad in the first instance to capture all possibilities, however,
ultimately more detailed investigations will be necessary to be able to provide design criteria for mitigation
strategies to be implemented where there are important environmental values to be maintained.
For instance, there will be a need to first collect information about on-site surface hydrology so as to
determine the nature of growing season flood frequencies and the percentage and period of inundation. The
drainage characteristics and other soil properties can then be correlated with the vegetation communities so
as to determine the baseline ecological condition of the community.
Decision making process

The chapter commences with two decision making charts. This is designed to allow the practitioner to
make decisions as to the potential for significant flora or fauna values to be present at or
downstream/downslope of a site, and if so, whether impacts on these values may occur.
The chart directs the user in three possible directions:
1. Conservation values low, in which case the user is directed to a minimum set of guidelines;
2. Conservation values moderate to high, in which case the user is directed further through the chart to
find what, if any, impacts may accrue; or
3. Don't know, in which case additional information is required to assist decision making.
The next section presents specific impacts and mitigation strategies associated with five broad areas:
- Vegetation Removal/Damage
- Drainage Discharge and Runoff
- Surface Hydrology
- Sub-surface Hydrology, and
- Instream Hydrology.
It should be a relatively simple matter to work through the decision making chart and then go to the
appropriate class of impact and select mitigation strategies accordingly. The mitigation measures are
presented under both Planning and Design, and Construction and Operation phases.
Finally a minimum set of guidelines related to road drainage and hydrology can be consulted where
environmental values are assessed to be low. If values, or negative impacts on these values, are
potentially higher the relevant mitigation strategies should be adopted in addition to the minimum set.
It is important to stress that the impacts identified are confined only to hydrological issues, for example
discharge of runoff, drainage related works, landscape scale hydrological changes, and not to any of the
broader biological impacts of road building.
In the identification of impacts and their mitigation strategies an attempt has been made to account for the
range of environments that occur over the continent (e.g. coastal estuary, and plains, tropical savanna,
forested hills), and the different types of roads that pass through these (e.g. freeway, unsealed local road).
Some impacts are associated with, or are potentially more severe in certain environments or along certain
road types (see Table 1, pp. 1-3). Where appropriate, these are identified in the text. However the reader
should be aware that the degree or timing of certain types of impact will sometimes vary considerably with
the environment and type of road.
Part I
I A Practical Guide to Reduce Irrpacts of Drainage on Ecosystems
Figure 3-Decision making chart 1 - Assessment of values and sensitivity of site and nearby areas (downstream or upstream)
Does the site contain any of the following ? Characteristics of low conservation value sites.
Remnant vegetation at least partially intact No remnant vegetation present; or
Habitat for vulnerable, rare or threatened flora or fauna Remnant vegetation grossly modified, for example
species, including species or habitats listed under State or only trees or shrubs present and these scattered to
Commonwealth legislation rare; high cover of weeds and high levels of
disturbance Select:
Significant sites identified under State or Commonwealth Minimum
Acts, international conventions or by local or regionally NO No threatened flora or fauna species or community
Set of
based flora and fauna surveys present on or near the site
Guidelines
Areas of high value as a wildlife corridor Waterways on or downstream of the site highly
degraded with little or no remnant vegetation present
Vulnerable land types
No natural wetlands present or artificial wetlands of
Areas of high erosion hazard significance primarily for waterbirds present.
Within 50m of a stream or wetland
Significant groundwater recharge or discharge areas
Known or potential soil-borne pathogen area DON'T KNOW Undertake the following as required:
(e.g. Phytophthora fungus). Desktop studies
Consultation (e.g. State or Federal conservation
YES agency)
Site assessments (by suitably qualified ecologist)
(refer to Biodiversity assessment sheet, Appendix 1 .
Flora or fauna values or site sensitivity issues potentially

moderate to high:
Undertake appropriate site investigations (by suitably qualified
ecologist) and consultation to confirm and update flora and fauna
values
Go to Decision making chart 2.
Part I
Figure 4-Decision making chart 2- Impacts and mitigation strategies
Vegetation removal Surface and sub-surface hydrology In-stream hydrology

Will there be removal of or damage to Will there be a significant short-term or long-term change in: Will there be disturbances in
indigenous vegetation as a result of works. receiving waters in terms of:
Surface flows (consider volume, intensity of flood events and
Consider:
periodicity) frequency, size and duration
Trees and shrubs of events
Natural wetting and drying cycles of wetlands
Ground-layer vegetation habitat structure
Natural flow regimes of rivers and streams
Aquatic and riparian vegetation i.e. size and movement of bottom
Soil moisture levels in any areas of remnant vegetation sediments, amount of woody
Damage to vegetation by machinery debris
Drainage discharge points
soil compaction, etc water quality deterioration
Drainage discharge concentration
Stockpile sites, etc. natural channel
Water table or groundwater movement.
geomorphology.
YES NO YES DON'T NO

YES NO
KNOW
Go to: Undertake the following:

Go to: Select: Select: Go to: Select:
Vegetation Minimum Set Drainage Discharge Consultation (eg. Minimum Set of Instream
Removal/Damage State and Fed. Minimum
of Guidelines and Runoff Section Guidelines Hydrology
Section Agencies) Set of
Surface Hydrology Section
Site assessments Guidelines
Section
Sub-surface (by suitably qualified
Hydrology Section scientist)
1.2 Minimum or standard set of guidelines for road drainage

Planning and design phase
Wherever possible,
Design roads to:
avoid or minimise loss of areas of remnant vegetation including isolated mature trees
minimise disturbance to hydrologically sensitive areas such as rivers, streams and wetlands
maintain natural hydrological regimes, including existing surface and groundwater flows, natural flood
regimes, etc.
Design road drainage systems to:
minimise disturbance to roadside vegetation
avoid alteration to natural flow/flooding regimes of rivers, streams and wetlands
mimic natural drainage pathways and flow concentrations
minimise erosion and sedimentation within and beyond the road reserve
mimic approach and departure hydraulic conditions to prevent headward erosion
minimise changes to soil moisture levels where remnant vegetation exists on or near roadsides (by
manipulating alignment and/or by designing suitable under-drainage systems).
Consider the use of settling ponds as an alternative to or adjunct to cut-aways or mitre drains, in order to
slow the velocity of water, trap sediment and reduce weed dispersion.
Schedule works to avoid wettest parts of the year, and if practicable, so that revegetation can be initiated at
the start of the growing season (variable between temperate and tropical environments). Plan works to
expose the smallest possible area for the shortest possible time.
Plan revegetation requirements in advance. This may mean collecting propagules from indigenous
vegetation remnants in the local area, and allowing sufficient lead time to collect, propagate and grow plants
and prepare site (commonly 9 - 12 months required).
Plate 15.
Effective stabilisation
of batter slopes,
Melba Highway,
Castella, Victoria
- using non-invasive
grasses (e.g. sterile
cereal rye) to prevent
erosion and
sedimentation.
Plate 16.
Temporary erosion and

sediment controls on
roadworks, Olympic
Highway, near Wagga
Wagga, NSW (1997)
- well secured and frequently
placed hay bales as silt fences. s
g
*p:?
Plate 17.
Temporary erosion and sediment
controls on roadworks, Olympic
I.
Highway, near Wagga Wagga, NSW

(1997)
z,
i1114
- geo-fabric as a sediment filter at a culvert

:.L
outlet.
Construction and operation phase

Avoid the concentration of runoff flows onto adjoining land. Where necessary, place rocks, sandbags,
spreader swales/banks or other protective surface to dissipate energy or disperse flow and encourage
growth of vegetation at the point of water outflow from culverts and drains. Where possible, avoid
discharging runoff from the road reserve onto adjacent properties. Spreader swales/banks may assist in
restoring diffuse flows downslope after passage through culverts.
Disturb as little soil and vegetation as possible to reduce erosion and weed invasion potential. Minimise
the spread of materials that may be contaminated with weeds.
Implement erosion and sediment control measures before work starts on a construction or maintenance
job. Establish stable drainage systems including sediment traps, retardation basins, spreader
swales/banks before starting major earthworks and limit machinery access and earthworks to defined
construction areas only.
Protect soil surfaces by retaining as much vegetation as possible and by using matting, mulch or new
vegetation on exposed areas.
Replant with indigenous species or non-invasive exotic species (eg. sterile cereal rye in temperate
Australia) as soon as possible after works, and progressively as sections are completed, to stabilise soil.
Leave batters rough so as to hold the topsoil and encourage vegetation. Good contact between topsoil
and subsoil is critical.
During road construction works, employ measures recommended in publications such as:
Construction techniques for sediment pollution control (E PA, Victoria)
ii
Control of erosion on construction sites (Soil Conservation Authority, Victoria)
iii(Housing
Managing Urban Stormwater Production Division, NSW).
Depending upon the type of site works to be undertaken, reduce the risk of erosion by:
- installing temporary sediment traps
- installing flow retarding devices
- providing catch drains and diversion banks
- reducing channel gradients
- providing erosion resistant surfaces (e.g. corrugated chutes, sandbags, rock riprap)
- forming batters with slopes no greater than 1:3 and with stepped berms
- spreading topsoil and mulch as soon as possible over exposed areas.
In drain cleaning and grading, confine machinery operation (where possible) to the formed road. Avoid
damage to roots, bark and limbs during grading and drain cleaning operations.
Table drains will be maintained in a condition that will reduce water velocity and run-off and prevent
water flooding the road. Avoid extra reshaping of table drains and windrowing of drain material into
roadside vegetation. Minimise disturbance to vegetation growing outside the functional part of a table
drain. Scour problems should be immediately attended to as they arise.
Inspection of culverts shall be carried out at least once a year, preferably prior to the onset of the wet
season. Any obstruction should be cleared.
1.3 Potential impacts and mitigation strategies
This section lists the types of impacts on biodiversity that may potentially result from road drainage
under five broad headings:
1. Vegetation removal/damage
2. Drainage discharge and runoff
3. Surface hydrology
4. Sub-surface hydrology, and

5. Instream hydrology.
Mitigation strategies are identified for each of these impact types, providing a ready reference to
each issue identified in the decision making chart. Note that these mitigation strategies are in
addition to the Minimum Set of Guidelines which should be universally applied.
The specific mitigation strategies presented below are required for sites identified in the decision
making chart to have potentially moderate to high conservation values or site sensitivity. For most
issues these mitigation strategies differ from the minimum set of guidelines particularly in the
planning and design phase, and in the recommendation that an Environmental Management Plan
(EMP) be prepared for the construction and operation phases.
Adoption of the appropriate mitigation strategies, where this is possible, will minimise impacts on
biodiversity.
Vegetation removal/damage
Potential impacts on biodiversity
Loss or reduction of plant populations or communities that may be significant at the Local, Regional,
State or National level
Exposure of soil leading to increased potential for erosion and weed invasion
Loss of fauna habitat (e.g. nest trees)
Fragmentation of habitat and severance of habitat linkages, and
Disruption to fauna feeding, breeding or roosting at certain times of the year.
Mitigation strategies
Develop a Construction and Operation EMP for the project (consistent with ISO 14001 standard).
Seek specialist flora/fauna advice and if appropriate prepare species impact statements and management
plans to minimise impacts on significant species. Actions may include avoiding sensitive times of the
year, salvage and relocation of rare plants, etc.
Relocate drainage works to avoid the need to remove indigenous vegetation.
Locate borrow pits, sediment ponds and stockpile sites where native vegetation will be subjected to no or
minimal impact (including siting of access routes).
When proposing works in high conservation areas incorporate hygiene procedures to minimise the
importation and spread of weeds and/or soil-borne pathogens (e.g. Phytophthora). Plan for the provision
of adequate vehicle washing arrangements and weed free sources of materials (eg rock, gravel,
screenings). Seek specialist advice regarding quarantine measures if soil-borne pathogens may be
present.
Plate 18.
Vegetation removal following

road construction, Heemskirk
Development Road, Tas
(1996)
- note the unstable drainage
system.

Implement Construction and Operation EMP, including monitoring of performance measures.
Collect propagules (seed, cuttings, divisions) from indigenous plants suitable for use in revegetation prior
to removal of vegetation.
Inspect, identify and mark all vegetation to be removed before commencing construction works. Remove
the minimum amount of vegetation necessary to do the works. Use fencing, barricades or other markers
to delineate works areas.
Identify locations of serious weeds on or near the site and eliminate or control as appropriate.
When manoeuvring machinery, take care to avoid disturbing plant roots, damage to bark or breaking
limbs. Avoid damage to the understorey vegetation while carrying out works, including disposal of felled
vegetation (eg by sawing or chipping).
Machinery to be selected and used in a manner that minimises disturbance to soil (including compaction)
and vegetation. Soil or debris is not to be pushed into areas carrying indigenous vegetation (in particular,
materials cleared out of drains during maintenance).
Rehabilitate and/or facilitate regeneration of indigenous vegetation in any areas beyond the works zone
which have been disturbed during removal of vegetation.
4 _____)
Plate 19.
Moderate to high value Swamp Gum Woodland over a scrubland of Swamp Paperbark, South Gippsland
Highway, Victoria (1998)
- good roadside management practice of temporarily stockpiling grader material on pavement edge rather than pushing
spoil into adjacent vegetation.
Drainage discharge and runoff

Localised increase in soil moisture levels resulting in change in composition and potentially death of
vegetation at discharge site / diffuse discharge zone
Flooding and drowning of dryland vegetation
Dilution of salinity in naturally saline sites (e.g. saltmarsh) resulting in changes in vegetation composition
Facilitation of invasion by environmental weeds and fungal pathogens (e.g. Phytophthora)
Erosion, scouring, sedimentation of downstream/downslope sites, which may lead to instability and
smothering of vegetation
Erosion upstream (headward erosion) causing increased drainage capacity, lowered subsurface water
levels and increased sediment production which exacerbates problems downstream
Eutrophication, turbidity and general reduction in water quality of waterways and wetlands
Pollution of dryland and wetland vegetation by toxic chemicals (e.g. hydrocarbons, heavy metals)
particularly associated with runoff from freeways and major highways, but also from accidental or
deliberate spills, and
Increased water levels or alteration to natural wetting and drying cycles of wetlands and waterways,
leading to vegetation changes and suitability for fauna.
___
________
______
':'!!!
r(4
:
.
S
:.
r
:-
r
:
1
Plate 20.
Concentrating road runoff facilitating gross weed invasion, Bulldog Creek Road, Mornington Peninsula,
Victoria
- drainage discharge from graded drains has led to the loss of formerly high quality ground vegetation and its
replacement with weeds.
Plate 21.
Sedimentation basins situated
below a steep rock fill
embankment along the
Mittagong By-pass, Hume
Highway, NSW (1997)
- road runoff continues to drain to
sedimentation basins originally
built for environmental
management of construction
activities
- ponding of drainage may have
on-going water quality benefits,
however, is changing the natural
hydrology and vegetation at this
site.
1
Plate 22.
Concentrating road runoff from turn-off (or
cut-off) drains, near Murchison, north-east
___________
Victoria (1997)
______
- in this instance enhancing regeneration of

Eucalypt species, rather than encouraging the
displacement of high quality ground cover
with weeds.
I
:
'
1
.,;r
Runoff should be directed away from areas of indigenous vegetation. Hence diffuse drainage discharge
may not be appropriate if remnant vegetation is present on or adjacent to the roadside. Direct runoff to
specific discharge points away from (downstream of) remnant vegetation, implement any necessary
stabilisation works, then consider works to achieve diffuse discharge downslope.
Divert water away from naturally saline sites into areas where dilution effects would be insignificant.
Ensure culvert design matches approach conditions so that headward erosion is not initiated.
Incorporate wastewater collection and detention/retardation ponds, to reduce downstream/downslope
sediment and pollutant loads, facilitate discharge of water into areas of low conservation value, and
mitigate impacts associated with increased rates and volumes of runoff from hardened surfaces.
Develop a Construction and Operation EMP for the project.
A drain built to convey the 1 year ARI peak flow will convey about 98% of the mean annual runoff.
Thus drains on the downslope side of roads should be built as small as possible. Retardation basins and
sediment traps should be built to tightly control 1 year ARI flows with the design allowing large floods
to pass through, or around (preferably), without damage or scouring of contents.
Undertake regular maintenance of drainage structures.
Identify locations of weeds on or near the site and eliminate or control as appropriate.
Plate 23.
Spoon drain placed to intercept

flows above steep cut batter,
Princes Highway, South of
Pambula, NSW.
Surface hydrology
Alteration to natural surface flow regimes and extent of natural flood events, affecting wetland wetting
and drying cycles, leading to vegetation changes and reduced faunal values of wetlands
Ponding of surface flows leading to localised waterlogging and changes in composition of vegetation
including death of plant populations
Reduction in available water due to a road intercepting and diverting natural flows, and
Reduction in extent and frequency of tidal penetration of estuarine and tidal wetlands, resulting in
changes in composition of vegetation.
Plate 24.
Typha (Cumbungi)
invasion of coastal
saltmarsh, Point Henry,
Southern Victoria
- resulting from freshwater
input from adjoining road.
Mitigation
strategies
Seek specialist advice from a hydrologist in order to better predict and avoid potential impacts.
Consider realigning road if alterations to natural surface flows in hydrologically sensitive areas are
unavoidable.
Where practicable, avoid siting the road where it may change patterns of surface flows, e.g. braided
streams, on floodplains with relatively unmodified hydrology and in saltmarsh areas.
Design road embankments to be pervious to surface flows and tidal penetration, particularly where the
road may intercept flows in catchments and on floodplains, in areas where tidal/seasonal/infrequent
flooding may occur, and in wetland areas. This may require the use of multiple culverts, porous
construction materials or other mechanisms. This is a particular issue for areas prone to high rainfall
events.
Mitigation strategies (continued)

Design road culverts to match approach hydraulic conditions to avoid initiation of headward erosion.
Collect appropriate baseline data (flora, fauna, hydrology) on significant downstream wetlands
potentially affected, to monitor potential post construction changes.

Maintain culverts and porosity of embankments so as not to impede flows.
Monitor significant downstream/downslope areas of vegetation/habitat for hydrological impacts. Take
amelioratory action as required.
Plate 25.
Waterlogging on downhill side of embankment, Moorooduc Highway, Dromana, Victoria
- die-back of trees on left hand side most likely due to waterlogging below road embankment.
Sub-surface hydrology
Alteration to sub-surface conditions (e.g. breaking hardpan or other impervious layer, ponding water in
table drains) could lead to changes in available groundwater, resulting in deleterious effects on vegetation
and consequent loss of faunal habitat. Impervious layers can be important for maintaining water tables
critical to certain vegetation types (e.g. heathlands) and for perched wetlands.
Impeding groundwater flows may cause a rise in the water table leading to surface and sub-surface
salinity and/or waterlogging, and adverse effects on vegetation.
Intercepting and redirecting subsurface flows via road subgrade drains (AG's) may starve downslope
vegetation of water.
Surface and sub-surface road drainage works in areas with high water tables can lead to saline water
discharge affecting ecosystems in nearby waterways.
Plate 26.
Water ponding in table
drain is hastening decline
of roadside vegetation,
Northam -Cranbrook Road,
southwest WA (1997)
- gradients are very flat
preventing table drains from
"draining" exacerbating
already high water tables in
cleared wheatbelt catchments.
u}<?k"` -'% ':{ Planning and design
phase
Ensure sufficient information is available to understand sub-surface conditions and their role in
maintaining biological values (using appropriate hydrological / geotechnical expertise).
Consider realigning road, or elevating it to avoid breaking hardpans, if alterations to sub-surface flows in
hydrologically sensitive areas are unavoidable.
Consider using multiple AG drain crossings of the road linking to AG spreader drains on the downslope
side to redistribute the subsurface flows.
Assess site for acceptable discharge outlets for saline surface and subsurface drainage water.

Refer to section 2.1 Treatment options for roads affected by high watertables and salinity.
Instream hydrology
Disturbances to stream environments due to increased frequency, size and duration of peak discharge
events, will bring about increased rates of stream bed and bank erosion and sediment transport, causing
changes in size and movement of bottom sediments and amount of woody debris and quality of riparian
vegetation - leading to changes in habitat structure.
These geomorphological changes lead to changes in the ecosystem composition, generally favouring
those species which can tolerate increased disturbance to their habitat leading to reduced aquatic
biodiversity.
Water quality deterioration due to increased discharge of sediment into waterways potentially
contaminated with other pollutants such as heavy metals or organic compounds leading to smothering of
aquatic habitat or toxic effects diminishing aquatic biota diversity.
Plate 27.
Koonung Creek realignment and reconstruction works, Eastern Freeway extension, Melbourne
(1998)
- in places the main trench has been realigned and excavated, the entire length of the creek has been rock
beached and shallow low-flow pools have been attempted (see Part III Case study E).
To achieve stream bed stability, the hydraulics must be designed so that:
- the 1.5 ARI peak discharge is maintained at pre-road development levels
- peak flow velocities (for events with recurrence intervals of < 1.5 years) are kept below levels which
will transport bottom sediments, whereby the coarser fraction such as pebbles, cobbles and boulders
should not be disturbed within stream channels
- 2-18 -
Plan to retain as much of the natural floodplain and morphology of the stream as possible when
designing new road developments in vicinity of natural waterways.
Ensure safe discharge of construction site water to stable entry points.
Treat runoff quality before discharging to natural waterways both during construction and for the on-
going operation of the road (where traffic volumes are anticipatd to be high).
Re-establish a wide diversity of habitats wherever opportunities arise.
Plate 28.
Drainage outlet structure of a permanent wet detention basin, M2 North West Transport Link,
Sydney (1997)
- stones have been laid and meshed onto stream bed floor acting as an energy dissipater, to reduce velocity
and scour of creek bed and banks.
Chapter 2: Specific Areas of Interest

The following specific areas of interest demonstrate the application of principles to drain roads yet maintain
biodiversity. The examples, listed below, have been selected to represent both general and technical
principles.
List of specific areas of interest
Area of interest Details Principles
High water tables and Outline of impacts and treatment strategies for roads and groundwater
salinity roads affected by high water tables and salinity.
environmental monitoring
Table drains Appropriate design of earthen drainage erosion and sediment control
structures, selection of linings, discharge
frequency. hydraulic design principles
Unsealed roads Sediment generation, runoff control, sediment generation

remediation options.
runoff treatment
Bridge and culvert The design and maintenance of bridges and culvert design
design culverts to limit aquatic biodiversity impacts.
runoff collection
drainage from bridge decks
The case studies provided in Part III of this manual detail further examples of the practical application of
biodiversity maintenance and road drainage.
2.1 Treatment options for roads affected by high water tables and salinity and
safeguards to protect adjacent aquatic ecosystems.
Where roads are affected by a high water table and salinity there are three broad strategies for treatment.
These are:
1. road based rehabilitation
2. revegetation
3. drainage and pumping schemes
Each of these strategies has potential benefits and adverse impacts on adjacent and downstream biodiversity.
In general there would need to be preliminary investigations at each site to determine the most sustainable
mitigation strategy. This section outlines the nature of the types of investigations necessary and the success
factors relating to each of the broad treatment options.
This topic area has been adapted from the report, The Impacts of Waterlogging and Salinity on Road Assets:
a Western Australian case study (1999), prepared by Jencie McRobert and Graham Foley, for Main Roads
WA.
Further details about the implications of high water tables and salinity for road authorities and opportunities
for an increased and more effective role in catchment management is given in Part III (case study B).
Plate 29.
A section of the
Cranbrook-Northam Road
has been reconstructed
onto an embankment to
avoid intrusion of
damaging subsurface
moisture.
- indigenous and salt tolerant
paperbark has been re-established
along road verge by direct seeding.
I
Plate 30.
Aerial view of a section of the

