Lifting The Exponent Lemma LTE

Robert Sparkes
August 19, 2016

Contents
1 Introduction 1

2 Foundation 1

3 LTE Lemma 2
3.1 p 6= 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.2 p = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

4 Recap 4

5 Problems 4

1 Introduction
LTE is used for solving problems involving exponential Diophantine equations, occasionally giving very simple solu-
tions.
Define ||x||p to be the greatest power of p that divides x.
||x||p = α ↔ pα ||x
Some quick examples to show the structures present in this fuction:

(1.1)
||xy||p = ||x||p · ||y||p (1.2)
||x + y||p ≥ min||x||p , ||y||p (1.3)

Since we are looking at a function I will let ||x||p = vp (x)

2 Foundation
[Lemma 1].
For x, y ∈ Z, n ∈ N, p ∈ P s.t. (n, p) = 1, p|(x − y)andp - x, y

vp (xn − y n ) = vp (x − y) (2.1)

Proof:
(xn − y n ) = (x − y)(xn−1 + xn−2 · y + · · · + y n−1 )
clearly we want to show that p - (xn−1 + · · · + y n−1 )
since p|(x − y), x ≡ y (mod p)
so (xn−1 + . . . y n−1 ) ≡ nxn−1 6≡ 0 (mod p)

[Lemma 2]
For x, y ∈ Z, n ∈ N, 2 - n, p ∈ P s.t. (n, p) = 1, p|(x + y), p - x, y

vp (xn + y n ) = vp (x + y) (2.2)
Since n is odd and y can be negative, we can write;
vp (xn − (−y)n ) = vp (x − (−y)) = vp (x + y) (By Lemma 1)

3 LTE Lemma
3.1 p 6= 2
[Theorem 1]
For x, y ∈ Z, n ∈ N, p ∈ P \ 2 s.t. p|(x − y), p - x, , y
vp (xn − y n ) = vp (x − y) + vp (n) (3.1)

Proof:
First we will show that vp (xp − y p ) = vp (x − y) + 1, which is equivalent to;
p|(xp−1 + · · · + y p−1 )
p2 - (xp−1 + · · · + y p−1 )

xp−1 + · · · + y p−1 ≡ pxp−1 ≡ 0 (mod p)

Now, let y = x + kp, where k ∈ Z

For t ∈ Z, 1 ≤ t < p
(3.2)
t p−1−t t p−1−t
yx ≡ (x + kp) (x ) (3.3)
t(t − 1)
≡ (xp−1−t )(xt + t(kp)(xt−1 ) + ( )(kp)2 (xt−2 ) + . . . ) (3.4)
2
≡ xp−1−t (xt + tkpxt − 1) (3.5)
p−1 p−2 2
≡x + tkpx (mod p ) (3.6)

→ y t xp−1−t ≡ xp−1 + tkpxp−2 (mod p), t = 1, 2 . . . , (p − 1)

Using this we have;

(3.7)
p−1 p−1 p−1 p−1 p−2 p−1 p−2 p−1 p−2
x + ··· + y ≡x + (x + kpx ) + (x + 2kpx ) + · · · + (x + (p − 1)kpx ) (3.8)
p−1 p−2
≡ px + (1 + 2 + · · · + (p − 1))kpx (3.9)
p(p − 1)
≡ pxp−1 + ( )kpxp−2 ) (3.10)
2
p − 1 2 p−2
≡ pxp−1 + kp x (3.11)
2
p−1
≡ px 6≡ 0 (mod p) (3.12)

Returning to the problem, suppose n = pα b, (p, b) = 1

(3.13)
n n pα b pα b
||x − y ||p = ||(x ) − (y ) ||p (3.14)
pα pα
= ||x −y ||p (3.15)
pα p pα p
= ||(x ) + (y ) ||p (3.16)
α−1 α−1
= ||xp − yp ||p + 1 (3.17)
..
. (3.18)
≡ ||x − y||p + α (3.19)
≡ ||x − y||p + ||n||p (3.20)
[Theorem 2]
For x, y ∈ Z, n ∈ N, 2 - n, p ∈ P \ 2 s.t. p|(x + y), p - x, y
(3.21)
vp (xn + y n ) = vp (x + y) + vp (n) (3.22)