Great Eastern Highway
traversing a series of saltpans
east of Northam, south west
WA.
.r
L
\
II,
-I
¼
The 3 main strategies for maintaining road assets in catchments with a high (and often saline) watertable are:
Road Based Rehabilitation
Major Road Rehabilitation
Broadly, the rehabilitation options are:
de-water the pavement environment to provide drained conditions; (also refer to groundwater
pumping and drainage options), or
stabilise foundation and pavement materials to reduce their susceptibility to water, or
resheet with a sufficient thickness of pavement quality material to provide adequate cover to the
weakened subgrade.
Road Reconstruction
raise the pavement level with suitable material to physically separate it from the influence of
saturated conditions and reconstruct.
Road Maintenance
implement an intensive regime of maintenance activities including drainage maintenance and
pavement repairs and major patching as warranted.
2. Revegetation
Tree plantations have been successful in lowering the watertable in salt affected areas on farmland.
There may also be some potential for revegetation alongside roads as a feasible means of protecting
pavements. Waterlogging and high soil and groundwater salinities will be the major limiting factors
to the success of a revegetation strategy to protect roads.
These conditions can severely limit the performance of tree plantations so there will need to be
investigations at each site to ensure these conditions are managed to secure the best results. The
types of investigations needed and most likely success factors are outlined.
3. Drainage and pumping schemes

Deep drains (around 2 in deep and 1.5 in wide) with U-shaped excavations and steep sides are
designed to achieve drawdown of the watertable and drain groundwater inflow to the nearest natural
discharge point. Water tables can also be lowered by installing a network of pumping wells into the
aquifer.
Saline valley floors, typical of many wheatbelt areas, are generally flat and comprise very heavy
clays with poorly defined surface drainage. These factors along with the potential for adverse
environmental impacts from saline groundwater disposal will often limit drain or pump performance.
Shallow surface drains will have wider application, especially since recharge is believed to be
potentially significant when wheatbelt valleys are inundated for extended periods. Providing there is
sufficient gradient, surface drains can reduce total recharge and salinity by moving ponded water off
waterlogged valleys.
2.1.1 Preliminary Investigations

Off-the-shelf guidelines and procedures for implementing drainage, pumping or revegetation
treatments are unlikely to be successful. There is, however, some scope for generic treatments where
only small scale works are required. For more substantial works there would need to be a number of
preliminary investigations undertaken at each site so that treatments would be adapted to each problem
area.
The following preliminary investigations could be undertaken relatively easily and are worth
considering:
1. Drilling and installation of shallow observation bores
Knowledge of the following parameters will be fundamental to implementing a sustained

lowering of the watertable to protect pavements.
Depth to watertable:
- drill a transect of bores to around 5 metres depth and case with -50 mm diameter slotted
PVC pipe
Groundwater salinity:
- sample and test groundwater
Hydraulic gradient (slope of the watertable):

- survey to top of bore casing to accurately assess relative height of watertable (to the road)
Permeability of the aquifer:

- since aquifer permeabilities are generally low, can bail out water manually (rather than
pump) and time recovery period
Texture of soils:
- log soil profile.
2. Surveying soil salinities across site
This can be done:

- using an EM 38 meter, which can estimate the salt content (based on electrical conductivity
levels) in the soil, of the top 0.5 metre down to around 1.5 metres depth
- by visual assessment of the site for salt indicator plant species
- by taking soil samples and preparing 1:5 soil/water suspensions then measuring salt
concentrations in the laboratory.
3. Assessment of drainage outlets
- surveying of surface grades and the development of a contour plan will determine whether
gravity outlets are available. Surface grades will govern what limitations will be imposed on
drain depth at each site
- there will need to be a nearby stable drainage system to discharge ground and surface water
- the likely impacts on remnant ecosystems will need to be assessed.
4. Contact with other agencies and consultation with catchment groups
There are individuals within organisations who can assist in providing advice about strategies to lower
water tables and reduce salinity impacts nearby roads:
- specialist assistance can be accessed from agencies with land and water management
responsibilities in each State
- several thousand groundwater bores in salt affected catchments are monitored seasonally,
from which watertable trend information can be attained
- individual researchers have detailed knowledge about particular salt affected catchments;
they can advise on salinity risk areas, aquifer characteristics and local catchment processes
which will affect the feasibility of different approaches
- local landcare or catchment coordinating groups can be consulted to ensure proposed works
sit well with proposed or operational catchment plans
- the necessary external approval for catchment works (eg. notice of intention to drain or
pump water, clear land) can be obtained from the relevant authority.
2.1.2 Success factors - Road Based Rehabilitation

The performance of a range of treatments for roads in areas subject to high water tables and salinity
are described in Table 9 over page.
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AUTHORITY. (1991). Construction Techniques for Sediment

Pollution Control. Publication No. 275, Melbourne, Victoria.
ii
RANSOM, M.J. (1987). Control of erosion on construction sites. Soil Conservation Authority,
Victoria. ISBN 0-7241-5457-4.
iii
NSW DEPARTMENT OF HOUSING. (1998). Managing Urban Stormwater: Soils and
Construction. 3rd Edition. New South Wales Government.
Part I I A Practical Guide to Reduce Irrpacts of Drainage on Ecosystems
Table 9-Performance of a range of treatments for roads in areas subject to a high watertable and salinity
Treatment Indicative Cost per km. Comments Conditions Probability of Long-

term success
Road Reconstruction
Raise embankment 1 m and new $400,000 To provide a capillary break and to distribute load onto the Appropriately graded material being available to provide moisture Hgh
pavement weakened subgrade- break to pavement materials
Marginal to poor grading of fill material Low
Intense Road Maintenance
Drainage > $50,000 (per annum over a Heavily dependent upon subgrade strength and traffic loads Heavy traffic loading Very Low
Patching 4 year cycle) carried
Stabilisation
Light loading Low
Reseal
Major Road Rehabilitation
Drainage blanket and new pavement $330^000 May require embankment raising to actor odate the weaker Drainage blanket over srbgrade material having adequate soaked
to sulograde in conjunction with drainage blanket to protect the strength Hgh
strength of the overlying pavement
$400,000
Low saturated sulograde strength L.
Deep Lift Stabilisation (incl. 200 mm $380,000 Dependant upon subgrade strength at time of construction Subgrade strength is adequate Good to high
resheet)
Poor sulograde strength for corrpaction L.
Dual layer stabilisation $200,000 Base layer bladed clear; bottom layer stabilised, top layer Laboratory testing to determine pavement design Good to high
replaced arrd stabilised
Minimal pavement design nor experience of works in similar Low to high
environment
Granular resheet; 200 mm thick $200,000 Heavily dependant upon long-term sulograde strength Marginal pavement overlay material with heavy traffic Low
With light traffic loading Moderate
Formation Drains/Purrping Nl/A Dependent on sufficient grades, formation permeability and a Generally not feasible
safe discharge point - only an interim
measure
Deep Lift Stabilisation to 350 mm Nl/A Insuffident pavement material thickness Generally not possible
Effects of moisture on pavements

Base course material moisture content typically equilibrates to well dry of its optimum moisture content once
in service. Optimum moisture content (OMC) refers to that moisture condition at which a soil can achieve
its maximum density (and hence strength) at a given level of compactive effort.
An increase in the soil moisture towards the OMC leads to loss of strength in the base course material
causing;
deformation within that layer, often by the sideways shoving or lateral movement of the material.
Increasing longitudinal roughness may also result due to dynamic 'wheel-hop' loading of
commercial vehicles resulting from existing points of roughness in the profile;
softening of the upper base course material to the extent that embedment of aggregate forming
the sprayed bituminous seal occurs, leading to areas of bitumen covering the aggregate to give a
`flushed' appearance.
Subgrade material may be designed to operate over a wide range of moisture contents. Many pavements
comprise very thin overlying base course layers, with the subgrade moisture content becoming relatively
`dry' over time as the base and sprayed seal surface afforded protection of the foundation materials. Many
thin pavements have survived with increasing traffic loading due to such maintenance of a very stable and
commensurately low moisture regime within the pavement/subgrade system.
In pavements generally, but particularly in many of the `thin' pavements, increasing moisture content
causes;
transverse profile shape loss in the form of rutting. Rutting due to vertical deformation primarily
within the subgrade produces a rut of downwards vertical shape, in contrast to shoving which
tends to produce both downwards and upwards vertical displacement of material;
rutting visible at the pavement surface appearing to be more of the shoving type shape than a
classic rut where the weakened subgrade supports a relatively thin pavement layer; and
potential difficulty in the stabilisation to a high level (eg. Modified Compactive Effort) of base
course materials. In these cases the addition of a stabilising additive to increase the strength of
the subgrade material will typically produce a foundation of sufficient strength to enable
compaction of overlying layers.
It is very important to ascertain the condition of the pavement and subgrade for each particular site. A
treatment that has delivered good performance to one site may not necessarily deliver commensurate
performance to another unless the conditions are substantially similar.
2.1.3 Success factors - Revegetation

The performance of a plantation in lowering the watertable will depend on a range of local site factors,
including:
1. Initial depth to watertable

- prospects will be better if revegetating `risk areas', where the watertable is still deeper than
2 metres, rather than already highly saline and waterlogged soils.
2. Groundwater salinities
- moderate groundwater salinities (up to around 10,000 mg/L) are likely to sustain
plantations better than higher salinities
- low to moderate groundwater salinity levels are preferred but probably not essential for
success.
3. Permeability and structure of soils

- sandy soils (rather than clays) are more conducive to leaching salts from the surface soil
zone to enable plants to establish more easily
- over time there needs to be further leaching of salts below the root zone to sustain
plantations in the long term
- problems can arise where there are very poorly structured clay soils all the way to the
surface
- in many cases, the weakly structured sodic soils characteristic of many wheatbelt districts
may be improved by applying gypsum to encourage the exchange of dominant sodium ions
with calcium, which can enhance soil structure by providing improved infiltration,
permeability and aeration
- soils which are already badly salt affected, presenting as bare scalds are least desirable,
sites should be selected which are either àt risk' or only moderately saline supporting patchy
sea barley grass with some rye and other less salt tolerant species still persisting
- using an EM 38 meter in a horizontal mode, readings < 1200 mg/L are desirable over at
least 80% of the site to be planted.
4. Aquifer characteristics
- the porosity of the aquifer, hydraulic grades, and groundwater storage volumes will
determine the water usage rates required by the plantation to achieve a given level of
watertable reduction
- low permeability aquifers (with low hydraulic conductivities and flat gradients) will also
have low storage and low groundwater inflow rates
- revegetation to bring about a watertable depression sufficient to protect adjacent
pavements, may be more sustainable in these slow and impermeable groundwater systems
than in the more permeable and higher volume systems
- the trade-off, however, might be that generally these `sluggish' aquifers have higher
groundwater salinities and heavy soils, offering less hospitable conditions for plant growth.
5. Rainfall
- areas receiving moderate annual rainfall will be most suitable for revegetation (350 - 750
mm)
- to sustain a lowering in the watertable in higher rainfall areas, greater planting densities
over a larger area than is generally available along most road reserves, is likely to be needed.
6. Site preparation and establishment techniques

Any revegetation program will be greatly assisted by first reducing the severity of
waterlogging and inundation at the site.
The following protection measures could be considered:
- removing surface water from the site using drains,
- ground preparation can also help by ripping the sandier soils, or applying gypsum to the
clayey soils susceptible to slaking and dispersion,
- growing plants in elevated positions and raising them above the waterlogged soil,
mounding also accelerates the leaching of salts downwards by rain
- using shallow drains and banks, Road Authorities could work in cooperation with adjacent
landholder(s) to divert water away from the site by reducing overland flow from surrounding
land.
7. Choice of plant species

For successful revegetation, trees must be selected which are tolerant of the combined effects
of salinity and waterlogging caused by high watertables. The best adapted species with the
highest potential water usage and growth rates should be chosen.
These may by either indigenous or introduced species. Suitable species for planting in many
parts of NSW, Vic, SA and WA include:
Low rainfall areas -
E occidentalis (flat-topped yate), E sargentii (salt river gum), E spathulata (swamp mallet),
E kondininensis (stocking gum), E loxophleba (york gum),
E salubris (gimlet)
Medium rainfall areas -

Above species plus, E rudis, E platypus and E camaldulensis (provenances such as
Albacutya, Broken Hill, Cohuna red gums)
Also Casuarina obesa (swamp oak), Melaleuca cuticularis, and Acacia saligna (golden
wattle) species and Melaleuca halmaturorum (swamp paperbark) and Melaleuca lanceolata
(kangaroo paperbark).
Local advice should be sought from State conservation and land management agencies about
the most appropriate species to be planted.
2.1.4 Success factors - Drainage and pumping
Good Drain and Pump performance depends on:
1. Sufficient surface grades
- to keep groundwater draining to a suitable discharge point

- grades < 0.5% (1:200) will usually present difficulties
- control of water from surrounding catchment will improve the effectiveness of localised
drainage systems; can improve surface water control by working with adjacent landholders
to install grade banks on surrounding slopes.
2. Permeable layers and soils
- which readily transmit ground and soil water are most suitable
- the depth of these layers will be important in determining drain and pump well design
- the pumped aquifer (usually at depth) must have good connection with the shallow
watertable to achieve effective drawdown
- sandy surfaced soils leach readily and are more responsive to drainage than the heavier soil
types.
3. Low aquifer storage volumes
The amount of storage in the aquifer will determine how much groundwater will require
disposal:
- low volumes are clearly more easily managed and will have lower recurrent operating and
maintenance costs
- it is often difficult to find a stable and non eroding natural drainage line to discharge large
volumes of surface or ground water.
4. Acceptable discharge outlets
Disposal of saline groundwater raises a number of issues:

- by increasing downstream soil and stream salinities, further pressure will be placed on
already declining ecosystems
- additional water will change the hydrology of nearby streams, wetlands and other sensitive
environments
2.1.5 Monitoring
The long term benefits of both revegetation and engineering treatments are uncertain so there is a need
to establish a monitoring regime at a number of sites to track their success as feasible and cost-
effective treatments.
A number of physical parameters can be measured at each site to assess the performance of the
treatments:
1. Seasonal water table trends
- a transect of observation bores (or piezometers, if groundwater is under pressure) can be

monitored seasonally to assess how quickly the watertable is rising or falling and therefore
whether the treatments are having an effect.
2. Soil salinities
- soil salinities can be surveyed using an EM 38 electromagnetic instrument to establish

benchmark levels at the commencement of treatments. These could be re-measured yearly to
determine if a sustainable leaching fraction is being achieved at the site.
3. Groundwater flows and salinities
- groundwater in bores and that discharged from drains or pumps can be periodically
sampled and tested for changes in salt content
- discharge rates or outflows of drains or pumps can also be measured
- seepage flows from drainage systems will invariably be low volume, of continuous supply
and highly saline.
4. Pavement condition
- the more heavily trafficked sections of road pavement would usually be monitored on a
defined and regular basis as part of the overall state monitoring process. Current pavement
performance parameters of particular relevance to the occurrence of rising water tables
collected via automated data collection are;
rutting (transverse shape)
roughness (longitudinal shape or profile)
deflection testing to assess pavement strength is also preferable
initial monitoring would preferably be undertaken at or near the time of construction, to be
followed at a one year interval for the first monitoring and thereafter at two yearly intervals
at the same time of year for each monitoring.
2.2 Table drains

The function of a table drain is to collect water that has fallen on the carriageway or the batters of a cutting
and flowed to the edge of the formation. Unless other longitudinal drainage structures are provided, table
drains are generally used wherever the road is in a cutting or through flat terrain. Because table drains are
often built on very flat grades to suit the road grade, they must either have a large cross sectional area or be
provided with frequent discharge points where the water can escape.
Plate 31.
A typical table drain within a limited
Qa road reserve. Note that the table drain
must accommodate flows from both the
cut batter and the road surface.
2.2.1 Alternatives
As with all drainage structures that concentrate runoff, problems may occur when excessive flows initiate
scouring within the table drain, or at the outlet from the drain. Therefore, before installing table drains, the
suitability of alternative drainage structures should be investigated. Under suitable conditions, grassy swales
can provide sufficient drainage for the formation, while at the same time preventing the concentration of
runoff and the problems associated with the disposal of this flow. Grassy swales provide additional benefits
in terms of pollutant removal via infiltration, and reductions in peak flows by detention.
If the site location does not permit the use of grassy swales, table drains can provide the next best option,
with limited impact on terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity if they are designed and maintained correctly. In
steeper terrain, table drains are generally constructed on the high side of the road only, however roads
constructed through very flat landscapes will require table drains on both sides of the formation to provide
adequate drainage.
2.2.2 Design to prevent erosion

The success or otherwise of table drains depends on the ability of the structure to carry the runoff water
without scouring initiating within the drain. Scouring will occur when the flow velocity causes flow stresses
which exceed the strength of the drain surface. The flow velocity will depend on the runoff rate, the slope,
and the surface condition of the table drain (ie. bare or vegetated). The runoff rate in turn depends on the
rainfall intensity, the proportion of rainfall that becomes runoff, and the catchment area of the road. Some of
these variables, such as the climatic conditions, cannot be controlled. There is also limited scope to alter the
slope of the table drain as this generally follows the slope of the road. The designer of table drains can
however keep the flow velocity within an acceptable range through the manipulation of the catchment area
and the surface condition of the drain.
Box 1. Points to consider when designing and constructing table drains

can alternative non-concentrating drainage structures be used? (eg. grassy swales)
the total contributing area to the drain
rainfall characteristics for the region
the cross sectional shape of drain
spacing between drain outlets (turn-off or cut-off drains)
drain surface stability
location of outlets.
Diversion drains are used to convey water from a table drain so that it can be disposed of by infiltration or by
spreading over the natural surface where its velocity is small and the likelihood of damage by erosion is
reduced.
A typical table and turn-off drain in a

low relief environment, Mt Magnet -
Geraldton Road, WA (1998)
- the spacing between drain outlets is used
to control runoff rates in the table drain.
The greater the distance between turn-off drains, the greater the peak flow will be in the final section of the
table drain. Thus, the spacing of turn-off drains can be used to reduce the likelihood of scouring occurring in
the table drain. The distance that runoff water can be carried along table drains before it has to be discharged
will depend on many factors. The soil type will largely determine the "strength" of the soil, or how well it
resists scouring by the runoff water. The climatic regime will determine the recurrence interval for storms of
a particular size.
The spacing of outlets to prevent erosion of an earth drain can be approximately estimated by
the following procedure (for regions with temperate rainfall)'.
1. Determine the soil type using the field texture method described in Box 2 and Table 10.
2. Determine the permissible velocity for the selected soil from Table 11
3. Determine the appropriate value of Manning's n from Table 12 (see glossary for definition).
4. Using Figures 5-13, and the appropriate value of Mannings n, determine the distance between outlets for
the allowable velocity, slope of drain, and width of road contributing runoff for a V - shaped drain. If
this results in outlets that are too close together, determine the distance for Im and 2m bed widths. If
outlets are still too close, vegetated or other suitably lined drains should be considered.
Box 2. Estimation of soil texture

The common field method for determining the textural class of a soil is by its feel. This is ascertained by
rubbing a sample of the soil, usually in a moist to wet condition, between the thumb and the fingers. The
degree to which the soil can be pressed into a "ribbon" between the thumb and fingers indicates how much
clay is present. The longer and smoother the ribbon formed, the higher the clay content. Sand particles are
gritty and can be heard grinding together when held close to ones ear. Silt feels like flour or talcum powder
when dry and is only slightly plastic and sticky when wet. Persistent cloddiness of dry soils is generally
characteristic of silt and clay. Table 10 gives some general criteria for the determination of field texture. ii
Table 10 Criteria used for determining the soil texture by the field method.
Criterion Sand Sandy Loam Loam Silt Loam Clay Loam Clay
1. Individual grains Yes Yes Some Few No No
visible to eye
2. Stability of dry Do not form Do not form Easily broken Moderately Hard and V. hard
clods easily broken stable and stable
3. Stability of wet Unstable Slightly stable Moderately Stable Very Very

clods stable stable stable
4. Stability of ribbon Does not form Does not Does not form Broken Thin, will Very long,
when wet soil form appearance break flexible
rubbed between
thumb and fingers
see text for description of methodology Source: Brady and Weil (1996)
Plate 33.
11 I
Field method for determining soil texture. The
texture of a soil is strongly related to the flow
rates it can carry with out scouring (Source.
Brady and Well 1996).
Table 11 - Permissible velocity for flow in a table drain.

Bare earth Permissible velocity (m/s)
Surface material
Sand 0.4
Sandy loam 0.5
Silty loam 0.6
Stiff clay 1.2
Fine gravel 0.8
Course gravel 1.2
Vegetated grass type Slope % Permissible velocity (m/s)

Erosion Erosion susceptible
resistant soils
soils
Kikuyu 0- 5 2.5 2.2
5 - 10 2.2 2.0
10+ 2.0 1.8
Couch or Bent or Fescue 0- 5 2.2 2.0
5 - 10 2.0 1.8
10+ 1.8 1.5
Grass mixtures 0- 5 1.5 1.2
5- 10 1.0 0.8
(Source: Garvin 1979)
Table 12-Determination of Mannings n value.
Description of table drain Mannings n value

Uniform cross section, regular alignment, free from pebbles in 0.020
clay and loam
Irregular alignment, ripples in bottom, gravelly soil or shale 0.025
Irregular section and alignment, scattered rocks and loose 0.030

gravel in bottom, some weeds on sloping banks
GARVIN, R.J. (1979). Guidelines for minimising soil erosion and sedimentation from construction
sites in Victoria. Soil Conservation Authority: Kew, Victoria.
ii
BRADY, N.C. AND WEIL, R.R. (1996). The nature and properties of soils. (Prentice Hall: Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey).
Part I I A Practical Guide to Reduce Impacts of Drainage on Ecosystems
Figure 5-Suitable spacings for table drain outlets to prevent erosion of table drain. (n=0.020, v-shaped drain) (Source: Carvin 1979)
SLOPE OF TABLE DRAIN % ROAD WIDTH CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF m
r.,. . : .
... .1 _:
I
!A
art .::; ::..:.- ' . .. ... ....
77 r
:N a
71, {E{
1-
--. ... :
-
{:.V QCI TY, OF FLOW.

WJ
QISTANCE $ETWEEN CU VFRT.S {n
NOTE OR TABLE DRAIN OUTLETS
EXAMPLE
1 If batter Is contributing to 5pc
runoff, width of road should be N ROAD SLOPE 6 %
increased to include horizontal width of batter. 4
oulder ALLOWABLE VELOCITY 1.2 m/s
2 If road is cambered, only half of road
SAFE CAPACITY 016 m%s
will be contributing to runoff.
3 If spacing is too close. use wider bottom drain,
ROAD WIDTH CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF 6m
vegetated or other suitable lined drain. DISTANCE BETWEEN CULVERTS 95 m
n=.020
Figure 6 -Suitable spacings for table drain outlets to prevent erosion of table drain. (n=0.020, 1m bed width) (Source: C-arvi n 1979)
SLOPE OF TABLE DRAIN % ROAD WIDTH CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF m
I
_iz
iir?
: ;two .
_.14LgC/T-Y., .-O FLQ.Y1,,. ,. '::: i.. ..: .. r .-....: Q/S.TANCF SETWEE(V CU41!FRTS. {n:
OR TABLE DRAIN OUTLETS
NOTE EXAM PLE
1 If batter is contributing to ROAD SLOPE 6 %
runoff, width of road should be
increased to include horizontal width of batter.
ALLOWABLE VELOCITY 1.2 mfs
2 If road is cambered, only half of road SAFE CAPACITY 046 m%s
will be contributing to runoff. ROAD WIDTH CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF
3 If spacing is too close, use wider bottom drain, DISTANCE BETWEEN CULVERTS 280 m
vegetated or other suitable lined drain.
w= t m n_020
Figure 7-Suitable spacings for table drain outlets to prevent erosion of table drain. (n=0.020, 2m bed width) (Source: Carvin 1979)
!b 1: 4.: 13 .12 800' . 10UC 1

_L
QISTAN.'E BE) W,EEN CULVERTS fn !:

EXAMPI #'
I If batter is contributing to
ROAD SLOPE 6 %
increased to include horizontal width of batter- ALLOWABLE VELOCITY 12 rn/s
2 If road is cambered, only half of road SAFE CAPACITY .082 m%s
will be contributing to runoff. '` 2m
ROAD WIDTH CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF
3 If spacing is too close, use wider bottom drain, DISTANCE CULVERTS 500 m
BETWEEN
w=2.om nW020
Figure 8-Suitable spacings for table drain outlets to prevent erosion of table drain. (n = 0.025, v-shaped drain) (Source: Carvin 1979)
SLOPE OF TABLE DRAIN ROAD WIDTH CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF m
i .U
:
'vt 1QCi. TY.,.OF FLOW, _T14, j
E o .13 aoo I 7 0.. -',.
/S,TANCE BETWEEN CULV RTS c
t

NOTE EXAMPLE
If batter is contributing to ROAD SLOPE 6%
ALLOWABLE VELOCITY 1-2 '.'s
2 If road is cambered, only half of road SAFE CAPACITY 031 mis
will be contributing to runoff- ROAD WIDTH CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF 6m
vegetated or other suitable lined drain. n x025
Figure 9--Suitable spacings for table drain outlets to prevent erosion of table drain. (n=0.025, 1 m bed width) (Source: Carvi n 1979)
7i"! "r 48LE Sni4, v XO.4U ?HIS", ;'.Vi 10
- 1 . A. 14
1. 4
T. f
A, J I
_NC
Al -
iii A. 4M
O 4 , `M r 5TWEEIV
-Aw
CU4VF TS {rr.
II
'
3R TABLE DRAIN OUTLETS
NOTE EXAMPLE
1 If batter is contributing to a
t ROAD SLOPE 6 %
runoff, width of road should be 4
2
ncreased to include horizontal width of batter.
If road is cambered, only half of road
2
--
rm
ALLOWABLE VELOCITY
SAFE CAPACITY -0665 m/s
ROAD WIDTH
1.2
CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF
m/s
6m
3 f spacing is too close, use wider bottom drain, DISTANCE CULVERTS 410 m
BETWEEN
vegetated or other suitable lined drain,
w= 1 m n=-025
Figure 10-Suitable spacings for table drain outlets to prevent erosion of table drain. (n = 0.025, 2m bed width) (Source: C-arvin 1979)
SLOPE OF TABLE DRAIN % ROAD WIDTH CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF n-r
LD
-i-
I 14E1 _ :13 O1 -': 80 o 1dop

VFLQC/.jy. OF FLOi+v,. ml I DISTANCE BETWEEN CULVERTS to
EXAMPLE
1 If batter is contributing to 6
ROAD SLOPE
ALLOWABLE VELOCITY 1.2 m,"s
increased to include horizontal width of batter. 3
m/s
will be contributing to runoff,
2m SAFE CAPACITY 1.17
ROAD WIDTH CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF 6m
BETWEEN
w= 2m n=025
Figure 11 -Suitable spacings for table drain outlets to prevent erosion of table drain. (n=0.030, v-shaped drain) (Source: C-arvin1979)
fir.....
'r. ; ) [
f;
6 O 1'.
//
CUWv Rfì..:.,
EXAMPLE
If batter is contributing to
ROAD SLOPE 6
ALLOWABLE VELOCITY 1.2 rn/s
2 If road is cambered, only half of road SAFE CAPACITY 055 M73s
will be contributing to runoff. ROAD WIDTH CONTR[BUTING TO RUNOFF
Figure 12 -Suitable spacings for table drain outlets to prevent erosion of table drain. (n = 0.030, 1m bed width) (Source: C-arvin 1979)
SLOPt .14.'M i;J:e.r MUTING TO P'UNJC Lc
v 1,
HI G
.4
OF t
iob-
Eliff]
Ij
1 E 1. 4_ - 11 .1_.... a... QJ...1. c1 1 fib 0

:.. tANGE ,!ETWEEN CU/.vFRTS {n.
NOTE OR TABLE DRAW i UFLETS
EXAMPLE
1If batter is contributing to 8 %
ROAD SLOPE
3 It spacing is too close, use wider bottom drain,
m ALLOWABLE VELOCITY
SAFE CAPACITY
ROAD WIDTH
DISTANCE
074 m!s
CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF
BETWEEN CULVERTS 440 m
1.2 'Ws
6m
vegetated or other suitable fined drain.
Part I
Figure 13-Suitable spacings for table drain outlets to prevent erosion of table drain. (n = 0.030, 2m bed width) (Source: Carvin 1979)
117
.10
FLOW'.. 44 44+ ...

9 LA 1.2 10_ 22
,f,TANC BETW .1'
24 :i
:i.4V,tRTS, ,,.
NOTE OR TABLE DRAHU OUTLETS

EXAMPLE
If batter is contributing to
ROAD SLOPE 6%
increased to include horizontal width of batter. ALLOWABLE VELOCITY 1.2 m/s
2 If road is cambered, only half of road SAFE CAPACITY 0.165' m%s
will be contributing to runoff. ROAD WIDTH CONTRIBUTING TO RUNOFF 6m
BETWEEN
2.2.3 Table drain linings

If scouring occurs within a table drain, the best remedial option (following repair) is to
increase the frequency (reduce the spacing) of turn-off drains so as to prevent the
concentration of excessive runoff during the storm event. If this option is unsuitable, then a
range of linings can be considered for the drain to improve erosion resistance and/or reduce
flow velocity. Dense stoloniferous grasses can act to increase the surface roughness, decrease
the flow rate, increase the infiltration rate, and increase the surface strength of the table drain.
Where grass cover cannot be maintained or is undesirable, crushed rock can be used in
selected locations where scour is a problem. If resistance to greater flows is required rock
may be grouted together.
Plate 34.
Rock lining as scour
protection for a table drain
on the Great Northern Hwy,
WA.
The success of table drain linings for the reduction of erosion depends on the correct selection
of lining material and the correct installation. Guidelines for selecting an appropriate lining
material, for different table drain cross sections are given in Figure 14. Correct installation
procedures are shown in Figure 15.
Plate 35.
Grass lined table drain in
an area of low relief. Grass
increases the stability of
the table drain and helps
remove pollutants from the
runoff water
The establishment of grassed table drains helps to remove sediment and other highway
pollutants from the runoff water prior to it reaching an established water body. Grassed table
drains will also increase the detention time for runoff (by slowing the flow) and therefore
reduce the hydrologic impact on local water courses.
Figure 14- Optimal flows rates in table drains with a range of surface linings.
BASED ON VELOCITY OF:

GRASS 1.5r Vs
100nvn DUMPED ROCK 2.9rrVs
200mm DUMPED ROCK 4.1 rrys
7 GROUIED ROCK 4,1 nVs+
REVETMENT MATTRESS 4.1 m/s+
6 CONCRETE UNED 4,1nVs+
Q(41s)
4
3
2
INED
1 ENT
0
GRASS 2 3 456 7 8 9 10+ 20 30
1:4 BATTERS SLOPE S(%)
NOTE: LARGE FLOWS IN V DRAINS
V® N
ARE ONLY USED WHERE THE
AMOUNT OF AREA IS RESTRICTED.
8
7
FU N
q418) 2 0 m K
1;1,5 11.5
CN R LINED
3
RE VEHOENT
2 1 m 2.0
)UN IPE R K
9
GRASS 1 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 10+ 1 15 20 25
FLAT BOTTOM DRAIN WITH 2.Om BED WIDTH
9
8
7 FL W
Q(rn4ls)
6
5
4
20 m R
01
O
E! REIC- K
R INE
REVE ME T
O
- S
11.5
3.0 9
D UM P E D Cn
E
GRASS -/ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10+ 15 20 25
NO1E: THESE GRAPHS WERE CALCULATED FOR
THE CROSS SECTIONS SHOWN AND ARE
FLAT BO1TOM DRAIN TH 3.Om BED WDTH TO BE USED ONLY AS A GUIDE FOR
ANY O1HER TYPE OF CROSS SECTION.
Source: Queensland Department of Main Roads (1998)

Figure 15-A guide to the installation of table drain linings.
GRABS UNIED
+r
GROM W®
H x OFlprlwID N
Cas
4.
ROCK WHYGROUIED RC WED
ROCK t F UIM ROCK WED
Fwd
11E11f111EM MIAi1RBB8
CONCRETE WED
CONCAJ E W®
Source: Queensland Department of Main Roads (1998)

2.2.4 Maintenance
Table drains require frequent maintenance, such as grading of unlined drains to remove silt and other debris
that may easily block the flow, and to restore the original shape. However, for grass lined table drains,
slashing or mowing should be promoted where feasible to avoid the creation of potential erosion problems.
The lining of table drains needs checking at frequent intervals so that any failed section may be repaired
before extensive damage occurs.
Scours in table drains need prompt attention to prevent serious damage that may lead to undermining of the
drain lining, the carriageway, or the cutting batters. Short term measures, such as placing loose rock, etc, in
scours to arrest their development may be necessary on occasions, but should be followed promptly by
permanent remedial measures. Whenever a table drain is susceptible to scour it is usually necessary to line it
with some type of durable material.
Special attention needs to be given to the junction of the turn-off drain with the table drain where both
erosion and siltation can easily occur. Similar problems can also arise at the extreme end of the turn-off
drain where it has virtually no grade.
Table drains require periodic grading to re-form and remove sediment. Collected sediment should not be
disposed of in the adjacent vegetated area, as this disturbance will adversely affect the ground flora and
promote colonisation by weed species.
2.3 Drainage on unsealed roads

Unsealed roads are often composed of the natural material found in the top layers of the ground over which
the road passes. The material quality varies over a wide range from plastic clays that are unstable when wet,
to natural gravels that are capable of supporting traffic under all weather conditions, provided they have been
properly compacted.
Plate 36.
Severe erosion of an unsealed road
surface caused by improper crossfall
and pavement drainage, Heemskirk
Development Rd, North-west, TAS
(1997).
Unsealed roads represent a significant area of soil essentially un-protected by vegetation. Considerable
quantities of sediment are generated from these surfaces which may be washed into natural waterways during
rainfall. Recent rainfall simulation trials measuring sediment loss from unsealed roads in the Blue
Mountains, NSW, showed that fine grained sediments (silts and clays) are preferentially moved in storm
runoff. Results indicated that pavement sealing reduced erosion to one-one hundredth of the sediment loss
value from an unsealed pavement.
Where practically and economically feasible, unsealed roads should be at least "sheeted" with locally
sourced materials of a superior grade, which will not only improve the capacity of the road, but also make it
more resistant to erosion, and reduce sediment movement.
Given the limited options for the reduction in sediment generation from unsealed road surfaces, it is
necessary to consider all the available options for the treatment of road runoff before it reaches natural water
courses.
Options include:
effective construction of table and turn-off drains to filter runoff through vegetation
vegetating table drains with low growing grasses to intercept sediment
locating drain outlets away from water courses.
Unsealed pavement drainage

As with sealed pavements, the principal means of draining an unpaved formation is to provide a crossfall
(between 4 - 6%) normal to the centre line that will remove surface water as quickly as possible.
There are however 3 main types of crossfalls (as shown in Figure 16 over page) which can be used to drain
surface water off unsealed roads, depending on local conditions:
Crown - Most common crossfall for unsealed roads along straight sections.
- they are a combination of inslope and outslope crossfalls and therefore have similar potential
environmental impacts as both.
Where the road grade is less than around 8%, either an outsloped or insloped crossfall can be used:
Outslope - Commonly used on single lane roads.
- they require less engineering works than other designs and have minimal environmental impact if they
are well constructed. The big advantage to this type of road is that it does not concentrate water from
the road surface allowing diffuse drainage into the surrounding environment. A catch drain is essential
above the top embankment to protect the batter slope and this design is only appropriate where fill
slopes are stable. Outsloped crossfalls are restricted to roads with a straight alignment (or to low speed
roads less than 50 km/hr) as their construction on curves may be restricted due to safety considerations.
An outsloped road is the least expensive type of road to construct and will have the least impact on the
ii
environment.
Inslope - Used mostly with an inside table drain in erosive areas.
- where the drainage requires tight control to prevent water from accessing unstable fill slopes. They are
more expensive to construct and require more maintenance than outsloped roads.
Figure 16 - Crossfalls and drainage detail
side drain
CROWN SECTION
with or without side drain
IN SLOPE SECTION
NOTE: Direction of road surface runoff:

Source: Moll (1993)
Many unpaved surfaces are subject to severe damage (and subsequent loss of crossfall) when traversed by
vehicles in wet weather. A common form of damage is the development of wheel ruts which are deepened
and made worse by succeeding vehicles tracking, and also because the ruts themselves hold water. Water
may then flow along the road formation leading to erosion. These roads should be closed during wet weather
to prevent the deterioration of the road surface and to prevent the generation of increased sediment levels
from the road to natural waterways.
Grading to restore the crossfall and to fill potholes and ruts is the major activity to maintain riding conditions
and surface drainage efficiency. The work is best carried out after rain has ceased but while the surface
material is still damp enough to bind into a solid mass under the action of the grader and traffic. Graded
material should not be windrowed into the roadside vegetation, as this increases the disturbance and
facilitates invasion by exotic weed species. During major drainage reconditioning, graded material should be
collected. Adjacent landholders can be approached to provide sites for disposal, material can be reused in
rehabilitation works on former gravel pits or transported to designated spoil disposal sites.
2.4 Bridge and culvert design

2.4.1 Culverts
Culverts provide the most common method for the transfer of surface flows from one side of the road
formation to the other. When installing culverts, consideration should be given to the following points:
maintenance of natural flow regimes should always be a high priority
culvert should not excessively concentrate natural surface flows
culvert outlet should be designed so as not to initiate erosion
culvert should not form a barrier to the movement of aquatic species
should not restrict tidal surges in marine wetlands
where appropriate, culverts can double as a fauna tunnel.
Fish habitat is almost always present in permanent waterways. The impact of structures on fish habitats and
the movement of fish should always be considered. Where fish are present, use open bottom culverts, arches
or bridges, which maintain the natural stream channel bottom. Culverts with a roughened base installed
below the natural stream bed can minimise fish impacts. Local Natural Resource Managers should be
consulted prior to works.
Preferred watercourse crossing types to maintain fish passage are listed in order of preference:
- Bridges and tunnels: designed so that the cross-sectional area of a stream is not altered, are the
most favourable
- Arch and box culverts: designed to retain the natural morphological features of the stream such as
width, bed slope and cross-sectional area eg. a series of large culvert cells is preferred to a single
cell
- Low level crossings such as fords and causeways: designed to have an invert level the same as the
stream bed can overcome a potential weir effect
- Pipe culverts and pipe causeways: can create most problems for fish passage as they reduce the
width of the stream, tend to scour on the downstream side thereby creating a drop or "waterfall"
effect. Where they are used a series of pipes is preferred to maximise the cross-sectional area.
Box 3. Common environmental impacts due to the inappropriate design, construction and
maintenance of culverts
ponding of surface water upstream of road formation, causing waterlogging, changes to natural water
table levels and death of native vegetation
concentration of broad sheet flows, resulting in scouring, gully development and changed flooding
regimes
reduction in water supply to natural wetlands, altering inundation frequency and duration, and resulting in
changes to aquatic ecosystem structure
restriction of the movement of aquatic species causing fragmentation of populations and a reduction in
breeding success
drainage shadow on the low side of the road changing soil moisture conditions and altering vegetation
composition
The NSW Fisheries Department have recently developed a classification scheme for watercourse crossings
over different fish habitat types, to assist decision making about the design and construction of preferred
roadway crossings. Table 13 summarises their classification scheme. It is envisaged that the scheme will be
used to determine whether permits or approvals are required from the NSW Fisheries for works in
watercourses. The classification scheme is to be used as a guide only and where there is doubt about the
habitat values for fish , consultation with local conservation authorities should be undertaken.
Table 13-Classification scheme for watercourse crossings
Classification Watercourse type Preferred waterway crossing
CLASS 1 Large river or creek Bridge or tunnel only
Major fish habitat Permanent flow Single span

"Critical" habitat
CLASS 2 Small - medium stream Large box culverts or bridge
Moderate fish habitat Defined channel

Pools or wetlands
CLASS 3 Named or unnamed streams Culverts designed to allow fish
Intermittent flow passage
Minimal fish habitat
- eg. invert to be below stream bed
Potential refuge
level
Minimal defined channel;
CLASS 4 Named or unnamed stream Causeway, floodway or piped
culvert
Unlikely fish habitat Intermittent flow
No pools after rainfall
No aquatic vegetation
Source: NSW Fisheries (1999)
Plate 37.
The use of a multiple cell box and slab culvert
helps to prevent the concentration of surface
flows.
Culverts require regular maintenance to remove silt and snags that can block the culvert opening and reduce
the capacity of the culvert to transmit runoff water. Excessive siltation of culverts may indicate that the
contributing table drains are eroding and need attention. Alternatively, if the culvert is servicing runoff from
adjoining properties, excessive siltation indicates that the culvert is causing ponding and deposition of
sediment during runoff events. Consideration should be given to the installation of larger capacity culverts
and sediment traps. Consultation with local landholders is desirable so as to develop cooperative approaches
to sediment reduction.
Care should be exercised when manoeuvring equipment to gain access to culverts for servicing and cleaning.
Avoid disruption to remnant vegetation and damage to the bark and limbs of trees. Removed sediment
should not be disposed of into remnant roadside vegetation, as this facilitates the invasion of weed species.
Plate 38.
Failure to regularly clean sediment from
culverts leads to a reduction in capacity
and subsequent ponding of runoff
water during rainfall events.
2.4.2 Bridges
The construction, design, maintenance and operation of bridges can have significant impacts on water quality
and aquatic biodiversity due to the obvious proximity of such structures to natural waterways. Extreme care
should be taken when bridges traverse a relatively undisturbed and unpolluted waterway.
Box 4. Issues relating to bridges and aquatic biodiversity

an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) should be prepared prior to construction
damage to streamside vegetation during construction should be minimised
temporary erosion and sediment control structures should be used during construction
bridge deck drainage (during construction and operation) should not be discharged directly into natural
watercourse
where possible, a dry landing should be provided under the bridge for the movement of wildlife
in coastal areas, bridge sites should be investigated for the presence of acid sulphate soils
regions where flow velocities have increased due to streambank alterations should be adequately
protected from scour
see Part III case study E "Creek Realignments and In-stream works" for details on bank treatments for
erosion control
Plate 39.
Runoff water from bridge deck is
H
collected and discharged to
treatment ponds before release to
the environment, M2 North West
Transport Link construction, Sydney
(1996).
K
'
.'..
(
References - Practical guide
SCEE. (1999). Report on rainfall simulation trials, Blue Mountains, October 1999. School of Civic
Engineering & Environment, University of Western Sydney Nepean, Hawkesbury-Nepean Catchment
Management Trust.
ii
KELLER, G.R., BAUER, G.P. and ALDANA, M. (1999). Minimum Impact Rural Roads. Draft
Manual.
iii
NSW FISHERIES. (1999). Policy and Guidelines for Bridges, Roads, Causeways, Culverts and
Similar Structures. (Eds. S Fairfull and S Carter). NSW Fisheries, Sydney.
Other suggested reading

AUSTROADS. (1991). Road maintenance practice. Ed. Phil Charles, Austroads publication No AP-12.
BRIGGS, J.D. and LEIGH, J.H. (1995). Rare or Threatened Australian Plants. CSIRO: Canberra.
CONTEXT AND ECOLOGY AUSTRALIA. (1996). Mornington Peninsula - Western Port Roadsides
Management Study. Volume 1: Report. Report to Mornington Peninsula - Western Port Roadside
Management Plan Steering Committee, 1996. Context Pty Ltd, West Brunswick.
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AGENCY. (1996). Best Practice Environmental Management in Mining -
Series of modules. Environment Protection Agency, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AUTHORITY DRAFT. (1996c). Best Practice Environmental
Management Guidelines - Stormwater Pollution Control - Major Roads and Freeways, Melbourne, Victoria.
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AUTHORITY. (1995b). Provisional Water Quality Investigations
Manual: preferred methods for sampling & analysis. Technical Report, Chatswood, NSW.
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AUTHORITY. (1996). Environmental Guidelines for Major Construction
Sites. Best Practice Environmental Management Series, Publication 480, Environment Protection Authority,
Melbourne, Victoria.
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AUTHORITY. (1996a). Managing Urban Stormwater. Draft released for
public comment, Volume I: Strategic framework, Volume II: Construction activities, Volume III: Treatment
techniques. Environment Protection Authority, Sydney, NSW.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AUTHORITY. (1997). Controlling erosion and sedimentation from
construction activities. Environmental Protection Authority, Sydney, New South Wales.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AUTHORITY. (1997). Managing Urban Stormwater: Treatment
Techniques. Environmental Protection Authority, Sydney, New South Wales.
ISRAELSEN, C.E., CLYDE, C.G., FLETCHER, J.E., ISRAELSEN. E.K. and HAWS, F.W. (1980). Erosion
Control During Highway Construction: Manual on Principles and Practices. National Co-operative Highway
Research Program, Report No. 221. Transportation Research Board, Washington, USA.
MOLL, J.E. (1993). Reducing Low-Volume Road impacts on the Environment: Success in the United States
Department of Agriculture Forest Service. In Low Volume Roads: Environmental Planning and Assessment,
Modern Timber Bridges and Other Issues. pp. 10-14. (Transportation Research Board. Transportation
Research Record, 1426.)
MCROBERT, J. & FOLEY, G. (1999). The Impacts of Waterlogging and Salinity on Road Assets: A
Western Australian Case Study. Special Report 57. [ARRB Transport Research Ltd, South Vermont, Vic].
MCROBERT, J. (1997). Biological diversity in transport corridors: road drainage management. ARRB
Transport Research Ltd. Research Report No. 302.
NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR THE CONSERVATION OF AUSTRALIA'S BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY.