Proof;
Follows from Theorem 1 in the same way that Lemma 2 followed from Lemma 1

3.2 p = 2
Theorem 3
For x, y ∈ Z, 2 - x, y s.t 4|(x − y). Then
(3.23)
v2 (xn − y n ) = v2 (x − y) + v2 (n) (3.24)

Proof;
We have already shown that for any p ∈ P with (p, n) = 1, p|(x − y), p - x, y, we have
(3.25)
vp (xn − y n ) = vp (x − y) (3.26)

so we only need to show that

(3.27)
2n 2n
v2 (x − y ) = v2 (x − y) + n (3.28)

Notice that this is a difference of squares and so we can write

(3.29)
n−1 n−1 n−2 n−2
(x2 − y2 )(x2 − y2 ) . . . (x2 − y 2 )(x − y)(x + y) (3.30)

k k k k
we are given that x ≡ y ≡ ±1 (mod 4) and so x2 ≡ y 2 ≡ 1 (mod4) ∀ k ∈ N and thus x2 + y 2 ≡ 2 (mod 4).
From this we see that the powers of 2 in all of the above factors is 1 except for (x − y) and so we are done.

[Theorem 4]
For x, y ∈ Z, 2 - x, y and n ∈ N, 2|n.
(3.31)
v2 (xn + y n ) = v2 (x − y) + v2 (x + y) + v2 (n) − 1 (3.32)

Proof;
First it is important to note that (2n + 1)2 ≡ 1 (mod 4), which yeilds; 4|(x2 − y 2 ).
Let n = m · 2k for m ∈ Z, 2 - m and k ∈ N
(3.33)
k k
v2 (xn − y n ) = v2 (xm·2 − y m·2 ) (3.34)
2 2k−1 2 2k−1
= v2 ((x ) − (y ) ) (3.35)
..
. (3.36)
2 2
= v2 (x − y ) + k − 1 (3.37)
= v2 (x − y) + v2 (x + y) + v2 (n) − 1 (3.38)
4 Recap
For a prime p and x, y ∈ Z which are not divisible by p We have;
1. For n ∈ N
• p 6= 2 and p|(x − y)
vp (xn − y n ) = vp (x − y) + vp (n) (4.1)

• p = 2 and 4|(x − y)
v2 (xn − y n ) = v2 (x − y) + v2 (n) (4.2)

• p = 2 and 2|(x − y)
v2 (xn − y n ) = v2 (x − y) + v2 (x + y) + v2 (n) − 1 (4.3)

2. For n ∈ N, 2 - n and p|(x + y)

vp (xn + y n ) = vp (x + y) + vp (n) (4.4)

3. For n ∈ N, (p, n) = 1
vp (xn − y n ) = vp (x − y) (4.5)

and if 2 - n, (p, n) = 1
vp (xn + y n ) = vp (x + y) (4.6)

5 Problems
1. Let a, n be two positive integers and let p be an odd prime number such that
(5.1)
ap ≡ 1 (mod pn ) (5.2)
Prove that
(5.3)
n−1
a ≡ 1 (mod p ) (5.4)

2. Prove that the number aa−1 − 1 is never square-free for all integers a > 2 [Definition; A square-free number
has no repeated prime factors. p1 ||N ∀ p]
3. (Ireland 1996) Let p be a prime number and a, n positive integers. Prove that if
2p + 3p = an (5.5)
Then n = 1
4. Let k be a positive integer. Find all positive integers n s.t.
(5.6)
k n−1
3 |2 (5.7)

5. Find the sum off all divisors d of N = 1988 − 1 which are of the form 2a 3b with a, b ∈ N
6. (IMO 1990 Q3) Determine all integers greater than 1 s.t.
(5.8)
2n + 1
(5.9)
n2
is an integer.