(1996). Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories, Commonwealth of Australia, ACT.
QUEENSLAND DEPARTMENT OF MAIN ROADS. (1998). Roads in the wet tropics. Planning, design,
construction, maintenance and operation. Best Practice Manual.
QUILTY. J.A., HUNT, J.S. and HICKS, R.W. (eds) (1978). Urban Erosion and Sediment Control. Soil
Conservation Service of New South Wales - Technical handbook, Sydney, NSW.
ROADS AND TRAFFIC AUTHORITY. (1984). Guide to Sedimentation and Erosion Control. Roads and
Traffic Authority, Sydney, NSW.
ROADSIDES CONSERVATION COMMITTEE OF VICTORIA. (1995). Roadsides Management Planning:
Background and Guidelines. RCCV, East Melbourne.
VICROADS. (1996). Road Design Guidelines: Part 7 - Drainage. Section 7.6 Erosion and Water Quality
Control, VicRoads, Victoria.
WALLBRINK, S & STONE, G. (1992). Roadside Handbook: environmental guidelines for road
construction and maintenance workers. VicRoads, Kew, Victoria.
Part III Applications of Improved Drainage Management
PART III APPLICATONS OF IMPROVED DRAINAGE

MANAGEMENT
Purpose
The purpose of Part III of the manual is to:
present information on the application of good road drainage management which will drain roads
yet maintain biodiversity;
use case studies (both actual and hypothetical) to demonstrate examples of how roads are
affecting biodiversity in different environments across Australia and how improved drainage
design and management can be implemented.
Case studies
A Urban Environments - road runoff management
B Lowland Agricultural Regions - roads in wheatbelt catchments with a high

water table
C Semi-arid and Non-arable Lands - road design in regions with uncoordinated

drainage systems
D Major Roadworks Projects - erosion and sediment control

E Creek Realignments and In-stream works
Case Study A: Urban Environments - road runoff

management
Al Introduction
Two scenarios are presented in this section and worked examples for possible road runoff treatment options
are discussed to demonstrate the procedures to be followed when designing road runoff management
structures. These cases are merely examples for illustration purposes and it is acknowledged that there will
be many variations in the field to suit site and design conditions. Nevertheless, it is expected that the general
concepts and layouts of possible road runoff management options will be sufficiently generic for them to be
widely applicable to the range of field conditions encountered.
This section was prepared by Tony Wong, Peter Breen and Sara Lloyd, from the CRC for Catchment
The proposed road runoff management measures will often involve a combination of flow attenuation and
water quality improvements. The options relate solely to the management of runoff from the road and
assumes that catchment areas external to the road would have been diverted away from the road as is often
the case with road drainage.
A2 Scenario 1
The route of a proposed 4 km section of a highway is aligned along the valley of a creek. The proposed
highway is 40 metres wide and has a traffic volume in excess of 30,000 vehicle per day. The vertical
alignment of the highway is between 3 to 5 in above the 100 year flood level of the creek. A schematic
layout of this section of the highway is shown in Figure A. I.
Figure A.1 -Schematic Illustration of Road Horizontal Alignment and Location of Creek
A2.1 Selection of Design Event

The selection of the appropriate design standard for stormwater quality treatment measures is by necessity
different from that of stormwater drainage structures. Performance assessment of stormwater quality control
measures involves consideration of the long-term and cumulative effects of stormwater pollution abatement.
This involves computation of the effectiveness of these measures in the reduction of pollutant load (ie. the
product of concentration and discharge) transported to receiving waters in addition to consideration of
pollutant concentration reduction.
In designing stormwater quality control measures, the emphasis is no longer on the efficient and rapid
transfer of stormwater to the receiving waters. Instead, stormwater interception, detention/retardation and
retention are the principal primary objectives. The concept of treating the first flush is commonly adopted in
practice to achieve a high level of cost effectiveness of the treatment measure. This can be justified by the
fact that the majority of storm events with the potential to mobilise and transport urban pollutants to
receiving waters are events of relatively low rainfall intensity.
Continuous simulations were undertaken for major capital cities in Australia to establish the relationship
between volumetric treatment efficiency and the frequency at which the design discharge was exceeded. The
volumetric treatment efficiency was defined as the overall expected volume of runoff (expressed as a
percentage of the total expected runoff volume) which is conveyed into a treatment facility at a rate that is
lower than the design discharge of the facility. Simulations were carried out for catchments with critical
storm duration of 1 hour and the results presented in Figure A.2. The results are applicable for most urban
catchments with critical storm durations from 15 minutes to 6 hours and for the design of most types of
stormwater hydraulic structures. The curves demonstrate that the design standard of these facility need not
be set excessively high to gain significant benefits in the overall proportion of stormwater treated.
The curves in Figure A.2 show that all the capital cities considered tend to follow a similar relationship in
which in excess of 99% volumetric treatment efficiency can be achieved by adopting a design standard of 1
year ARL The results appear to be applicable across the various climatic regions of Australia, from the
tropical region represented by the city of Darwin, to the temperate region represented by the city of Perth.
100
CD
99.6
CD
Volumetric Treatment Efficiency (%)
CD
CD
Melbourne
CD
-a - Adelaide
7 Brisbane
CD
Darwin
Hobart
f Perth
CD
96.6
T Sydney
96
0 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3 as 4 4.5 5
Diversion Structure Design ARI (yrs)
Figure A.2-Volumetric Treatment Efficiency (Australian Cities)
A2.2 Computing the Design Flows

Peak runoff rates can be computed using the Rational Method, expressed as follows:-
1
Qpeak CIA
3.6
where c is the runoff coefficient (-0.95 for roads)
I is the design rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
A is the catchment area (km2)
The time of concentration for a km length of road can be estimated by assuming an overland flow velocity of
1 m/s giving a time of concentration of approximately 20 minutes. The corresponding design rainfall
intensities (Melbourne region) for the 1 year and 100 year ARI events are 24.8 mm/hr and 93.0 mm/hr,
respectively. The peak discharges for a 1 km length of the highway corresponding to these events are 0.26
m3/s and 0.98 m3/s, respectively.
The expected pollutant concentration conveyed in road runoff is estimated by referring to Section 4.2 with
expected TSS event mean concentration of 150 mg/l.
A2.3 Assessment of Stream Ecological Health
(i) Pre-development assessment of stream ecosystem health

For the purposes of this case study the Index of Stream Condition (ISC) method of ecosystem assessment
will be used to evaluate the potential impact of the proposed road development.
The ISC method assesses five components of stream condition:
Hydrology
Physical Form
Riparian Zone
Water Quality
Aquatic Life
Subindices for the various components are scored out of ten. The pre-development condition is shown in
Figure A.3 and compared against the likely post-construction ISC scores (see Part I, chapter 3 for more
details of the ISC method).
10
9
PRE-IMPACT POST- IMPACT
8
IEEE
3
HYDROLOGY PHYSICAL FORM RIPARIAN ZONE WATER QUALITY AQUATIC LIFE
ISC Sub-Indices
Figure A.3 - ISC ecosystem health scores for proposed road development.
(ii) Potential impact of the proposed road development on the receiving water stream ecosystem
The TSS concentration expected to be exported to the stream in road runoff is 150 mg/l. A conventional
drainage system would directly connect the road drainage to the stream via a hydraulically efficient drain or
pipe system. However because the catchment of the road drainage system would be small compared to the
catchment of the stream, the hydraulic impact of the road runoff on the flood disturbance frequency of the
receiving water ecosystem is assessed to be relatively small. As a consequence the hydrology score for the
post-development condition is 9 (Figure A.3).
The stream would experience the TSS pollutant as a pulse every time runoff occurred. The main impact of
the road runoff on the stream ecosystem would be the quality of the runoff. If this impact is not controlled it
can be expected to have a range of impacts on the stream ecosystem.
TSS pollution has a range of direct and indirect impacts on stream ecosystems. TSS pollution can physically
coat aquatic plants and limit light availability and consequently reduce growth. TSS is also a source of
nutrients and particles trapped in the channel can stimulate the growth of plants tolerant to sediment
pollution. However TSS pollution events will be frequent and occur after nearly every rainfall event. This
situation will favour plants capable of utilising high nutrient concentrations and/or able to grow rapidly.
These conditions favour either emergent macrophytes or various benthic algae. Experience suggests that
under low to moderate flow conditions TSS pollution will result in the dominance of emergent macrophytes,
whereas in higher flow conditions TSS pollution is more likely to result in blooms of various pollution
tolerant benthic algae that rapidly grow during extended inter-event periods. The impact of TSS in road
runoff will be significant on in-stream aquatic life (score =4, also in-stream fauna impacts below), but will
only have a limited impact on riparian zone condition which has been scored at 7 (Figure A.3).
TSS pollution has both direct and indirect impacts on stream fauna. High TSS concentrations can directly
effect fauna by fouling invertebrate and fish gills and interrupting gas exchange processes. Many stream
fauna feed by capturing particles from the water column. High TSS concentrations can seriously interrupt
this process and reduce the effectiveness of filter feeding strategies. Fauna that graze on surfaces in the
stream may also have the quantity of surface available food decreased by excessive TSS deposition.
Predatory animals that rely on visual cues are also disadvantaged by frequent increases in turbidity that
reduce the success of visual predatory activities.
Stream fauna are also indirectly impacted by TSS pollution because of its effect on their habitat. In streams
with riffles, the spaces between the riffle substrata, tend to trap particles and get filled up. This severely
effects the hydraulic and gaseous exchange rates in riffles and selects animals capable of tolerating low DO
conditions. Similarly stream fauna also respond to the TSS pollution induced changes in stream flora. For
example where a riffle has trapped sediment and been over-growing by filamentous algae, much of the
benthic fauna will be utilising the algae as both food and habitat. However this is a very temporary habitat
and regularly gets washed away in storm events.
TSS pollution from roads is also a transport medium for toxic pollutants such as heavy metals. Clearly
anywhere TSS from road runoff is deposited or trapped in the channel there will be some impact from the
toxic materials adsorbed to the particles. While the road runoff TSS would have some impact on the
condition of riffle habitats, its overall impact on the physical form of the channel is moderate and post-
development physical form has been scored at 6. However from the above discussion above it is clear that
the physical impact of the TSS on specific in-stream biota and their habitat can be severe and the post-
development aquatic life score has been reduced to 4 (Figure A.3).
From theory and practical experience it is quiet clear that if TSS concentrations of 150 mg/l from intermittent
road runoff was allowed to enter a stream ecosystem significant impact would occur. Experience suggests
that if concentrations entering the stream in events less than 0.5 year ARI event are controlled to 25 mg/l
major impacts can be reduced."
A2.4 Establishing Runoff Management Targets

It is evident from the above assessment of stream ecological health that the likely impact of the proposed
road is the degradation of water quality in the receiving waters. The contribution of the proposed road to any
increase in flows in the creek is expected to be marginal owing to the proposed road constituting only a small
percentage of the total catchment area of the creek. The frequency in habitat disturbance is not expected to
be significantly altered, and will be confined to the immediate vicinity of the stormwater discharge points, as
a result of the proposed road. However, the proposed road will be a high pollutant source and the possible
impact of this on the ecological health downstream was clearly outlined in the previous section. There is a
public good obligation on road authorities to implement road management measures to reduce the export of
road runoff contaminants to the receiving waters. These measures will often have an inherent flow
attenuation function and will therefore have the added effect of reducing any increase in flows, and
consequently habitat disturbances, in the immediate vicinity of the stormwater discharge points in the creek.
Target water quality will follow that recommended in the ANZECC guidelines. For this case study, TSS is
used as a reference water quality constituent and the target TSS outflow concentration is 25 mg/l.
A2.5 Option 1 - Buffer Strip

Stormwater management with this option involve the discharge of road runoff laterally to the creek via a
buffer strip (see Section 5.2.3) as illustrated in Figures A.4 and A.S. Stormwater flows as overland sheet
flow over a densely vegetated buffer strip. This option involves the uniform discharge of road runoff as
overland flow towards the creek as illustrated in Figures A.4 and A.S. The use of a vegetated buffer strip can
be expected to promote removal efficiency of TSS in road runoff of the order of 30% to 60% when designed
appropriately. Conditions limiting the effectiveness of buffer strips are the slope and terrain of the buffer
zone. Removal efficiency of fine particulates by buffer strips is expected to be low (less than 30% under
design flow conditions) and buffer strips are not suitable if effective removal of heavy metals, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons and nutrients are required.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Figure A.4-Plan Illustration of Buffer Strip Runoff Management Option

Buffer
S trip p; I......... ..
Highway
Figure A.5 -Section Illustration of Buffer Strip Runoff Management Option
Care needs to be taken in design to ensure that channelisation is avoided, particularly in steep slopes.
Generally, slopes steeper than 17% would result in formation of rills along the buffer strip resulting in higher
localised flow velocity and a significant risk of embankment erosion. Channelisation of overland flow path
would also reduce pollutant removal efficiency significantly. Under such circumstances flow spreaders in
the form of check dams and benches will need to be constructed at regular intervals along the face of the
buffer zone to promote uniform sheet flow across the buffer strip.
A2.6 Option 2 - Kerb and Channel/Buffer Strip

In circumstance of steep slope, it may sometimes be more appropriate to collect road runoff by means of the
conventional kerb and channel arrangement and discharging runoff at designated buffer strips. This has the
advantage of avoiding uncontrolled overland flow over steep terrain and thereby reducing the risk of erosion.
A designated buffer strip may be underlaid by rocks and geotextile fabric prior to planting to provide
additional protection against erosion. Figures A.6 and A.7 illustrate this option.
1 Check Dams
Figure A.6- Plan Illustration of Kerb and Channel &Buffer Strip Runoff Management Option
Figure A.7 -Section Illustration of Kerb and Channel & Buffer Strip Runoff Management Option
A2.7 Option 3 - Swale Drain and Discharge Pits

This option may be a more suitable option if the slope and terrain between the highway and the creek is too
steep or undulating. The stormwater drainage system involves the discharge of road runoff into a swale
drain aligned along the highway as shown in Figures A.8 and A.9. To ensure low flow rates along the swale
drain, discharge pits are located at regularly intervals (eg. 1 km interval) at which the stormwater is conveyed
to the creek via a pipe outlet.
Figure A.8-Plan Illustration of Swale Drain Runoff

Highway
Figure A.9 -Section Illustration of Swale Drain Runoff
Expected stormwater TSS reduction in appropriately designed swale drains, particular those with dense
vegetation would be of the order of 60% for road runoff in Australian conditions. Removal of particulate-
bound contaminants such as heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nutrients is expected to be
of the order of 20% to 30%. Key design considerations include the slope and width of the drain to avoid
excessive velocity (ie. less than 0.3 m/s for the design conditions) and a simple worked example is presented
in Section A.2.8.
A2.8 Option 4 - Swale Drain and Bioretention Zone

This option is necessary when a higher level of removal of fine particulates and associated contaminants is
required. The option involves the use of a grass swale as a pre-treatment facility for the bioretention
infiltration zone. The arrangement is similar to that shown in Figures A.8 and A.9 with the additional facility
of a infiltration bed in the vicinity of the outlet pit as illustrated in Figures A.10, A.11 and A.12. The use of
a bioretention zone is primarily to retain pollutants using a combination of biological and chemical processes
within the filter medium. Road runoff is first pre-treated at the swale drain for coarse to medium sized
particulates before the runoff is infiltrated into a filtration medium for retention of fine particulates and
associated contaminants. In relation to stormwater, the system is a detention system with filtered runoff
being collected at the base of the filtration medium by a perforated pipe for discharge to the receiving waters.
No runoff is retained in the bioretention medium for an extended period of time.
Bioretention
Grass Swale - Pre-treatment Zone
Zone
- _ 7
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -
FigureA.10-Plan Illustration of Swale Drain and Bioretention System for Managing Road Runoff
Swale Drain - Pretreatment Zone Bioretention

Zone
. t y jVV4
O
Figure A.1 1 - Longitudinal Illustration of Swale Drain and Bioretention System for Managing
Road Runoff
Outfall to
Receiving
-1 1
_01111.
Figure A.12 -Cross Section Illustration of Bioretention Media
The soil filter is to be made up of a mixture of coarse to medium sand of between 0.5 mm and 2 mm size.
There is currently limited data on the pollutant removal efficiency of infiltration systems. It is expected that
removal of TSS will be between 80% to 90% and the removal of heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons and nutrients will be of the order of 50% to 70% depending on the hydraulic loading of the
system. The hydraulic residence time in the bioretention zone would ideally be between 24 hours to 48
hours for effective stormwater treatment.
Key design specifications of bioretention systems are the proper selection of the above-ground detention
storage, compatible with the hydraulic loading of the system (defined by the hydraulic conductivity and the
depth of the filter medium) and the volume of runoff for the design event. Stormwater pondage duration
over the bioretention zone would generally be of the order of 24 to 48 hours following a storm event. Other
design considerations include the selection of appropriate vegetation species that can tolerate regular drying
of soil moisture and progressive accumulation of contaminants. Section A.2.9 presents a broad and
simplified worked example in the design of bioretention systems.
A2.9 Worked Examples - Swale Drain and Bioretention Zone

The following worked examples covers the design of swale drains and bioretention systems and may be used
a a general guide to design considerations of these treatment measures.
(i) Design of Swale Drain

The dimensions of the swale can be determined by using the Manning's Equation, with a Manning's n value
of 0.20. Generally, the longitudinal slope of the swale drain will follow that of the highway. The
longitudinal slope however should generally be between 2% to 4%, with flatter slope requiring under drains
to avoid extended pondage of water (and potential problems with stagnant ponded water) and steeper slopes
requiring flow spreader to ensure uniform flow conditions in the swale drain.
A trapezoidal section with a base width of 3 m, side slope of 1(v):3(h) and a longitudinal slope of 2% is
selected as a first trail of the swale drain. The depths of flow corresponding to the 1 year and 100 year ARI
event are computed using the Manning's equation with a Manning's n value of 0.20.
Try y=0.2m W=3.6m;Area =0.72m2;P=4.26m .. Q=0.16m3/s

y = 0.25 m W = 3.75 m; Area = 0.94 m2; P = 4.58 m .. Q = 0.23 m3/s
y = 0.26 m W=3.78m;Area =0.98m2;P=4.64m.. Q=0.25m3/s -1yrARIQ
The height of grass in the swale drain is to be approximately 0.3 m.

For y = 0.40 m; assume Manning's n = 0.15
W = 4.20 m; Area = 1.68 m2;P=5.53m Q = 0.72 m3/s
Try y = 0.42 m; assume Manning's n = 0.12
W = 4.26 m; Area = 1.79 m2; P = 5.66 m Q = 0.98 m3/s _ 100 yr ARI Q
Check Flow velocities:- 1 year ARI event; v = 0.26 m/s < 0.3 m/s ...OK
100 year ARI event; v = 0.55 m/s < 1.0 m/s ...OK
(ii) Design of the Sand Infiltration Bed of the Bioretention Zone

The depth of the soil filter and the provision of above ground detention storage are the two principal design
consideration when specifying the dimensions of the bioretention zone.
Three equations define the operation of this zone, ie.
L - Wbase - d
1. Hydraulic Residence Time (THRT) THRT -
Q max
where L is the length of the bioretention zone (m)

Wease is the width of the infiltration area (m)
d is the depth of the infiltration medium (m)
Qmax is the maximum outflow from the bioretention zone for the design event
(m3/s)
2. The required above ground detention storage (V) is dependent on the maximum infiltration rate (Qmax) for
the design event and can be computed by first assuming a simplified triangular shaped inflow and outflow
hydrographs as shown in the diagram below.
Imax Above-ground Detention

Storage V = (Imax-Qmax)tc
Qmax
1-t
Time
Referring to the above diagram, the above ground detention storage volume is expressed as follows:-
V =L - W - hmax = Imax -Qmax)'tc
where W is the average width of the ponded cross section above the sand filter (m)
L is the length of the bioretention zone (m)
hmax is the depth of pondage above the sand filter (m)
Imax is the maximum inflow to the bioretention zone for the design event (m3/s)
to is the time of concentration of the catchment (s)
-3-13-
3. The maximum infiltration rate can be computed using Darcy's equation, ie.
Qmax =kLW base hmax

d
where k is the hydraulic conductivity of the soil filter (m/s)
Combining the above three equations gives the following relationship between the depth of pondage above
ground and the dimensions of the bioretention zone, ie.
Imax
hmax =
LW kLWbase
to d
The design procedure involve first selecting desirable geometry properties of the bioretention zone such as
width, side slope, hmax and the depth of the infiltration medium d. The above equation can then be used to
determine the necessary length of the bioretention zone. For example, the following dimensions were
assumed in this case study:-
Imax = 0.26 m3/s to = 1200 seconds

k = 10-5 m/s
hmax = 0.33 m W = 4.0 m (assumed depth of 0.33 m)
Wbase = 3.0 m
d = 1.0 m
The above parameters give a required length of approximately 240 m.
The maximum outflow Qmax = k - L - Wbase ' h mdax = 2.38 x 10-3 m3/s
Check for hydraulic residence time:- THRT = L Wbase ' d 303,000 s - 84 hrs > 48 hrs ...OK
Qmax
It is noted from above that the depth of the infiltration medium can probably be reduced to 0.6 m to achieve a
hydraulic residence time of 48 hours.
The computation of the above ground storage assumes the bioretention zone to have no longitudinal slope as
shown in Figure A.11. It is important that the underlying perforated pipe maintains a slope of at least 0.5%
to ensure that the pipe is dry during inter-event periods to avoid root penetration of the pipe.
A3 Scenario 2
The route of a proposed highway crosses a creek as illustrated in Figures A.13 and A.14. The proposed
highway is 40 metres wide and has a traffic volume in excess of 30,000 vehicle per day. Runoff collected
from the 4 km section of the road discharges into the creek at the bridge crossing.
I 4km 01
Figure A.13-Illustration of the Vertical Alignment of the Proposed Highway
Figure A.14 - Plan Illustration of Proposed Highway and Creek Crossing
Computing the Design Flows

As is the case for the previous scenario, the design event for stormwater treatment measure is the 1 year ARI
event. The time of concentration for the 2 km length of road (on either side of the bridge) is estimated by
assuming an overland flow velocity of 1 m/s giving a time of concentration of approximately 35 minutes.
The corresponding design rainfall intensities (Melbourne region) for the 1 year and 100 year ARI events are
18.3 mm/hr and 66.9 mm/hr, respectively. The peak discharges corresponding to these events (computed
with the Rational Equation) are 0.77 m3/s and 2.82 m3/s, respectively.
A3.1 Option 1 - Swale Drain and Underground Pipe

This option would be most appropriate, especially if the vertical alignment of the road is relatively steep.
The system involves the use of swale drains to convey runoff from small sections of the road into a more
formal drainage system consisting of inlet pits and an underground pipe as illustrated in Figures A.15 and
A.16.
I I
---------------------------------/-
/
Grass Swale with

Inlets to Underground
Pipe at 1 km intervals
Figure A.15 - Plan Illustration of Swale Drain/Drainage Pit Option
Figure A.16-Longitudinal Illustration of Swale Drain/Underground Stormwater Pipe System
The hydraulic loading of the swale drain can be maintained at a relatively low level (to promote effective
pollutant removal) with the use of regularly spaced inlet pits (eg. at 1 km intervals similar to the system
described in Sections A.2.6 and A.2.7). The design of the drain to satisfy depth and flow velocity criteria is
outlined in Section A.2.8(i). The expected TSS removal efficiency of swale drains is of the order of 60%.
Corresponding removal of heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and nutrients is expected to be
lower at approximately 20% to 30% under design flow conditions.
A3.2 Option 2 - Swale Drain and Bioretention Zone

A variation to the Swale Drain and Underground Pipe option described in Section A.3.2 is the incorporation
of the bioretention zone in the 240 m section of the swale drain upstream of the discharge pit (as described in
Section A.2.7).
A3.3 Option 3 - Kerb and Channel & Treatment Systems
In site conditions where the available road easements is relatively small or where the terrain is steep, there
may be limited available options for locating stormwater treatment facilities along the highway.
Conventional kerb and channel may be required to convey road runoff into an underground pipe system.
Stormwater treatment measures may have to be located along the banks of the creek as illustrated in Figures
A.17 and A.18.
The full range of treatment measures such as buffer strips, swale drains and constructed wetland can be
utilised and their appropriate selection will depend on site availability, target pollutant and hydraulic loading.
The appropriate specification and design consideration for swale drains and buffer strips have already been
discussed in previous sections. Section A.3.4 presents a broad and simplified approach to the design of
constructed wetlands for road runoff management.
(a) Swale Drains and Buffer Strips

The slope of buffer strips should not exceed 17% to avoid excessive formation of rills along the face of the
buffer strip. The strip may be heavily vegetated with native species and the main design consideration is the
even distribution of outflow from the stormwater pipe system. This may take the form of a distribution
channel aligned along the creek as shown in Figure A.17. The discharge rate per unit width should be such
that flow velocity over the buffer strip is kept to below 0.3 m/s for events up to the 100 year ARI event.
(b) Constructed Wetlands

The use of a constructed wetland to treatment road runoff as an "end-of-pipe" treatment measure can be
expected to have high effectiveness in the removal of TSS in road runoff and moderate effectiveness in
removing nutrients, hydrocarbons and heavy metals. The target outflow pollutant concentration is achieved
by sizing the wetland to operate under a specified hydraulic loading to achieve the desired hydraulic
residence time. A typical arrangement is illustrated in Figures A.18 and A.19.
gure - an illustration o er an anne u er rip gong ree

Kerb and Channel

Arrangement
---------------
q
Kerb and Channel
Arrangement
Figure A.18-Plan Illustration of Kerb and Channel & Constructed Wetland
Typically, a constructed wetland system would comprise of a combination of vegetated (macrophytes) area
and open water area as illustrated in Figure A.19. The open water area is generally a deeper zone to
maximise the available detention storage and is intended for use as an inlet zone for further settling of
suspended solids and as a flow control for inflow into the vegetated area. Owing to its depth, the area is
generally grassed with all vegetation submerged during an event.
0* By-pass of Large
f
Flood Events PP_
Macrophytes Zone
Figure A.19 -Typical Layout of a Constructed Stormwater Wetland
The layout of a wetland system will vary depending on the number of objectives served by the wetland
system. It is generally advisable to locate at least some part of the open water zone upstream of the
macrophytes zone. A typical cross section of a wetland system is shown in Figure A.20. In most urban
design, the open water body forms an important urban feature and often requires some degree of protection
from stormwater pollution. In such circumstances, the macrophyte zone and a smaller open water inlet zone
are placed upstream of these water bodies as shown in Figure A.20.
Figure A.20-Functional Zones in Constructed Wetlands (not to scale)
A broad and simplified worked example showing the computational steps in sizing the wetland and the
layout of the wetland is presented in Section A.3.4.
A3.4 Worked Example - Constructed Wetland
(a) Wetland Functions

A combination of wetland morphology, available storage, hydrologic and hydraulic controls, and wetland
vegetation layout determine the overall performance of the wetland. The proportion of open water area to
vegetated area will vary depending on the nature of the inflow, particularly the general shape of the
hydrograph and the suspended solids size distribution. The storage volume of the wetland system is a key
design parameter which, in combination with the hydrologic control, defines the detention period of
stormwater in the wetland or the hydraulic loading of the system.
The open water area serves as an inlet zone to dissipate inflow energy, reduce flow velocity, distribute the
inflow uniformly over the macrophytes zone and capture heavy sediment. Large flows that would scour and
remobilised settled materials in the macrophytes zone would be diverted away at the inlet zone. The
protection of the macrophyte zones from scour imposed by excessively high flow velocities is an important
design consideration. If topography constraints preclude the provision of a high flow by-pass, the open
water zone will need to be designed to attenuate inflow to contain the maximum flow velocity in the
macrophytes zone to 2 m/s for the 100 year ARI event.
The macrophyte zone is a shallow, relatively tranquil part of the constructed wetland system within which
particle settling and adhesion to vegetation occurs. This zone is the central component of the wetland
system. Hydraulic loading of this zone is expected to be less varied owing to the hydrologic control
provided by the inlet zone
(b) Sizing of the Wetland

The required size of the wetland system is dependent on desired mean detention period of inflow to the
wetland and the size of the catchment. The performance of constructed wetlands in the removal of
stormwater pollutant may be computed using the 1s` order decay function, referred to as the k-C* model.
This equation expresses the outflow event mean pollutant concentration as a function of the inflow
concentration and hydraulic loading as follows:-
kA
Co=C*+(Ci-C*).e Q
where C, ; Co are the event mean pollutant concentrations of the wetland inflow and
outflow respectively (mg/I)
C is the pollutant background concentration (mg/I)
k is the pollutant removal parameter (-600 m/yr for TSS)
Q/A is the wetland hydraulic loading (m/yr)
For an event mean inflow TSS concentration of 150 mg/1, a background pollutant concentration of 10 mg/l
and a target mean outflow concentration of 25 mg/l; the above equation can be applied to determine the
required hydraulic loading, ie.
Q k 600
= 269 m/yr
AJC- C* ln(14.0)
Assuming a mean wetland depth of 1.5 m during the passage of the design event; the mean detention period
may be computed as follows:-
dmean - A 1.5
THRT _ = 0.0056 yrs 49 hrs, say 2 days
Q 269
The interaction between the desired detention period and the percentage of runoff to be treated at this level
defines the required detention volume of the wetland. This interaction is dependent on the climatic region of
the wetland as reflected by the intensity of rainfall, the inter-event dry period and the duration of rainfall
events. The interaction curves for Melbourne wetlands are shown in Figure A.21.
For a detention period of 48 hours and a hydrologic effectiveness of 95% (ie. treatment of 95% of all runoff
for a period greater or equal to 48 hours detention), the required wetland volume is 2.7% of the mean annual
runoff.
The mean annual rainfall in Melbourne is 660 mm and the mean annual runoff from roads may be
approximated by a volumetric runoff coefficient of 0.9. Thus the mean annual runoff for the wetland is
computed as follows:-
Mean Annual Runoff = Runoff Coefficient x Mean Annual Rainfall x Catchment Area
0.9 x 0.66 x 40000 = 23,760 m3
The required volume is thus 2.7% of 23,760 m3 or 642 m3.
Assuming a mean wetland depth of 0.75 m; the required wetland area is approximately 860 m.2
24
Hydrologic Effectiveness (%)
72
.01
o / o
120 i
240
/ / Detention Times (hrs)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Storage Volume as % of Annual Runoff Volume
Figure A.21 - Hydrologic Effectiveness of Wetlands in Melbourne (Wong & Somes, 1995)
(c) Other Design Considerations

Apart from the appropriate sizing of the constructed wetland, the design of wetlands and wet detention basins
for urban and agricultural runoff quality control requires attention to a number of other issues. For example,
EPA-NSW (1997) lists 12 objectives which are fundamental to wetland design. These objectives are listed
as follows:-
1. Location (addressed partly in (b))

2. Sizing (addressed in (b))
3. Pre-treatments (addressed partly in (b))
4. Morphology
5. Outlet structures
6. Macrophytes planting
7. Maintenance
8. Loading of organic matter
9. Public safety
10.Multiple uses
11. Groundwater interaction
12.Mosquito control
Poor wetland hydrodynamics and lack of appreciation of the stormwater treatment chain are often identified
as major contributors to wetland management problems. Wong and Geiger (1998) list some of the desirable
hydrodynamic characteristics and the design issues requiring attention to promote these characteristics in
Table A.1.
Table A.1
Desired Wetland Hydrodynamic Characteristics and Design Elements
Hydrodynamic Design Issues Remarks

Characteristics
Uniform distribution of flow Wetland shape, inlet and outlet placement and Poor flow pattern within a wetland will
velocity morphological design of wetland to eliminate short- lead to zones of stagnant pools which
circuit flow paths and "dead zones". promotes the accumulation of litter, oil
and scum as well as potentially
supporting mosquito breeding. Short
circuit flow paths of high velocities will
lead to the wetland being ineffective in
water quality improvement.
Inundation depth, wetness Selection of wetland size and design of outlet Regular flow throughput in the wetland
gradient, base flow and control to ensure compatibility with the hydrology would promote flushing of the system
hydrologic regime and size of the catchment draining into the thus maintaining a dynamic system and
wetland. avoiding problems associated with
stagnant water, eg. algal blooms,
mosquito breeding, oil and scum
accumulation etc.
Morphological and outlet control design to match Inadequate attention to the inundation
botanical layout design and the hydrology of the depth, wetness gradient of the wetland
wetland. and the frequency of inundation at
various depth range would lead to
dominance of certain plant species
especially weed species overtime,
which results in a deviation from the
intended botanical layout of the
wetland.
Recent research findings have

indicated that regular wetting and
drying of the substrata of the wetland
can prevent releases of phosphorus
from the sediment deposited in the
wetland.
Uniform vertical velocity profile Selection of plant species and location of inlet and Preliminary research findings have
outlet structures to promote uniform velocity profile indicated that certain plant species
have a tendency to promote
stratification of flow conditions within a
wetland leading to ineffective water
pollution control and increase the
potential for algal bloom.
Scour protection Design of inlet structures and erosion protection of Owing to the highly dynamic nature of
banks stormwater inflow, measures are to be
taken to "protect" the wetland from
erosion during periods of high inflow
rates.
Case Study B: Lowland Agricultural Regions - roads in wheatbelt

catchments with a high water table
131 Introduction
There are currently many hundreds of thousands of hectares of salt affected land in agricultural regions
across Australia and significantly larger areas with already high water tables, considered "at risk" of
salinisation sometime in the future.
Groundwater systems have responded to land use changes since settlement where principally deep rooted
perennial vegetation (trees and shrubs) have been replaced by shallow rooted agricultural plants (crops and
pastures) causing water tables to rise bringing salts to the land surface. Salinity not only affects agricultural
productivity and the biodiversity of natural waterways and associated ecosystems, but also road
infrastructure, where roads intersect saline groundwater discharge zones.
Early this century the relationship between clearing native vegetation and rising water tables and salinity,
was first observed and documented in Western Australiaiii (Wood 1924). Figure Bi illustrates this
relationship and the changes in the hydrological cycle brought about by clearing native vegetation.
Rainfall
4
Evapotranspiration
Figure 1311 -Changes in the catchment water balance since clearing

Source: Government of WA (1996)
Agricultural Regions affected by salinity occur in many parts of Australia, including:

south west Western Australia,
all cleared catchments in Victoria,
western slopes and central tablelands of New South Wales, and
south east South Australia.
Extensive clearing of agricultural areas right across Australia has caused rapid rises in water tables resulting
in extensive groundwater discharge and large increases in measured stream salinities. The most dramatic
increases in water tables were observed within only a few years of clearing in several monitored catchments
in Western Australia, indicating very little buffering capacity against the development of salinity.
Figure B2 shows how the watertable has risen by approximately 25 cm per year over the past decade, at
Merredin, about 300 km east of Perth, WA.
29,3186 1118/87 23/12/88 7/5,90 1919/91 31 /1 /93 1516,94 28110,95

10.00
10.50--
Depth to water (mBG)
11.00--
11.50--
12.00--
12.50
13.00
13.50
14.00
mBG = metres below ground

Source: Agriculture WA (unpublished)
Figure B2-A groundwater hydrograph indicating watertable trends typical of many wheatbelt catchments across Australia
The deeply weathered shallow granitic groundwater systems, typical of vast areas within the agricultural
regions of WA, have effectively `filled up' much more rapidly than groundwaters in the eastern States of
Australia. The time frame for salinity development in the Murray Darling Basin, for instance, has been
much longeri°
B2 Relevance to the road network

There are several issues within salt affected catchments related to drainage and management of the road
network. These relate to:
how roads can affect catchment hydrology (surface flows and groundwater movements) and impact
adjacent terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems;
the impact of salinity on road asset (concrete structures, pavements and roadside vegetation); and
the potential effects of road protection or remediation works on adjacent ecosystems.
B2.1 Impacts of roads on catchment hydrology in salt affected districts

The road network itself can have adverse environmental effects when flood waters pond behind roadways
with either silted or undersized culverts. The impacts of extended periods of inundation are exacerbated in
catchment areas with already high water tables.
The Case Study in this section illustrates these impacts and suggests a number of cooperative approaches by
which road managers and affected landholders can achieve mutually beneficial solutions.
Plate B1.
Undersized or silted culverts,
South Coast Highway, WA
(1997)
- shows the adverse environmental

impacts of ponding of surface
water behind road structures,
resulting in bare ground, erosion
and siltation.
B2.2 Impact of high water tables and salinity on the road asset
Effects on pavements and structures
The prime results of waterlogging and salinity on the road asset are:
Loss of pavement strength resulting in pavements being distorted primarily by traffic loading. The
occurrence of volumetrically unstable foundation materials such as expansive clays will also produce
distortion within pavements if the moisture content of these materials is able to fluctuate. Pavements
affected by rising water tables often result in rutting and other differential shape loss leaving rough
pavements with increased road agency and user costs;
Loss of bond between the pavement base and thin layers of bituminous surfacing, leads to increased
surface loss, potholes and increased maintenance;
High salt content in granular pavement base material will cause loss of bond between the base and thin
bituminous surfacing leading to widespread delamination and blistering of the surfacing materials.
Generally if the salt is introduced into the base via a rising water table, the effects of the increased
moisture content are more severe than that of the salinity;
Salt attack on concrete structures where the permeability of the concrete is such that an increasing salt
content within the concrete causes steel reinforcement to rust, expand and produce spalling of the
concrete cover with consequent higher exposure deeper within the concrete structure. The severity can
vary from surface deterioration to significant fretting and delamination in the evaporation zones; and
Following clearing, surface runoff will increase resulting in changed hydrologic conditions. Raised water
tables will further exacerbate increased runoff processes and subsequent erosion of bare salt affected
areas leads to siltation and diminishing capacity of culverts and other hydraulic structures.
A recent study (McRobert and Foley 1997)v indicates that there is around 230 km of main roads (and many
more kilometres of local roads) already affected by high water tables and salinity in south-west WA.
It would be reasonable to conclude that if rising watertable trends continue, the affected road length in WA is
likely to double over the next 10-20 years. This will mean a total of around 460 km, or over 6 % of the road
network, will be affected in these susceptible regions. Conservatively, this could mean an additional $50 -
100m (in today's $) in routine maintenance and reconstruction costs over this period. Though unquantified,
roads in other States are also being affected by rising water tables and salinity.
Plate B2.
Severe and localised pavement
rutting with small potholes,
Wandering - Nth Bannister
Road, south east of Perth, WA
(1997)
- these are typical effects of high
water tables and salinity on
pavements.
Plate B3.
Siltation of a box culvert in a severely salt
affected valley floor, Great Eastern
Highway, WA (1997)
- erosion of bare salt affected ground and
subsequent silt deposition at culverts reduces
their capacity and exacerbates ponding and
waterlogging upstream of roads.
Effects on roadside vegetation

Remnants on roadsides, as well as on private and public land, are being degraded by the hydrological
changes brought about by clearing. Roadside vegetation situated low in the landscape is susceptible to
waterlogging and salinity whereby rising water tables, particularly within wheatbelt catchments, have
already caused substantial losses of remnant vegetation.
Expanded periods of inundation is also testing the resilience of indigenous remnants already adapted to
moderately saline and waterlogged conditions. For instance in south west Western Australia, Wandoo and
salmon gum woodlands, as well as yate and paperbark communities all occur in broad valleys and are
therefore at high risk. Decline of roadside Red Gum communities in Northern Victoria is common as well as
roadside Mallee vegetation in the State's north west.
Around 87% of private land in south west WA has been cleared of all native vegetation. The retention and
improvement of roadside remnants has an important hydrologic function, as well as a principle role in the
maintenance of biological diversity. Roadside remnants will need to be preserved in a healthy state to ensure
water use at each site is maximised.
____
Plate B.4. Roadside remnants affected by salinity near Piawaning in the Wheatbelt North region in Western
Australia (1997).
B2.3 Potential effects of road protection or remediation works on adjacent ecosystems.

There are a number of options for road asset managers to reduce the impacts of high water tables and
salinity. Works carried out on a site specific basis can achieve sufficient `drawdown' to prevent pavements
and other structures being affected.
There are a number of approaches which could be investigated at each site:

Broadly, these are:
reconstruct and rehabilitate road ie raise the grade and use better quality and additional thickness of
materials to prevent moisture intruding pavements;
incorporate improved drainage (surface and deep) and/or groundwater pumping to lower water tables
locally;
plant high water using and salt/waterlogging tolerant perennial vegetation along road reserves or in
adjacent farmland; and
co-operate with local community groups working toward reducing groundwater recharge and lowering
watertable levels in the catchment areas.
The success of these approaches will depend largely upon the hydraulic properties of the aquifers and soils
which control the movement and storage of groundwater at each site. These would need to be investigated
before the implementation of works.
Importantly, there is potential to further aggravate salinity problems if inappropriate engineering options are
introduced. For instance, groundwater pumping and deep drainage options have potential to cause adverse
impacts on the ecosystems of the receiving waters of the residual saline discharge water.
There are a range of potential problems of drainage and pumping schemes.
These include:
disposal of saline drain or bore water will generally be into adjacent properties or into creek lines;
leading to increasing soil and stream salinities downstream, adding further pressure to already declining
remnant vegetation along stream lines and aquatic biodiversity;
difficulties in finding stable (well vegetated/not eroding) waterways to discharge large volumes of
surface runoff;
sediment movement and siltation off-site (largely due to poorly surveyed drains) where surface water
enters deep drains leading to gully erosion, and drain wall erosion or even slumping;
considerable soil excavation, which can cause problems in disturbing remnant vegetation, saline spoil
disposal and encourage weed species; and
implicitly changing the hydrology of nearby streams, wetlands and other sensitive environments.
Details about the types of investigations necessary to ensure the most appropriate techniques are employed
are outlined in Part II (chapter 2) of the manual.
B3 Effect of a Road Crossing on Catchment Hydrology and Salinity of Adjacent

Ecosystems - Case Study
South Coast Highway between Albany and Esperance, Western Australia
Many wheatbelt valley floors are susceptible to flooding, waterlogging and increasing salinity. Town sites,
roads and railways have often been sited within these valleys with little attention to natural drainage patterns.
Particularly in flat wheatbelt catchments even a small raised roadway can result in substantial ponding
upstream of the embankment.
About 30 km south of Jerramungup, the South Coast Highway is obstructing the natural flow of runoff water
from farmland (see Plate B5). There is a perception by landholders that the culvert capacity is insufficient
(either undersized or silted) and is causing increased salinity up-stream of the road crossing. These types of
land and water management issues can cause conflict between affected landholders and Road Authorities or
local councils.
B3.1 Issues
flood waters tend to pond behind roadways with either silted or undersized culverts;
productivity of farmland is affected due to inundation, causing plant death, bare ground and subsequent
erosion and siltation;
this damage is sometimes wrongly interpreted as the road `causing' salinity;
the relative contribution of roads (compared to farming activities) in terms of their hydrological impacts
catchment wide;
opportunities for cooperation between landholders, catchment coordinating groups and road agencies to
achieve mutual benefits.
$:.V
:4 :
7
Plate B5. Shows the undersized and silted culvert and the extent of damage upstream of the road crossing.
Figure B3 shows an aerial view of the affected area and the immediate downstream drainage system. It is
immediately obvious that over clearing and conventional cropping practices have led to increased recharge to
groundwater causing rising water tables and salinity in the valleys and drainage lines, and increased runoff
and erosion. These granite landscapes comprise deeply weathered clay profiles, and generally support highly
saline groundwaters (up to 30,000 ppm).
The surface drainage patterns are readily distinguishable and it is evident that the highway has changed the
surface hydrology of this sub-catchment. The relatively flat grades in this area will mean that even modest
obstruction of natural surface flows may cause problems on the upstream side of the structure in question.
Any extra accumulation of water on land already subject to either high water tables or waterlogging will
usually cause increased damage to plant growth and ultimately result in bare ground. Almost all plants
cannot tolerate salinity and waterlogging together. Any increase in waterlogging and inundation upslope of
the road will kill plants. Increased inundation can be even more devastating than waterlogging of the plant's
root zone and these effects will often be incorrectly interpreted as increased salinity upslope of the road.
Figure B3-Aerial photograph showing the highway crossing site, South Coast Highway.
Source: WA 2832 ALBANY - 5062 Jan. 1990.

B3.2 Possibilities for treatment at this site

Due to the accelerated runoff processes occurring on the farmland, it would probably be futile to even
contemplate the control of major flood peaks and prevention of periods of inundation at this site. A more
realistic approach would be to accept that, from time to time, there will be ponding upstream of this road
crossing. Consultation and co-operation with the landholder affected would be a good strategy to help
resolve misunderstandings and reduce conflict. A combined effort could then improve local drainage and
rehabilitate the site.
Broadly, the options will include:
Improving the surface drainage of the affected area by designing and constructing shallow drains
which will direct the water flow under the culvert more quickly;
even low level/small scale drainage improvements will, however, cause a channelling of water which when
discharged from the pipe may cause erosion of the drainage line downstream of the culvert. The outfall
should be designed in such a way as to spread the water and reduce its velocity to lower erosion risk;
rock gabions can be effective here
the drains could be designed in a herringbone layout where plants could be re-established on mounds to
raise them from the effects of waterlogging or inundation
since the site is already fenced, there is likely to be a good response to revegetation and regeneration of salt
tolerant species over time.
Increase the number and capacity of culverts;

typically, a culvert configuration of say, 2 x 200 mm or 1 x 300 mm pipe is used, and often the capacity
design does not consider that from time to time this will be blocked with straw debris or silted due to
erosion occurring upstream of the structure
the number of pipes and their size could be increased to 400 - 450 mm or even a series of box culverts may
be required in some situations; this would be expensive and possibly counterproductive if erosion and
siltation continue without treatment.
Construct a floodway along the line of the creek or drainage line bed, to minimise the effect on the
flood hydrograph;
- floodways of even 15 - 20 cm elevation may still pond water in landscapes of very flat grades. Also
floodways are unlikely to be feasible for a highway crossing as flowing water and debris dumped on the
road would pose a considerable safety risk.
Site investigations
Before any works are undertaken, there may be a need to carry out site investigations to determine the size of
the pond or flooded area being caused by the road, the overflow characteristics of the road and the effect of
the road on local watertable levels (if any).
The volume of water ponded upslope of the road crossing (following flood conditions) can be assessed by
measuring the level of the road crest relative to the ground surface contours upstream of the road. This can
be done by surveying the gradients of the drainage channel and bed, according to - 0.25 m intervals and up
to - 0.5 m above the elevation of the crest of the road, to determine the local elevation/storage
i
characteristics, or road `backwater' curves (as described in Davies et al. 1988)v
To determine the effect of the road on salinity, a transect of shallow monitoring bores could be installed,
extending from above the edge of the damaged area, through the site and across the road into the next
paddock, as shown in Figure B4. To determine the groundwater gradient across the site, the depth of water
in each well is usually measured relative to the surveyed level of the top of the bore casing.
distance across site
Figure B4 - Bore transect measuring the watertable level under a roadway crossing.
If a watertable `mound' is measured in the bores upstream of the road, then it will be evident that the
ponding due to the road has probably altered local recharge conditions and is contributing to local salinity
problems. The probability of a road crossing causing the conditions necessary to induce a discernible rise in
the watertable at this site is uncertain, but would seem quite small.
B3.3 Increased involvement of Road Authorities in catchment management

Although most of the land in wheatbelt districts is managed as private farms this case study demonstrates
that an increased involvement by the road agency (in this instance by Main Roads WA) would contribute to
improved catchment management in the region.
This case study is a good example of how only a second best environmental and engineering solution can be
attained by the Road Authority operating in isolation.
In these situations, for instance, increasing the capacity of culverts will be counter productive if their
capacity is continually being reduced by siltation. The only sustainable approach (which is also likely to be
the most cost-effective) is, in conjunction with the landholder, to work on stabilising the area immediately
upstream of the highway. Even if the affected area represents only a relatively small part of the catchment,
there will be benefits in reduced siltation. The potentially or currently affected area can be surveyed (as
described above) or mapped using an instrument which detects soil salinities. The site would then need to be
fenced and revegetated.
There are further avenues for cooperation at this site. The aerial photo (Figure B3) shows how one dam is
being filled from the table drain beside the road which is a good arrangement for the farmer and the Road
Authority. On the other side, however, there appears to be no visible relationship between roadside drainage
and a creek which feeds a dam. Closer collaboration with the landholder could achieve mutually beneficial
outcomes in terms of increased road drainage and water supply.
The issues raised at the highway site cannot be isolated from the much larger catchment wide questions,
relating to the effect of clearing and cultivation on the catchment water balance. The vast proportion of
recharge to groundwater in this sub-catchment is occurring on the private farmland. There is, however,
increasing evidence suggesting that considerable amounts of recharge also occurs in valley floors, and not
just in the surrounding catchment areas. Any ponding of water due to the road network, therefore has
potential to be contributing to additions to the watertable.
The aerial photo gives some perspective to these types of catchment management issues. It clearly shows
that over 95% of the farmland in this area has been cleared with only a few pockets of remnant vegetation
persisting. The roadside remnants are highly significant and show continuity for the length of the reserve,
other than adjacent the salt affected area. These roadside remnants are of vital importance in preserving the
remaining ecological and hydrological integrity of this catchment.
Case Study C: Semi-arid and Non-arable Lands - road design in

regions with uncoordinated drainage systems
C1 Introduction
Traditionally, low volume rural road design has been based on a desire to minimise construction costs and at
the same time, provide access to as many settlements as possible. In keeping with protecting existing
remnant values of rural and natural environments, any new roads in remote areas should be designed to
ensure the footprint of the road be as narrow as possible.
There is considerable scope for making low volume roads `low impact'. Location is an important factor in
the ultimate performance and impacts of a new road - well located roads minimise environmental impact.
Good location coupled with designing a road to minimise disruption to the natural surface hydrology are
essential elements of the successful construction of low-impact roads in rural environments.
With lower traffic volumes, less stringent safety requirements and performance generally is demanded from
roads in more remote parts of Australia. Road building in these less modified and natural environments
provides an opportunity for environmental considerations to be given an equal footing with the technical and
social goals of road establishment.
Plate C1. Mt Magnet-Geraldton Road, WA (1998)

- the road is not elevated on an embankment in a conventional manner but rather is aligned close to the natural terrain
characteristic of these non-arable lands.
C2 Road drainage designs to minimise disruption to natural surface hydrology

and downstream vegetation communities
Highway embankments will act as a barrier to natural overland flow patterns resulting in ponding on the
upstream side of roads and the creation of "drainage shadows" which can cause moisture stress to
downstream vegetation communities, in particular Mulga. Mulga can show signs of moisture stress due to
either drought (too little) or drowning (too much).
Mulga communities (comprising up to 70 different species - dominated by Acacias) obtain moisture from
sheet flow, either parallel with the terrain slope or by channel flooding, in semi-arid to and environments in
many parts of Australia. They form groves and intergroves developing in shallow depressions at right angles
to the plane of slope and also along defined channels°ii
Detailed mulga studies over a number of years have been undertaken for various sections of highway
traversing and lands in Western Australia (by the Mulga Research Institute at the WA Institute of
iii
Technology). Studies led to development of drainage treatments where there are significant mulga groves
which will be at risk to the effects of drainage shadows downstream of the road formation.
In many cases, even given the installation of adequate culverts, there will be interruption of existing drainage
patterns where the highway embankment intercepts the cross-flow component of surface runoff. The correct
design and installation of special "Mulga drains" to ensure that sheetflow is redistributed downslope of the
road is being implemented in parts of Western Australia.
A number of drainage designs are appropriate depending on the direction of sheetflow which is intercepted
by the road. These are aimed at restoring or mimicking as best as possible the pre-construction drainage
regime downslope of the road. These designs are shown in Figures C1 to C4 on the following pages.
ANZECC. (1992). Australian Water Quality Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Waters. National
Water Quality Management Strategy, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, ACT. (Australian and New
Zealand Environment and Conservation Council).
ii
ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AUTHORITY. (1995). State Environmental Protection Policy
(Waters of Victoria) - Draft Schedule F7 (Waters of the Yarra Catchment) and Draft Policy Impact
assessment. Environment Protection Authority, Publication No. 471, Melbourne, Victoria.
iii
WOOD, W.E. (1924). Increase of salt in soil and streams following the destruction of native
vegetation. J. Royal Soc. W.A. 10, pp.35-47.
iv
DYSON, P.R. (1993). An overview of groundwater systems and the dryland salinity problem in
Australia. In Proceedings, National Conference on Land Management for Dryland Salinity Control, Latrobe
University 28 September - 1st October 1993, pp. 78-80. Bendigo, Victoria.
V
MCROBERT, J AND FOLEY, G. (1999). The impacts of waterlogging and salinity on road assets:
a Western Australian case study. Special Report No. 57. ARRB Transport Research, Sth Vermont, Victoria.
vi
DAVIES, J.R., MCFARLANE, D.J & FERDOWSIAN, R. (1988). The effect of small earth
structures and channel improvements on the flooding of agricultural land in south-western Australia.
Technical Report 77: Division of Resource Management, Department of Agriculture, Perth.
vii
MAIN ROADS WA. (1997). Environment Management Manual. Environment Strategy group,
Main roads WA, Perth.
Viii
FOX, J.E.D. (1987). Mulga Study, National Highway Project, Report No. 9. Western Australian
Institute of technology, Perth WA.
SHED
w
HIGHWAY
SHEET FLOW SHEET FLOW SHEET FLOW
Figure C1 -Sheet flow parallel to road. There are no specific treatments required.
Source: Martinick and Associates Pty. Ltd. (1996).
Figure C2 - Flow confined to a defined water course. Where drainage is confined to a relatively well
defined watercourse or small number of channels, mulga can be protected by the provision of
suitable culverts of sufficient dimensions to ensure the flow is not disrupted.
Sheet flow can be redistributed by installation of additional culverts and sill drains constructed
at right angles to the direction of flow, to minimise moisture stress downslope of mulga groves.
Culvert spacing should match Mulga grove spacings.
SHEET FLOW
SPACNG Ci CULVERTS To $L T MUIG. CPOVES
EARTH LEVEE IF REIZUMEB
- I f
HIGHWAY
CULVERT
ffI 1\,NFLOW
ff
/ 1\.F'Law
LEVEL SILL ORAIN CONSTRUCTED ALONG CONTOUR
'4 10 W wo-q
MULGA GROVES
Figure C3 - Sheet flow at right angles to road.

SHEET FLOW
SPACING DF CULVERTS TO SLAT NULGA GROVES
EARTH LIVES EARTH LEVEE
HIGHWAY
IULVERT
CULVERT
fJ
FL
MULGA GROVES
Figure C4 - Sheet flow at an angle to road

C3 Low formation roads in semi-arid lands

Geraldton-Mt Magnet Road, Western Australia - case study
Low formation roads have a reduced level of the road centreline of around 300 mm above the
natural surface level (NSL), while high or standard formations have a reduced level of the road
centre line of up to 1 metre above NSL. These rolling low cost roads are typically `draped' over
the landscape and formed and then paved with 100 - 150 mm of `gravel' or friable rock such as
limestone, and then occasionally sealed directly on the formed surface.
Main Roads WA have perfected these road building techniques and there are substantial parts of
the network in the Mid-West Region (Geraldton and to the east) comprising low formation
roads. Favourable climatic, hydrogeological and hydrological factors, along with low initial
costs of construction, have encouraged their use in this region. Although these roads carry
relatively low traffic volumes (ADT typically between 50 - 100 vehicles), the traffic usually
comprises between 20 - 30% heavy vehicles including road trains transporting freight to service
the mining and pastoral industries.
The features of low formation design can potentially fit with the principles of environmentally
responsible design, these include:
rolling grades - usually very close to the natural terrain therefore minimising modification of
the existing drainage patterns and effectively facilitating the shedding of water and helping
to prevent ponding upstream of the road embankment
minimum earthworks - so that cuts and fills and the number of borrow pits are reduced
which lessens the overall disturbance of soils and reduces their exposure to erosion
careful culvert design (location, orientation and grade) to avoid scour - multiple culverts
installed only where necessary and pipe outlets designed so that outflow is spread rather than
concentrating flows.
Around 250 km of the Geraldton-Mt Magnet Road has been constructed as a low formation
road.
Plate C2. Floodway on Geraldton-Mt Magnet Road

The floodway facilitates cross-pavement drainage allowing the occasional high intensity flood
event to pass over the pavement.
The road drainage features of the Geraldton-Mt Magnet road consists predominantly of:
floodways designed to facilitate cross-pavement drainage thereby reducing scour of the
embankment and ponding of water on the upstream side of the road embankment,
turn-off drains located periodically to move local drainage off the road where it is discharged
into roadside vegetation communities, and
single or double piped culverts installed only where there are deeper natural channels.
These drainage features will allow flood waters to flow clear of the road formation, with only a
small head of water and reduced periods (if any) of inundation adjacent the road. These factors
help preserve the stability and strength of the embankment and road pavement materials, as well
as cause minimal disruption to the naturally occurring surface hydrology.
Plates C3. and C4. illustrate some of the drainage features of the Geraldton-Mt Magnet low
formation road.
Plate C3.
Turn-off drains ponding water
- if the correct grade is
maintained, drains are designed to
disperse rather than pond water,
therefore having minimal impacts
on nearby vegetation.
Plate C4.
Twin pipe culverts
- in this instance culverts are
poorly maintained and hence
silted and degraded.
By contrast the Great Northern Highway near Mt Magnet traverses similar terrain but has been
designed and constructed in a more conventional manner (on a raised embankment) requiring
the need for more elaborate drainage structures and is consequently not as `transparent' in the
landscape. Plates C5. and C6. illustrate the need for increased scour protection and installation
of larger culverts.
1.
M1.
It I
1 .
Plate C5. Scour protection, Great Northern Highway, 10 km east of Mt Magnet, WA (1998)
- this higher formation road requires scour protection at the floodway because under conditions of high
intensity rainfall a greater head of water will be retained on the upstream side of the embankment.
Plate C6. Multiple box and slab culvert, Great Northern Highway, Mt Magnet, WA (1998)
- there is a need for larger culverts to facilitate sheet flow.
Case Study D: Major Roadworks Projects - erosion and

sediment control
D1 Introduction
Major road construction works, including greenfield and upgrade projects, usually result in the
disturbance of significant areas of land. Surface vegetation is removed during the initial stages
of construction, causing compaction and exposing the soil. These conditions result in low
infiltration capacities and high runoff rates during rainfall, creating a high erosion hazard.
Erosion and sediment movement resulting from such conditions has many impacts. On-site
impacts may include physical damage to structures such as batters, road surfaces and access
facilities, and deposition of sediment in pits, culverts and other drainage structures. Off-site
impacts include siltation of streams, smothering of aquatic vegetation, and turbidity and nutrient
increases resulting in reduced aquatic biodiversity.
Box 1. Impacts of erosion and sediment movement

Onsite
erosion of road batters
erosion of road surfaces
blocking of pits, culverts and other drainage structures
Offsite
siltation of streams
blockage of drainage structures
smothering of aquatic vegetation
nutrient load increases into waterways
increased turbidity in waterways
D2 Erosion and sediment control

Soil erosion and the problems associated with sediment movement and deposition can be
minimised if erosion and sediment control measures are implemented. Erosion control refers to
`source' type measures that minimise the detachment of particles from the soil surface in the
first instance. Sediment control refers to `sink' type measures that maximise the removal of
sediment from runoff water before it discharges from the site. In general, sediment control
measures are more expensive to implement than erosion control measures," so where possible,
erosion prevention is the preferred method for water quality control.
Erosion control involves the protection of the soil from erosive forces, or the forces that tend to
detach soil particles. These forces are generated from raindrop impact and from the tractive
force of water as it flows over the soil surface. The different types of erosive force are
controlled in different ways. The only protection from raindrop impact is cover, and the
cheapest and most effective form of cover is usually vegetation. In the absence of vegetation, a
range of commercial products are available such as mulches, fabrics and hydro-mulches. There
are two principle strategies for protecting the soil from surface flow. Firstly, water should be
prevented from flowing onto the construction site by the use of diversion drains and catch
drains. Secondly, runoff water generated on site should be conveyed to discharge points via
channels that have been adequately designed to resist scour caused by the flowing water. This
involves selecting the correct location, size, shape, and lining for the channel.
Sediment control could also be termed `deposition control', as practically all the common
methods for removing sediment from construction site runoff water revolve around the `settling
out' (by gravity) of particles in the water column. Even structures which appear to act as filters,
such as sediment fences and straw bale barriers, really work via deposition. These structures
essentially operate as small dams, slowing the flow and allowing sediment to settle out. iii Even
more elaborate approaches to water quality control, such as constructed wetlands, work
primarily via enhanced deposition.iv
D3 Benefits of soil erosion and sediment control measures

Although the technology exists to minimise the impact of construction projects on water quality,
the reality is that on many construction sites erosion and sediment controls are assigned a low
priority, and are subsequently inadequately planned, poorly installed and infrequently
maintained.° These controls are sometimes seen by management, contractors and operators as
just another cost eating into the project margins. Preliminary investigations have however
shown that good runoff, erosion and sediment control can reduce operator costs in many areas
and can yield considerable economic advantages, in addition to the environmental benefits for
which they are designed. Costly repairs to road structures, and de-silting of drains and culverts
can be avoided. Experience in New South Wales indicates that the costs of implementing
temporary erosion and sediment control measures (eg. diversion banks and drains, sediment
fences, sediment traps, etc.) can be only 20% to 25% of normal clean up and decommissioning
costs (eg. pipe and culvert clean-out, embankment repairs and off-site work on neighbouring
properties, including de-silting of dams) at the conclusion of a project."
Based on these estimates, the cost of progressive implementation of erosion and sediment
controls pays for itself 4 to 5 fold throughout the life of the project. Good runoff water
management also reduces the down-time for plant and personnel following rain on the work-
site. Potentially expensive litigation arising from off-site pollution can also be avoided. In
Victoria and South Australia, corporations can be fined up to $1 million°ii for breaches of the
relevant environmental protection legislation. Similar penalties exist in other states and
territories.
Box 2. Benefits of good erosion and sediment control

reduced ecological impact on receiving environment
reduced community resistance to project
reduced clean up costs following construction
reduced down time for equipment and personnel
reduced exposure to the risk of environmental litigation
reduced costs of repairing on-site erosion damage to structures
improved relations with environmental regulators
improved corporate image for roads authority or contractor
improved prospects for winning subsequent project tenders
There are also considerable public relations benefits to be gained from erosion and sediment
control. Good environmental management contributes to community goodwill towards the
project, reducing potential conflicts with local residents. A company with a good environmental
profile will also find itself in a favourable position (all other factors being equal) for winning,
and delivering, future competitively tendered projects. These benefits are difficult to quantify,
though they are clearly appreciated by contractors and roads authorities alike. The promotional
brochure shown in Figure Dl demonstrates the type of promotional opportunities afforded by
good environmental management.
RTA
\0,4 ve-- Yr
T
Figure D1 - An environmental information bochure forthe Bulahdelah to Coolongolook deviation helps raise
awareness and promotes the environmental reputation of the organizations involved.
D4 Erosion and sediment control methods

There are many good quality texts available explaining the technical aspects of erosion and
sediment control for construction sites. These aspects include;
erosion and sediment control methods
product selection
design considerations
installation instructions
The references section of this manual lists a range of local and international texts covering these
viii,ix,x,xi,xii,xiii
topics in detail. In addition, many of the State Road Authorities in-house manuals
state.xiv,xv,xvi,xvii
cover these issues to varying degrees for their particular Given the existing
level of coverage, this manual will not attempt to reproduce this type of information. Instead,
readers are referred to the published texts, and this manual will focus on some of the less well
represented areas of erosion and sediment control. It is interesting to note at this point that
while there are many publications relating to the construction and installation of erosion and
sediment controls, there are relatively few references relating to the effectiveness of these
controls. This issue is discussed in more detail in Part IV "Identification of Research and
Monitoring Needs".
D5 Erosion prediction
Erosion prediction for road construction sites generally has two objectives. Firstly, one may
wish to estimate the quantity of sediment likely to be generated from a particular area so that
erosion and sediment control structures can be appropriately selected and sized (eg.
sedimentation basins). These types of predictions may also be necessary to satisfy
environmental regulatory requirements. Secondly, one may wish to estimate potential surface
flow velocities to aid the selection of scour protection measures. In both cases, erosion
estimation allows different control strategies to be evaluated on a cost/benefit basis.
For large areas such as batter slopes and works areas, erosion rates are predicted using simple
Equationxviii (USLE).
empirical erosion models such as the Universal Soil Loss While these
models are relatively simple to use, the results need to be interpreted with some caution. The
soil loss predicted represents an annual average, which (for Australia) means that the erosion
rate it predicts is expressed in tons/hectare.year for an average year. In regions where the
annual rainfall is highly erratic, the annual average soil loss will be very different to the soil
loss measured in any particular year. Also, for short term projects carried out in areas with
strongly seasonal rainfall patterns, an annual average erosion estimate will mask large seasonal
fluctuations in erosion rates. These limitations within the model structure reflect the regions for
which the model was originally developed (the mid-west USA) and the agricultural focus of the
model.
It should also be noted that the terms èrosion rate' and `soil loss' as used in relation to the
USLE do not represent the quantity of soil leaving the site, but rather the quantity of soil
detached from the soil surface. Much of the soil detached during the erosive process does not
leave the site as it is re-deposited in surface roughness elements and localised depressions. The
term `sediment delivery' is used to describe the amount of soil actually leaving a site or
catchment. The sediment delivery is estimated by applying a `sediment delivery ratio' to the
erosion rate predicted by the USLE. The sediment delivery rate is therefore some fraction of the
soil erosion rate.
Erosion prediction usually involved the prediction of the erodibility of the soil from the soil
properties. The erodibility of the soil is a measure of the susceptibility of that soil to erosion by
water. The erodibility is affected by soil physical and chemical properties, such as texture,
organic matter content and structure. For example, sandy soils have lower runoff rates, and are
more easily detached, but less easily transported than silt soils. Heavy clay soils are not easily
detached, but lower infiltration rates may lead to greater runoff and increased erosion. Silt soils
tend to have the highest erodibility since the particles are easily detached and transported and
the subsoils are often consolidated leading to higher runoff rates.
For the design of stable channels and drainage lines, erosion prediction is focused on the
prediction of thresholds for scour initiation. These types of predictions are different from the
USLE type of erosion predictions. The initiation of scour is estimated from surface flow
characteristics and soil properties. Surface flow characteristics can be estimated using
conventional hydrological estimation techniques, the most popular of which is the rational
methodxix. The objective of these approaches is usually to assist in the selection of appropriate
surface materials to resist scouring by concentrated surface flow.
D6 Best practice for erosion and sediment control

One method for assessing the effectiveness of erosion and sediment control measures is to
compare a project's endeavours with a set of best practice guidelines (based on the most up to
date interpretation of what the best practice entails). Figure D2 depicts the six essential
principles for attaining `best practice' environmental management on construction sitesxx
These principles are:
understanding of project constraints
appreciation of environmental objectives
pro-active implementation of pollution abatement measures
consistent utilisation of pollution control measures
monitoring and performance evaluation
rapid response to inadequacies
While these principles have been framed with general environmental management in mind, they
are also applicable to more specific issues such as erosion and sediment control.
Appreciation of
environmental objectives
Understanding of Monitoring and

project performance
constraints Jr evaluation
Environmental
Best Practice 4414446
Consistent Rapid
utilisation of response to
measures inadequacies
Pro-active implementation of
erosion/sediment control measures
Figure D2-The six essential principles for attaining 'best practice

environmental management on construction sites.
(Source: Adapted from Wong 1998)
Project constraints include physical factors such as climate, topography, size of the construction
site, and location of existing infrastructure and services. Economic constraints and completion
targets will also influence the types of erosion and sediment control measures used to achieve
the environmental objectives.
Environmental objectives may be quantitative (eg. maximum concentration of suspended solids
entering a watercourse should not exceed a certain value) or qualitative (eg works will adhere to
best practice guidelines). Key site personnel should be aware of these objectives and the
relevant environmental legislation concerning compliance.
Pro-active implementation of pollution abatement measures can be achieved if planning for
erosion and sediment control is included as an integral part of the planning and design stage of
the project. Erosion and sediment control plans should be developed for specific project
activities. Effective implementation of these plans will depend on clear communication between
the various levels of on-site personnel.
Successful erosion and sediment control will also require regular monitoring and performance
evaluation. This includes an ongoing program for inspection and maintenance of temporary
control structures and both short and long term evaluation of the impacts of construction
activities on water quality. Regular monitoring will also ensure that inadequacies are quickly
identified and responded to appropriately.
Plate D1. Temprory erosion control measures require regular inspection and maintenance to
remain effective. This photo shows a straw bale sediment barrier that has failed.
The before-after control-impact (BACI) experimental design is a robust approach for

monitoring impacts on stream health. It can be used to determine if the difference in stream
health/water quality between upstream and downstream sites was greater after a potential impact
than before the potential impact. For there to be evidence of an impact, the difference between
upstream and downstream sites must increase following the potential impact.
a b
Change between before and after: No evidence of any affect:

no impact no impact
10-
River Health
River Health
before before before after after

before after after
up down up down
up down up dow n
location and time location and time
c d
Change between upstream and Change between upstream and

downstream: no impact downstream differs between before
and after: Impact occuring
10 10
River Health
River Health
0
before
up
i
before
down
after
up
after
dow n
before
up
before
down
after
up
after
dow n
location and time location and time
Figure D3 -The before-after/control-impact (BACI) experimental design allows impacts due to construction activities to
be clearly identified in isolation from changes due to other causes. Note that only in example dis there any indication
that the construction activities may be having an impact
(Figure reproduced from W SL 1998).

D7 Case study - The Bulahdelah to Coolongolook deviation

D7.1 Background
As part of the ongoing upgrade of the Pacific Highway, the Bulahdelah to Coolongolook
deviation in northern New South Wales was approved for construction in 1996. The 22
kilometre deviation commences at Frys Creek, north of Bulahdelah near the intersection of the
Pacific Highway with The Lakes Way, and rejoins the existing Pacific Highway approximately
one kilometre south of Kennedys Gap Road, approximately 4.5 kilometres south of
Coolongolookxxl. The route is illustrated in Figure D4. The project involves the construction
of a dual carriageway with a depressed median, design speed of 110 km/h, 1500 m radius curves
and a desirable maximum gradient of 6%. Construction was completed in late 1999.
Many thanks to John Wright (Toepfers Rehabilitation, Environmental, and Ecological Services
Pty Ltd), Ray Moore (Connell Wagner Pty Ltd), Dick Whibley (NSW RTA) and David Bax
(Thiess Contractors Pty Ltd) for information and assistance with the compilation of this case
study.
ERM
...,.. Figure 1.1 LOCALITY PLAN
Figure D4-Map showing the route for the Bulahdelah to Coolongolook deviation of the Pacific Highway.
(reproduced from ERM Mitchell McCotter (1998))XX 1

The region receives a high rainfall (1300mm/pa) and includes some steep topography with
dense drainage networks. The deviation traverses areas of state forest and crosses a number of
wetlands and waterways, including Traynors Creek, Boolambayte Creek, Stoney Creek,
Kearnes Creek and the Coolongolook River. The project has placed a high emphasis on
erosion, sedimentation, and water quality issues, and is therefore an interesting case study for
the protection of aquatic biodiversity during road construction projects.
D7.2 Environmental Management Plan

An Environmental Management Plan (EMP) was developed to ensure that all environmental
objectives were met during the design, construction and maintenance phases of the project. The
project was let as a design, construct and maintain (DCM) contract for a 10 year period. This
structure provides considerable continuity for environmental management between the various
phases of the project. The environmental objectives were determined from the RTA's
Environment policies and from the stated objectives contained in the Environmental Impact
Statementxxiii (EIS) for the project. Within the EMP specific plans were developed for
vegetation management, fauna management, and erosion and sediment control. The relevant
components of the erosion and sediment control plan and the fauna management plan will be
discussed in this case study.
D7.3 Fauna Management Plan

The EIA for the Bulahdelah to Coolongolook deviation identified the Green Thighed Frog
(Litoria brevipalmata) as a threatened species occurring within the preferred route for the
deviation. Measures were therefore taken to minimise the impact of the project on this species.
Specially designed frog bridges (Plate D2), frog culverts (Plate D3), and frog tunnels (Plate
D4) were constructed to minimise the impact of the project on this species.
Plate D2. This low level bridge on the Bulahdelah to Coolongolook deviation was constructed
across a known wetland habitat of the Green Thighed Frog. The bridge will allow the frog to
move beneath the road formation. and hopefully prevent the genetic isolation of two populations
on either side of the road.
Plate D3. This 1.8m by 2.4m drainage culvert has been modified to facilitate the movement of
the Green Thighed Frog beneath the road formation. Note the rock and debri placed on the
culvert floor to create microhabitat and improve protection for species using the culvert.
Plate D4.
Under-road tunnel to facilitate the
movement of the Green Thighed Frog
beneath the road formation. Note the
`textured' floor of the tunnel designed to
retain wet and dry areas under a range of
flow conditions.
An ongoing monitoring program has been established to assess and quantify any impacts of the
road construction and operation on the frog population. A captive breeding program is also
being developed to facilitate the establishment of the species in other suitable habitats if the
need should arise.
D7.4 Erosion and Sediment Control Plan

A professional soil conservationist was engaged to coordinate and oversee all erosion and
sediment control aspects of the project. Components of the erosion and sediment control plan
relevant to the planning and design phase include;
determination of the soil types traversed by the deviation
estimation of the erodibility of each of the soil types
identification of Acid Sulfate Soils or Potential Acid Sulfate Soils
identification of rock waste suitable for rip rap or rock beaching
design and location of sediment basins for both sediment removal and toxic spill functions
plan to maximise road runoff to sediment basins
determine the location and stabilisation needs of open drains (eg. Catch drains, berm drains)
determine batter treatments
design culverts in sympathy with appropriate stable runoff diversion during construction
design structures to ensure the dissipation of concentrated runoff
Components of the erosion and sediment control plan relevant to the construction phase
included:
preparation of site specific erosion and sediment control plans (for field reference) for the
different sections and phases of the project. This was an ongoing task as works progressed.
formation of a specialist labour team to construct temporary controls including sediment
fences, drop down drains on fill batters, and to flocculate sediment basins etc
the utilisation of cleared vegetation (windrows) for construction of sediment traps and filters
good topsoil management to help ensure the success of the later revegetation program
the separation of clean from turbid runoff
early construction of permanent drainage structures including, culverts and associated inlet
and outlet protection facilities, sediment basins and traps and catch drains
maximising the diversion of turbid runoff water into sediment basins
sediment basin management of turbid water immediately following rain, via low flow
filtration, flocculation using gypsum, or pump-out for construction purposes
locating stockpiles of soil material in low hazard areas clear of watercourses. Additional
protection to be afforded by vegetation, diversion banks and sediment fences if required
the progressive and continual implementation of temporary erosion and sediment controls,
such as diversion banks, diversion drains, sediment fences and sediment traps
the implementation of erosion controls to compliment sediment controls lower in each of the
roads sub-catchments
progressive revegetation of disturbed area using appropriate species

the control of erosion during the construction of embankments
the diversion of stormwater runoff into pits and the stormwater drainage system as soon as
possible
erosion and sediment control at associated sites such as access roads and tracks, office and
compound sites, workshop areas, concrete batching plants, crushing and screening plants and
extraction sites
control of the deposition of soil on adjacent roads
regular maintenance and inspection program (once a week) for all erosion and sediment
control structures. Additional site inspections immediately following rainfall. Review and
update of erosion and sediment control program as required
turbidity monitoring in adjacent watercourses
documentation of all erosion and sediment control activities
disposal of removed sediment in stable area where further pollution will not occur
D7.5 Self assessment, monitoring and environmental audits

Hold points were implemented in work procedures to ensure relevant environmental protection
measures were in place prior to the commencement of specific works.
An environmental audit schedule was also developed to enable regular auditing of relevant
project activities.
D7.6 Record keeping and documentation

It was important that sound record keeping practices were adopted during all phases of the
development and implementation of the erosion and sediment control plan. Clear
documentation of objectives, actions, and environmental data allowed potential and actual
environmental impacts to be identified and managed. Documentation may also assist the road
authority to demonstrate due diligence if exposed to environmental litigation. Activities
recorded included;
progressive erosion and sediment control plans
inspection reports and site notes
monitoring results
self assessment activities and results
register of non-conformance's
register of corrective action
meeting minutes, formal letters, and general correspondence
complaints
Plate D6.
Plate D5.
Erosion control techniques on the Bulahdelah
Wide, shallow, rock lined drains have been to Coolongolook deviation. Concrete spoon
installed to convey runoff water safely to creek drain discharges through riprap into the
lines. drainage line. Culvert has been fitted with an
energy dissipater.
Plate D7.
Catch drains on cut
batters should be
established as early as
4.\
possible to divert clean

runon water away from
the construction area.
Plate D8. Rapid reseeding of this fill batter with sterile rye grass has reduced the potential for
erosion. Good vegetation cover provides one of the best erosion prevention measures.
Plate D9. Sediment basin for the treatment of road construction site runoff. Note the temporary
(geotextile) and permanent (concrete) inlet protection measures.
D7.7 Construction
As part of the erosion and sediment control plan, a new approach to sediment-trapping is being
trialed at the Bulahdelah to Coolongolook deviation site. In addition to the normal sediment
fences and straw bale structures, timber windrows are being used to help stop sediment moving
off the work site. The windrows are constructed from the vegetation cleared from the works area
. A procedure has been developed for the construction of the windrows in consultation with the
roads authority, the fire authority and an erosion and sediment control professional.
Procedure for the construction of Timber Windrow sediment traps

constructed from timber down to and including in size 100mm girth
timber pushed into place by dozer to position immediately outside Fill Batter toe
smaller timber such as tree heads shall also be used in windrow to assist in the trapping of sediment
windrows should be kept to a maximum height of 1.5 m and a maximum width of 3.0 m
the length of each windrow shall be a maximum of 50 m, at which a break of 10 m shall be made,
before the next windrow starts (to provide a `fuse break' to minimise fire hazard)
all windrows to be located on the lower side of existing slopes below fill embankments and in gullies.
No windrow will be located on the top side of existing slopes
tree stumps will not be incorporated into windrows
all work should be confined to the road reserve
D7.8 Maintenance
An integral part of any erosion and sediment control plan is the maintenance of the control
structures themselves. Maintenance tasks may include the removal of sediment from behind
sediment fences and straw bales, repairs to scours in drainage lines, and the reinstatement of
failed or damaged temporary structures. A visual evaluation of the effectiveness of the erosion
and sediment control system for each drainage area should also be made. As roadworks
proceed, runoff water can be concentrated in different areas, and temporary structures will need
to be relocated or improved to cater for these changed conditions.
__
________
ii
.
1;
f
:J
:
Ii
Plate D10. Silt barriers can quickly become overloaded, especially in

areas where no erosion controls are in place. Sediment must be
removed regularly for these structures to remain effective.
Sediment basins are commonly used to treat runoff water from road construction sites prior to
discharge to waterways. A practical checklist (see Box 3) for use by the work crew was
developed for the maintenance of sediment basins on the Bulahdelah to Coolongolook deviation
project site. Note that the àcceptable' level of turbidity for water release will vary between
states, regions, and specific projects.
Box 3. Checklist - Maintenance of sediment basins.

1. Inspect sediment basins following rain to ascertain action.
2. Sediment basins where water is to be utilised for construction purposes - no immediate
action.
3. Sediment basins <30% full of water - no further action.
4. Sediment basins > 30% full of water - action required as follows:
i. Examine water quality visually. For a simple test, collect a jar of water and
assess whether the water can be `seen through' .
ii. If water appears satisfactory as per (i), water may be released by opening the
valve after verifying the quality by testing with a turbidity meter and recording
reading. (Note that no water is ever to be discharged without testing first with a
turbidity meter)
iii. If quality is not satisfactory as per (i) or has failed testing with the turbidity
meter as per (ii), the basin should be flocculated by the addition of bulk gypsum.
The average basin may require up to half a backhoe bucket of gypsum, but this
quantity will vary depending on the type of clay present and the chemical
composition of the water. The gypsum should be evenly spread over the surface of
the water.
iv. Flocculation should be achieved within 24 to 36 hours.
v. On reinspection, if visual test is not satisfactory, more gypsum should be added
to the basin.
vi. If water appears satisfactory, water may be released by opening the release valve
after verifying quality by checking with the turbidity meter and recording reading.
vii. Water exiting the pipe should be checked to ensure it is not causing erosion.
Partly closing valve to reduce the flow rate may improve the situation.
viii. Valves must be closed immediately after water has drained from basin.
5. Water quality management of sediment basins must be implemented without delay after rain.
6. During the above process sediment basins should be checked for any maintenance
requirements (eg, wall slumping, overtopping of wall, erosion of spillways, desilting etc)
D7.9 Training
The training of site personnel at all levels was an integral part of the implementation of the
Erosion and Sediment Control Plan. Three different types of training were conducted:
1. Site Induction
2. Erosion and sediment control awareness courses
3. Opportunistic training for construction specific issues (eg. Sediment basin water quality
management).
The 4 hour site induction included occupational health and safety, site procedures, quality issues
and environmental issues. The environmental component contained a specific component on
erosion and sediment control, however it was considered that this was insufficient training in
this area and a 4 hour supplementary course was developed to specifically address these issues.
The erosion and sediment control awareness course was attended by all site personnel, including
management, contractors, and plant operators. Management was briefed to introduce the
course to demonstrate the high level commitment to the concepts and principles being
presented.
The awareness course utilised course notes, visual aids, and interactive discussions to facilitate
communication of the relevant concepts. Local examples and slides were used to help make the
presentation relevant to the current project. Feedback and questions were encouraged
throughout the course. Theoretical concepts learned during the classroom component were
reinforced with a field inspection of erosion and sediment control measures. At the end of the
course, employees completed an evaluation of the course to provide for ongoing improvement
of the content and teaching methods.
As the need arose, opportunistic information exchange sessions were organised to address
specific local environmental issues. These sessions, as well as the awareness courses, were often
conducted during wet weather down time, so as to avoid any impact on project schedules.
Information brochures were also produced explaining the environmental management of the
project and these were disseminated amongst employees and contractors (see Figure Dl).
In addition to improving the environmental outcomes of the project as a whole, a commitment
to environmental training also fulfilled EPA licence requirements, and will assist the road
authority to demonstrate environmental due diligence.
D7.10 Operational phase

The sediment basins used for runoff water quality control during the construction phase will be
used for the containment of hazardous spills during the operational phase of the project. All
runoff from the road formation is discharged to one of the approximately 100 sediment basins
along the length of the deviation. A novel approach to the containment of spills has been
RTAXXiv
developed by the NSW involving the use of a negatively graded discharge pipe. This
method allows a design volume of insoluble pollutant (can be either heavier or lighter than
water) to be retained in the basin automatically (see Figure D5 for details).
Some possible spill scenarios are presented below.
1. The basin is full to the top of area (b). A pollutant (20, 000 litres) that is lighter than water is
caught by the basin. This pollutant displaces the water in area (b) and as this area has a
greater capacity than the pollutant spilt it remains in the basin.
2. The basin is full to the top of area (b) A pollutant (20, 000 litres) that is heavier than water is
caught by the basin. This pollutant displaces the water in area (c) and the water remains in
the basin
3. Due to a long dry spell the basin water level is at the top of area (c) there is 40,000 litres
capacity in the basin before any pollutant escapes. The lower plastic pipe is always sealed
and is used only to remove pollutant when required.
1SOmm HOPE pipe witi 20mm holes

of l Omm [=--titres on 4 runs. Provide
removable cap to hop of prpe -Polluf ion control. pvslcansf ruclioi;
negatively graded 100 din. PVC pipe
50mm Gf. pipe support posh. outlet near rut/fil line
[lamp with 2 stainless al cap be6A ends during ronsf ruction ph-l
sr&rI r'mminn hanrk. [
- star picket borh ends above spilluuy level
rrl Min. 70007 I Jr. ccpor ity

Him. 20770 litre copncily
n nm. aooo7 cl.r rcoadlr
71-~
-Airtiglrl ;Dint
300 CpIr'nr fo. ponds w!t! rack base,
Pie pushed in min. 6C0 !a- earfli
hosed ponds
Figure D5-Design details of a sediment pond wall fitted with a negatively graded discharge
pipe forthe retention of insoluble pollutants.
The design shown in Figure D5 will retain a given volume of pollutant until the basin begins to
overflow from the high flow discharge point. To prevent the loss of trapped pollutant during
high flow events, oil baffles can be fitted to the high flow discharge points. This type of design,
shown in Plate D11a-c will allow the retention of pollutants even while the basin continues to
discharge uncontaminated water. Any lighter than water pollutants, including most petroleum
products, will be trapped behind the barrier. Note that this design is unsuitable for soluble
pollutants.
Plate D11. Oil baffles can be fitted to sediment basins to prevent the release of toxic spills even
when the basin reaches capacity. This design will work for liquids lighter than water and will
retain most of the pollutant while the basin is discharging water from the overflow during peak
flows.
(a)
The baffle is made of
compressed board and is fitted
across the high-flow
discharge channel of the
sediment basin.
W!.
(b)
:
Note the lower lip of the

?
baffle is below the level of the

-
high flow discharge channel.

Any lighter than water
pollutants, including most
petroleum products, will be
trapped behind the barrier.
(c)
This type of design will allow
the retention of pollutants
even while the basin
continues to discharge
uncontaminated water. Note
that this design is unsuitable
for soluble pollutants.
Case Study E: Creek Realignments and In-stream Works
El Introduction
The legacy of past planning has led to situations where arterial roads and freeways are often
located in creek valleys. These reserves are usually linear in nature and contain limited
residential housing due to flooding constraints. In recent years, conflict over the use of these
areas of open space has increased. Environment and water management authorities are
increasingly insisting that their "asset" (ie. the waterway, water, and its biota) should not be
considered as just another obstruction to highway development. In the past, creeks have often
been placed underground, or realigned parallel to the road, reshaped, and concrete lined for
hydraulic efficiency. The increased hydraulic efficiency reduces the width of land required to
service a given design storm. Other government authorities are now suggesting that the road
planning authority should give equal consideration to the creek alignment as is given to the road
alignment. Where the two are in conflict, it may be that the existing road alignment should be
reconsidered.
In addition to major works such as creek realignments, roads authorities are often also involved
in minor works in and around the stream bed and banks. This type of work may include rock
beaching along bridge abutments, temporary water crossings for construction purposes, and
energy dissipation structures at culvert outlets into waterways.
The current philosophical and regulatory position with regards to creek realignments and steam
bed and bank works is very different for each of the Australian states and Territories. In some
jurisdictions, the ecological health of the waterway is a high priority for the waterway manager.
In other cases, the relevant management authority is largely concerned with the hydraulic
efficiency of the channel, with environmental considerations taking a low priority. Roads
Authorities will generally be required to consult with and seek approval from a number of
government agencies before embarking on activities which may interfere with waterways.XXV
E2 Road Construction and Waterways

E2.1 Identify objectives of works
The traditional approach to waterway design was based on flood control, human safety, and the
protection of infrastructure and residential assets. While these objectives are still of prime
importance, ecological and aesthetic values are increasingly high on the list of community
values for urban waterways. The final waterway design will represent a balance of functional,
economic, ecological and aesthetic values.
When realigning and creating a new waterway, the first question which needs to be asked is
"Exactly what type of waterway am I trying to create/recreate?". In urban areas, the existing
stream is often in a highly modified state prior to the onset of road developments, and may bear
little resemblance to the original natural stream condition. For example, many of the creeks to
the east of Melbourne originally consisted of a chain of ephemeral wetlands and swamps.
Drainage of the wetlands for housing and the increasing imperviousness of the catchment due to
urbanisation, has led to the development of permanent watercourses. In many cases these may
be seriously degraded with unstable and eroding banks and channels. In such cases the option
of recreating the original aquatic ecosystem is not realistic as the catchment hydrology has
dramatically altered and the land area for ephemeral wetlands is no longer available.
Plate El.
The Koonung Ck,
Melbourne, showing
serious signs of
degradation including
unstable and eroding
banks, siltation, and
weed infestation.
It is important to clearly identify and document the objectives of the proposed creek works at
the planning stage. There will be many stakeholders in the proposed works, including, but not
limited to, the roads authority, the water management authority, the Environmental Protection
Authority local residents and community groups. Each of these groups may have different
priorities for the realignment of the waterway, including economic, ecological, hydrological,
aesthetic, and public health and safety considerations.
Natural channels rarely remain fixed at a single location. Channel meandering is a dynamic
sediment.xxvi
geomorphological process involving continuous erosion and deposition of These

natural processes can be problematic in urban areas where space is limiting and fixed
infrastructure is often located close to the channel bed. In these cases the reconstruction of a
natural stream is not an appropriate objective. A better objective in this case may be the
construction of a waterway with a high level of "naturalness", or natural appearance, as opposed
to a truly dynamic and natural stream.
In human terms, the ecological value of a "natural" area is often measured in terms of
ecosystem diversity and the abundance or proportion of native species. These factors can be
managed through maintenance of appropriate flow regimes and water quality.
E2.2 Legislation
The activities of roads authorities on the beds and banks of watercourses have the potential not
only to breach statutory prohibitions relating to pollution but also to offend miscellaneous
statutory provisions designed to protect watercourses from unauthorised obstruction, diversion
or interference. They may also be subject to the environmental management requirements of
statutory authorities established to protect water quality. Marine and Fisheries legislation may
also contain general prohibitions against unlicensed pollution or disturbance of watercourses.
Laws relating to water pollution and waterways vary significantly from state to state. Readers
are referred to more specialised texts on Environmental Law, particularly Environmental Law
Bates,xxvii
and Road Reserves (Part 2, Protection of Watercourses) by Dr Gerry for more detail
in this area.
E2.3 Environmental Management Plans

An environmental management plan (EMP) is a planning tool used by many roads authorities to
ensure that the measures identified and commitments made in the environmental assessment
process are delivered in the construction and operational phases of the project. The EMP is
therefore a project specific document detailing the environmental protection requirements to
mitigate and minimise environmental impacts. Works of sufficient scale to incorporate creek
realignments would generally justify an Environmental Impact Assessment and the preparation
of an EMP. Details of EMP's and methods for maintaining water quality from construction
sites are described in detail in Case study D "Major Roadworks Projects and Erosion and
Sediment Control".
E2.4 Design considerations

Inappropriate design can lead to unsustainable channel configurations and high long term
maintenance costs. Waterway design must incorporate hydrological, morphological, ecological,
water quality, economic, social and aesthetic factors.
Consideration should be given to the quantity of sediment entering the realigned stream reach
from the catchment above. Stream velocities should be high enough to continue to transport the
sediment through this reach, yet not be so high as to cause bed and bank erosion.
E2.5 Decision checklist

Waterway diversions can significantly impact upon the quality of aquatic ecosystems. They
also entail considerable costs. The development of an appropriate design will call upon many
specialist areas of knowledge including hydrology, aquatic ecology, botany, soil science,
landscape architecture, civil engineering and planning. The decision checklist in Table El is
provided as a guide to the kinds of questions and issues which may need to be addressed during
the planning, construction, and operation phases.
FOLEY, G. (1997). Low Formation Sealed Roads. Contract Report CR 6002, prepared
for Main Roads WA (ARRB Transport Research Ltd. South Vermont, Victoria).
ii
KING, T. (1997). Low tech erosion and sediment control - Best practice site
management. In Proceedings of the Stormwater and Soil Erosion '97 Conference, 9th - 12th
September 1997, Melbourne.
iii
KOUWEN, N. (1990). Silt fences to control sediment movement on construction sites.
Technical Report No MAT-90-03 Ontario Ministry of Transportation, Canada.
iv
WONG, T.H.F., BREEN, P.F. & LLOYD, S. (1998). Water Sensitive Road Design
Guidelines: A discussion paper on designing roads for protection of aquatic ecosystems, report
in preparation. CRC Catchment Hydrology, CRC Freshwater Ecology, Monash University,
Caulfield, Victoria.
V
TAI, B. (1996). Compliance with green legislation. Australian Planner. 33 (3) pp. 142-
47.
vi
BEAUPEURT, L. AND WRIGHT, J. (1998). Selling erosion and sediment control to
the construction industry. In Proceedings of the Stormwater and Soil Erosion '97 Conference,
9th - 12th September 1997, Melbourne
vii
BATES, G. (1997). Environmental Law and Road Reserves. ARRB Transport Research
Special Report No. 55 April 1997.
viii
QUILTY. J.A., HUNT, J.S. and HICKS, R.W. (eds) .(1978). Urban Erosion and
Sediment Control. Soil Conservation Service of New South Wales - Technical handbook,
Sydney, NSW.
ix
SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE. (1992). Urban Erosion and Sediment Control.
New South Wales Soil Conservation Service, Sydney.
X ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION AUTHORITY. (1996a). Managing Urban
Stormwater. Draft released for public comment, Volume I: Strategic framework, Volume II:
Construction activities, Volume III: Treatment techniques. Environment Protection Authority,
Sydney, NSW.
xi
ISRAELSEN, C.E., CLYDE, C.G., FLETCHER, J.E., ISRAELSEN. E.K. and HAWS,
F.W.(1980). Erosion Control During Highway Construction: Manual on Principles and
Practices. National Co-operative Highway Research Program, Report No. 221. Transportation
Research Board, Washington, USA.
xii
GARVIN, R.J. (1979). Guidelines for minimising soil erosion and sedimentation from
construction sites in Victoria. Soil Conservation Authority: Kew, Victoria
xiii
INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS AUSTRALIA. (1996). Soil erosion and sediment
control - Engineering guidelines for Queensland Construction Sites, the Institution of Engineers,
Australia.
xiv
VICROADS. (1996). Road Design Guidelines: Part 7 - Drainage. Section 7.6 Erosion
and Water Quality Control, Vicroads, Victoria.
xv
Op cit. MAIN ROADS WA. (1997).
xvi
ROADS AND TRAFFIC AUTHORITY. (1984). Guide to Sedimentation and Erosion
Control. Roads and Traffic Authority, Sydney, NSW.
XVii
QUEENSLAND DEPARTMENT OF MAIN ROADS (1998). Roads in the wet tropics.
Planning, design, construction, maintenance and operation. Best Practice Manual.
Xviii
WISCHMEIER, W.H., AND SMITH, D.D.(1978). Predicting rainfall erosion losses.
Agriculture handbook 537. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 58pp.
XIX
PILGRIM, D.H. (1987). Australian Rainfall and Runoff. A guide to flood estimation.
Volume 1. (The Institution of Engineers Australia: Canberra)
XX
WONG, T.H.F. (1998) Towards best practice in environmental management of
construction sites. Unpublished report, Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University.
XXi
ERL MITCHELL MCCOTTER (1998) Bulahdelah-Coolongolook Deviation
Environmental Management Plan. Revision 1.
XXii
Op cit. ERL MITCHELL MCCOTTER. (1998).
XXlll
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT. (1990). Bulahdelah to Coolongolook
Deviation and working papers. (Kinhill Engineers)
Xxiv
ELLIS, P. (1998). Personal communication. Roads and Traffic Authority of NSW, Road
Design and Standards, Road Technology Branch.
XXV
Op cit. BATES, G. (1997).
XXVi
BROOKES, A. & , F.D. SHIELDS JR. (1996). River channel restoration. (John Wiley
and Sons:West Sussex, England).
XXVii
Op cit. BATES, G. (1997).
Table El. A decision checklist of biological considerations for creek realignments or in-stream works
Item Yes lib Nbybe Comments

Planning phase
Is it feasible to divert the road around the creek, instead of the creek around the road?
Is the construction of a bridge feasible to avoid disturbance to the creek?
Have the primary objectives for the new realigned vatervAay been defined and agreed upon ?
Has an environmental management plan (EMP) been produced and implemented for the project?
Has a pre-construction (baseline condition) biological and water quality survey of the creek been conducted?
Has the soil type of the proposed alignment been determined?
Is public access to the waters edge desirable?
Has the relevant legislation been considered and permits been granted?
Is there the provision for distributed storage within the realignment?
Has construction been scheduled for periods of low rainfall and/or flow?
Has construction been scheduled to avoid conflict with breeding or migratory activities of aquatic species?
Construction phase
Has the minimum area of creek been disturbed at any one time? Can the project be undertaken in stages?
Have temporary bank stabilisation measures been undertaken (for example, geotextile lining)?
Has a demonstration area or test section been provided to contractors as a guide?
Are more natural looking materials available?
Do culverts allow for the movement of aquatic species?
Have appropriate aquatic plant species been selected for revegetation?
Has suitable habitat been provided for species identified from the biological survey?
Has consideration been given to rehabilitation of upstream area of vaterway?
Operational phase
Has a post-construction biological and vater quality survey of the creek been planned?
Has a program for inspection and maintenance of works and vegetation establishment been developed?
E2.6 Water quality management during construction

Any construction works in or near the stream bed have the potential to significantly impact upon
the biological health of the stream. If the waterway is of a high biological value, it is essential to
carry out some type of assessment prior to the initiation of works so as to establish the baseline
environmental condition of the water way. If the waterway is significantly degraded, a baseline
study can also help prevent the roads authority from being inappropriately assigned the liability
for water quality or biological degradation. A range of methods for assessing stream health
exist. These can be broadly grouped under the following headings:
1. surrogate physicochemical measures,
2. direct assessment of biota, and
3. integrated assessment of the broad physical, chemical and biological environment.
Each of these approaches have advantages and disadvantages, and at present no single approach
is widely applicable in all situations. The adoption of a particular approach needs to be
considered within the scale of the project and the site specific details of the situation in mind.
These approaches are discussed in more detail in Part I, Section 3.5 "Current means for
assessing ecological health of streams".
A robust experimental design is essential regardless of which approach to stream health
assessment is selected. Ideally, a before-after control-impact (BACI) experimental design
should be used to determine if the difference in stream health/water quality between upstream
and downstream sites was greater after a potential impact than before the potential impact. For
there to be evidence of an impact, the difference between upstream and downstream sites must
increase following the potential impact. Figure D3 in Case Study D provides a hypothetical
example of the types of results which may be obtained and the conclusions that can be drawn
from this type of research.
E2.7 Road runoff discharge

Runoff water from the freeway surfaces may contain high levels of pollutants. Therefore runoff
water from the freeway should not be discharged directly into the waterway. In locating the
new watercourse, consideration should be given to the placement of road runoff retention and
treatment structures as discussed in Part I and II of this manual. Stream banks should be
protected from discharge from culverts using appropriate energy dissipation structures.
E3 Case study : Realignment of the Koonung Ck for the Eastern

Freeway extension, Melbourne.
E3.1 Introduction
In the early 1980's a 2.7 km extension of the Eastern Freeway resulted in the undergrounding of
the entire length of the adjacent Koonung Ck into a large 1 in 100 year drain. At the planning
stage for the next extension of the freeway from Doncaster Road to Springvale Road, it was
proposed that further significant sections of the creek would be placed underground at a number
of locations along the 7 km extension of the freeway. Consultation with the community and
authorities responsible for waterway management led to the decision to keep the Koonung
Creek as open and natural as possible with minimal undergrounding. This approach required
major creek works which included significant realignments, erosion control for the existing bed
and banks and significant rockwork stabilisation.
This case study has been adapted by Grant Shaw' from a paper titled "Bed and Bank
Stabilisation of Urban Watercourses" given at the International Erosion Control Association
(Australasia) 6th Annual Soil and Water Management Conference "Earth, money, and water".
Melbourne, October 20`h -23rd, 1998.
The works were constrained by available land, with the width of open space ranging from 70m
to 250m. The six lane freeway therefore consumed much of the valley at several points.
Encroachment of residential development into the valley meant that the minimalist approach of
preserving the existing creek location would not be possible without the economically and
politically unpopular acquisition of residential land. A proposed bike path running parallel to
the creek also limited the space available for the realigned creek. The site constraints also
imposed limitations on access for future maintenance of the creek and its banks. Loss of much
of the associated flood plain and the requirement for no increase in the 1 in 100 year flood
levels, meant that flows needed to be almost entirely contained within the realigned cross-
sections. Given the above constraints, stabilisation by natural rockwork was considered the best
option for this creek. Other approaches to increase the stability of a creek are available, but
were not considered the most appropriate in this case.
Prior to this project there had been no other equivalent creek treatment of the scale proposed.
At the time there was a general lack of understanding, of the requirements of this type of
construction. This was the case at all levels of the creek realignment works, from planning,
through to design and construction. Traditional `hard engineering' design criteria demanded
tight tolerances, even surfaces and uniform cross-sections. The successful construction of a
more natural creek required a `soft engineering' approach with variable cross-sections,
heterogeneous rock sizes and uneven, jagged surfaces.
E3.2 Design objectives

The creek realignment needed to take into account a number of issues, including the capacity to
carry design flood without erosion, water quality and aquatic biodiversity considerations, urban
amenity and aesthetic considerations, constraints of adjacent land usage, asset protection and
fiscal constraints. Among the more significant design requirements incorporated into the
contract specifications were provisions to: ii
maximise the length of open creek and provide a diverse creek environment by adopting
meandering creek alignments and variable bank slopes, heights, and invert widths
provide rock beaching for the creek invert and lower sections of the creek bank, and extend
the beaching up the banks to 300mm above the 100 year flood level where the banks are
steeper than 2:1 and/or water velocities exceed 3.5 m/s.
use local rock for the rock beaching
minimise in-stream barriers to allow for the free movement of indigenous fish and
installation of fish ladders at level differences.
design for the 1 in 100 year discharge
adopt maximum velocities in sections of the creek which are not rock lined of 2.5m/s
adopt minimum widths of 3m for the invert of the creek, with desirable maximum slopes of
the bank of 2:1
E3.4 Construction
Achieving the desired outcome for the creek was a learning process. Early attempts tended to
produce engineered treatments, with straight alignments, smooth batters and uniform invert
widths. As each section of the realigned creek was completed, the quality of the work
improved, and new construction techniques were developed and adopted. The contract for creek
works included the requirement for short test sections to be constructed for approval by the
Superintendent prior to the initiation of works on the remainder of the creek. This reference
section was then used as a standard by which the remainder of the rock lining works could be
assessed for acceptability.
For long term bank stability, the correct placement of the toe rock is critical. This rock is the
key point in protecting and supporting the upper bank rockwork. The toe rock must be keyed
into solid in-situ ground. This must be to a minimum of 50% of the rock diameter, but can be
up to 75% of the rock diameter. For the freeway realignments of Koonung Creek, 1.2 to 1.5
metre diameter rocks were used. The weight of the rock was an important factor in addressing
localised bank pressure points which would occur as the creek sought to re-establish its own
equilibrium during periods of high flows. It also enabled the interlocking necessary for
structural integrity. There was a need to minimise the potential for localised failure and
subsequent rework. The toe rock was critical in being able to achieve this.
E3.5 Stability issues

The placement of the toe rock was staggered in order to maximise the points of contact and
improve interlocking between rocks. This also resulted in variations in surface heights between
rocks which contributed to the final overall visual appearance.
Bank slopes were varied. The maximum slope allowed was 1.5 horizontal to 1 vertical due to
the tight site constraints, with a preferred slope of 2 to 1 or flatter. Bank rock sizes for realigned
sections were specified from 0.9 to 1.2 metre diameter. For general stabilisation works the rock
size reduced to a range of 0.45 to 0.9 metre diameter. Localised erosion control of existing
banks utilised fully graded rock placed on the bank to a thickness of 1 metre. The requirements
to lock the rocks into one another means that the best fit will produce aesthetically pleasing
surface variations. In addition, the actual laying process compared to past practices of laying
adjacent rocks to a uniform level and finished surface.
With all rock-work, it is imperative that all voids in and around the rocks are in-filled. This is
achieved with what is referred to as shot-rock. This is a quarried material collected from the
quarry floor after blasting and consists of fines through to a maximum diameter of 150 mm.
This is used progressively to ensure that any cavities or over-excavation are fully filled at the
time of rock placement. Excavated soil is not sufficient as a stand alone medium to be used in
filling around the placed rock-work as it readily washes away during periods of high flows, with
resultant voids remaining. The next high flow results in the water more readily entering the
rock-work, with further wash-out of fines resulting. Eventually the ongoing process can cause
localised failure.
It should be noted that the shot rock is a sacrificial media and there will be some loss occurring
until the creek equilibrium is established with successive high flows. However, in practice, the
majority of the shot-rock does lock in sufficiently to stop the voiding process. Laying bank
rock-work separately first, then attempting to follow up and fill the ìn-between' voids by
sprinkling the shot rock over the top of the completed rockwork does not achieve the same long
term result. Material tends to be wasted by being more readily washed away and the critical out
of sight voids behind the rocks are not properly filled. The final finishing off of the in between
voids included a 50/50 soil/mulch component with the shot rock to assist revegetation.
Vegetation establishment is crucial for the control of erosion and the provision of habitat for
aquatic species.
Plate E2. Voids in and around rocks are filled with `shot rock' to prevent erosion of the
underlying soil. Finishing off involves filling the remaining gaps with a 50/50 soil/mulch mix to
assist with revegetation.
E3.6 Aesthetics
It was important the contractor and construction crews understood the expected outcome for a
finished natural appearance. In order to effectively achieve this, it was preferable that a person
worked with the operator as a spotter to overview and direct the operator on manipulation of the
rocks to ensure satisfactory replacement. Not every rock picked up for the next placement will
necessarily be the correct one to readily drop into place. This sometimes requires that the rock is
removed, turned around, or sometimes discarded for another rock to provide a better fit. This is
where the spotter can assist the process. If a spotter is not used, then the operator needs to
regularly get out of the excavator and take a closer look at what has been done - especially from
a distance and/or from the opposite bank. Viewing the work area from the cabin of the machine
gives a different perspective to the rock placement that can affect the perceptions of the finished
product. To this end, continuity in works programming and the use of more experienced
contractors generated an improved end product.
Where bedrock was encountered, breaking and ripping techniques were used that resulted in an
òver' and/or ùnder' break so as to produce a random non-uniform surface.
Figures El, E2 and E3 indicate some of the design features for natural stream reconstruction
cross sections. These concepts have been developed through theory and by trial and error
during the construction of a number of creek rehabilitation projects.
Diagrammatic only,
Not to Scale)
SAAW S''7I.1Slh0 S
eTeea Re -AK«rekt 706%&
All affected areas of embankment
to be stabi I i sed/protected with ,7#e &" Sutlaa - Reekcdoak pod ti on of top
rocksvaries
i ntendve revegetati on as requi red.
Gaps between rocks to be plated out.
'e `P0G4*e 7 )
bank rockwork ;
typ. dia. 0.9 - 1.2 m dia;
voids around rocks to be filled with' shot rock', and mi nor
gaps fi l led with a sterile non-dispersive soil/mulch
mixture for intensive planting.
invert rock (as required),

fully placed;
[y p. di a. 0.5-0.75 m;
voids to be filled to 50% dia with
'shot rod'' to have I ow water
flowing over and around the
rocks
Note rod'work to include a range of rocks wi thi n the specified typical diameters.
Figure El - Design features for realigned creek cross sections - high volume flows.
end ( Diagrammatic only,

Not to Scale)
8 ,E949Sr OW
e 4 e e k ,Re- ligow gt 1O. 4
z. All affected areas of embankment
to be stabilised/protected with 7#e Sectlou - Roe&wi position of top
rocks varies
94" )
intensive revegetation as required.
Gaps between rocks to be planted out.
7 MC Vo&me
fully graded bank rocks;
typ. dia. Dso = 0.45 m;
mmn. 1.0 m bank thickness ;
voids around rocks to be filled with `shot rock', and
minorgapsfilled with a sterile non-dispersive
soil/mulch mixture for intensive planting.
invert rock (as required),

fully placed;
typ. dia. 0.5 - 0.75 m;
voids to be filled to 50% dia
with `shot rock' to have low
water flow i ng over and around
the rocks.
.AlcIhournc \VaIer
Note :rockwork to i nclude a range of rocks within the specified typical diameters.
Figure E2 - Design features for realigned creek cross sections - medium volume flows.
5110"M &N*d (Diagrammatic only,

Not to Scale )
SAW S?, 19 9&4W0*' iP

CS'
&444 $wdiou : 77e ew S"a" - Roeikadozk
position of top
rocks vanes
4 All affected areas of embankment

to be stabilised/protected with
intensive -g-ti- as equired.
Gaps between rocks to be planted at.
height
fully graded bank rocks vanes
typ. dia. Dso = 0.45 m;
n. 1.0 kthickness;
ve voids around rocks to be filled with `shot rock', and minor
revegetatooo
a a gaps filled with a sterile non-dispersive soil/mulch
mixture for intensive planting.
3 (m'in) al-- ve bank work

'include larger
bank layback placed rocks
Ii
11[llx.k-nl' Vi .1t1 r
vent rock (as required ), fully
placed;
typ. dia. 0.5 m;
voids to be filled to 50% dia with `shot
rock' tohavelow water flowingover
and around the rocks.
Position of toe rock
varies 0.5 no
Note : rockwork to include a range of rocks within the specified typical diameters.
Figure E3 - Design features for realigned creek cross sections - bank erosion control measures.
E3.7 Stream bed

Where bed rockwork was required on the fully realigned sections, there was a need to ensure
that the finished product had water flowing over and around the rocks and not underneath. Bed
stabilisation rockwork was laid at varying finished surface levels between rocks, in an attempt to
ensure a continuous connection of low points within the bed.
A detailed site Environmental Management Plan (EMP) was developed to ensure that water
quality impacts during construction were minimised and monitored. The types of soil erosion,
sediment movement, and water quality activities undertaken during large scale road construction
works such as this are discussed in detail in Case study D7 - The Bulahdelah to Coolongolook
Deviation. Examples of such activities include; preventing water from running onto the works
site through the use of catch drains; controlling sediment movement from the disturbed works
area using silt fences and straw bales, and; allowing sediment to settle out of the creek flow via
the use of a retarding basin constructed at the downstream end of the creek works.
E3.8 Conclusions
The realignment of the Koonung Ck using a `soft engineering' approach was a learning process
for the individuals and organisations involved. The quality of work improved, both from an
aesthetic and an environmental perspective, as the project developed. One of the key factors to
achieving the preferred outcomes for the creek was a clear understanding of the project
objectives by the designers, contractors, and plant operators. The communication of project
objectives was enhanced by the construction of a test section of creek realignment for use as a
benchmark by which the remainder of the work could be judged.
The costs associated with creek realignments are often assumed to be very high. However,
experience on this project has shown that good quality realignments are far less expensive than
the traditional undergrounding approach. It has been estimated that the cost per metre for
undergrounding the creek in the sections where it travels under the freeway was about 4 times
higher than for fully rock beached open channels.
Further extensions of the freeway eastwards from Springvale Rd are currently at the planning
stage. The quality of creek works carried out to date will in many respects influence the level of
community and regulatory support or resistance to this and other freeway developments in creek
valleys.
References - Case studies
SHAW, G. (1998). Bed and bank stabilisation of urban watercourses. Proceedings of

the International Erosion Control Association (Australasia) 6th Annual Soil and Water
Management Conference "Earth, money, and water". Melbourne, October 20th -23rd .
ii
BOULLY, G., MULLETT, I., AND WATKINSON, R. (1996). The environmental
rehabilitation of Koonung Ck as part of Melbourne's Eastern Freeway extension. Proceedings of
the Roads '96 Conference.
Further Reading -Case Studies

ACACIA ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING. (1996). Review of environmental assessments.
Bulahdelah to Coolongolook Deviation
DAMES AND MOORE PTY. LTD. (1984). National Highway, Newman to White Springs
Environmental Review and Management Program. Report prepared for Main Roads Western
Australia, Perth, WA.
GOLDMAN, S.J., JACKSON, K. AND BURSZTYNSKY, T.A. (1986). Erosion and sediment
control handbook. (McGraw-Hill:New York)
GOVERNMENT OF WA. (1996). Western Australian Salinity Action Plan. Prepared by
Agriculture WA, Department of Conservation and Land management, Department of
Environmental Protection, Water and Rivers Commission, Government of Western Australia,
Perth.
LODDON COMMUNITY WORKING GROUP. (1992). Loddon Dryland Salinity
Management Plan. J. McRobert (Ed.). Department of Conservation and Environment, Bendigo,
Victoria.
MARTINICK AND ASSOCIATES PTY. LTD. (1996). Environmental assessment and
management Study: Sandstone to Leinster Road. Report prepared for Main Roads Western
Australia, Subiaco, WA.
MCROBERT, J. & FOLEY, G. (1997). An Investigation of the Effects of Salinity and
Waterlogging on the Road Asset in Western Australia. Report to Environment Strategy group,
Main Roads WA [ARRB Transport Research Ltd, South Vermont, Vic].
PEAKE, P. (1994). Koonung Ck Fish Survey. Contract report for Vicroads prepared by
Ecology Australia Pty Ltd.
RANSOM, M.J. (1987). Control of erosion on construction sites. Soil Conservation Authority,
Victoria Australia.
RTA. (1996). Review of environmental assessments report. Decision report. Pacific highway,
Bulahdelah to Coolongolook Deviation.
WITHERIDGE, G. (1996). Soil erosion and sediment control: Engineering guidelines for
Queensland construction sites. Institution of Engineers, Australia.
4-1
PART IV IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING NEEDS

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AP-R180

First Published 2000

© Austroads Inc. 2000

National Library of Australia

Road Runoff & Drainage:

Austroads Project No. N.T&E.9708

Austroads Publication No. AP-R180/00

Published by Austroads Incorporated

Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales

Part I - Biodiversity and Road Drainage Issues

With input from:

The manual has four principal objectives:

2. to identify the source of those impacts;

4. to identify priority areas requiring further research and understanding.

Water quality impacts

Water quantity impacts

Water flowpath impacts

Key activities at this stage should include:

Key activities should include:

Lowland drainage patterns

Key research needs

environmental pathways & toxicological impacts of road runoff pollutants;

Purpose of this Manual ...................................................................................................................... 2

PART I BIODIVERSITY AND ROAD DRAINAGE ISSUES .................................................... 1-1

Chapter 3: Impacts on Ecosystems Within Receiving Waters .............................................. 1-20

PART II A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO REDUCE THE IMPACTS OF DRAINAGE

Chapter 2: Specific Areas of Interest .......................................................................................2-20

PART III APPLICATIONS OF IMPROVED DRAINAGE MANAGEMENT ............................3-1

Case Study B: Lowland Agricultural Regions - Roads in Wheatbelt

Case Study C: Semi-arid and Non-arable Lands - Road Design in

Case Study E: Creek Realignments and In-stream Works ................................................3-60

PART IV IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING NEEDS .............................4-1

Appendix 5 Decision making chart 2 - Impacts and mitigation strategies ................................................... 6

GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................................1

Purpose of this Manual

Structure and Scope of this Manual

Introduction Introduces the manual and gives a comprehensive

l Provides information on aspects of road drainage

Presents a number of case studies illustrating how the

PART I - BIODIVERSITY AND ROAD DRAINAGE ISSUES

The purpose of Part I of the manual is to:

Chapter 1: Overview - Impacts of road runoff and road drainage

1.1 Classification and characterisation of potential environmental impacts

2 Water Quality Disturbances

- arising from hydrological and water quality changes

Colour Code Medium = potential impact may be significant

1.2 Identification of broad mitigation measures

Table 2-Mitigation measures to reduce the ecological impacts of road drainage

1.3 Commonly occurring impacts of road drainage

Box 1. Urbanisation and aquatic biodiversity

Box 2. Roadside remnants and adjacent aquatic ecosystems in rural areas

- stockpiling spoil underneath

The hydrological impacts of rural roads include:

Box 4. Erosion and sedimentation problems with unsealed roads

The potential erosion and sedimentation impacts includes:

Box 5. Weed and disease spread via road drainage operation

The weed and disease impacts of road drainage include:

Chapter 2: Effects of Catchment Urbanisation on Flow Quantity and

2.1 The contribution of roads

Box 1. Key points

2.2 Catchment hydrology - flow quantity

Box 2. Key points

Figure 1 - Flood frequency curves from varying degrees of urbanisation