Short Notes

General Principles
of Design,
Drawing & Safety
Office Address
DELHI: F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016
Ph: 011-41013406, Mobile: 8130909220, 9711853908
NOIDA: H-21, H Block,Sector 63, Noida 201301
Ph: 0120 415 1100
Web: www.iesmaster.org | E-mail: info@iesmaster.org

DRAWING
1. INTRODUCTION
 Engineering drawing is a technique of creating has to be followed. There is an international
graphical representation that contains all necessary standard on code of practice for drawing which is
information such as dimensions, specifications and followed and adopted by Bureau of Indian Standard
notes using which an abstract concept can be (BIS).
transformed into real world object. To realize such  The ISO ‘A’ series of sheet is based on a constant
concept, basic tools of construction of drawing width to length ratio of 1 : 2
has to be clearly understood as to what standard
2. GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
 When two graphic entities are at a constant  Knowledge of geometrical constructions is essential
distance apart along the length, it is commonly in designing the specific profiles on the object. For
referred as Parallelism. a regular polygon, each interior angle is given as ,
 If a line intersects a circle at two points and does where n is total number of sides of the regular
not pass through the centre, the line segment inside polygon. Here n = 5 (for pentagon) 80, each
the circle is referred as Chord. interior angle is 108º. Hence statement II is wrong.
n 2 180 n. . .. . . .. .
 When a circle passes through three given points,
its centre lies at the intersection of the 360
 Each exterior angle =
perpendicular bisectors of the lines that connect n
the points.  Sum of exterior angle = 360º.
 In a big circle, three small circles of equal size are  Sum of interior angle = 180º×(n–2)
drawn. Each of the small circles is tangent to the  The perpendicular bisector of the chord of an arc/
big circle and the other two circles. The centres of circle always passes through the centre of the arc/
the small circles lie at the corner of an equilateral circle. A regular pentagon can be inscribed exactly
triangle. in a given circle.
3. ENGINEERING CURVES
 A circle is formed when the cutting plane makes line without slipping or sliding.
an angle with the axis of the cone and is parallel to  HYPOCYCLOID- Hypocycloid is a curve traced
the base, cutting all generators of the cone 90. . . by a point on the circumference of a circle which
 An ellipse is formed, when the cutting plane is rolls without sliding or slipping inside another circle.
inclined to the axis at an angle ‘ ’ and cuts all the  An involute is a curve traced by the free end of a
generator of the cone . . . string when unwound itself from a circle or a
 If the asymptotes are perpendicular to each other polygon, the string being always tight. It can also
then the hyperbola is called rectangular hyperbola be defined as a single-curved line traced by a point
or equilateral hyperbola. In case of rectangular on a straight line when it rolls tangentially along a
hyperbola, the product of distances of any point circle or a polygon without slipping.
on the curve from the asymptotes is always  Archimedean spiral: It is the locus of point traced
constant. when a point is moving uniformly along a straight
 Plane Curve: Curve traced by a point which line towards or away from the pole while the
moves in a constantly changing direction on a plane straight line revolve about pole with uniform
surface. angular velocity. That is, when the linear motion of
 Space Curve: Curve traced by a point which the point and the rotary motion of the line is
moves in a constantly changing direction in space. uniform, then Archimedean spiral exist.
 Cycloidal is a curve generated by a point on the 1. Archimede’s spiral inverts to hyperbolic spiral
circumference of a circle which rolls along a straight 2. Fermat’s spiral inverts to Lituus spiral
F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 2

 Golden ratio: Two quantities are in golden ratio and the generating circle is outside the directing
if their ratio is same as ratio of their sum to the circle, the curve obtained is Epicycloid.
larger of the two quantity. It is is also called golden  A gear tooth profile is in the form of Involute.
mean or golden section or extreme and mean ratio
 The sum of distances of any point on the ellipse
or divine proportion or divine section.
from the foci is equal to major axis.
Mathematically
 The curve traced out by a point moving in a plane
ab a such that the difference between its distances from
     golden ratio two fixed points is constant is known as Hyperbola.
a b
 When a bullet is shot in air, the path traversed by
 Cylindrical Helix, simply known as Helix – the bullet is called Parabola.
Conical helix construction is similar to cylindrical
helix. The difference is that each point is  When a right-circular cone is cut by a plane passing
constructed on a different radius. It is generated through its apex, the curve obtained is Triangle.
as the point moves on the surface of a cylinder  When a right-circular cone is cut which meets its
such that it moves round the axis and axis at an angle greater than the semiapex angle,
simultaneously moves towards vertex. the curve obtained is Ellipse.
 Conical Helix – Conical helix construction is  When a right-circular cone is cut which meets its
similar to cylindrical helix. The difference is that axis at an angle less than the semi-apex angle, the
each point is constructed on a different radius. It curve obtained is Hyperbola.
is generated as the point moves on the surface of
 the curve which has zero eccentricity is known as
a cone such that it moves around the axis and Ellipse.
simultaneously moves towards vertex.
 Hyperbolic curve is used in design of Cooling
 The locus traced by a point in such a way that the towers.
sum of its distances from two fixed points is always
constant is called an ellipse.  The locus of a point lying on the circumference of
the circle which rolls on a straight line is known as
 The eccentricity of parabola is less than the cycloid.
eccentricity of a hyperbola.
 The curve traced out by a point on the
 The ratio of the distance of a point on a conic circumference of a circle, which rolls outside
from the focus to the distance of the point from another circle of same diameter is termed as
the directory is known as Eccentricity Cycloid.
 Boyle’s law, PV = constant generates a curve which The curve traced out by a point on the

is a rectangular hyperbola. circumference of a circle, which rolls on another
 The line joining any point on an Archimedean spiral circle of a larger diameter is termed as Epicycloid.
with the pole is called the radius vector.
 An involute curve is used in Gear design.
 If the generating point is on the generating circle
4. THEORY OF PROJECTIONS
 The most common projection method used by  Orthographic Projection: It is a parallel
engineers are parallel projection method and more projection technique in which the plane of
specifically multiview orthographic projection and projection (POP) is perpendicular to the parallel
isometric projection. line of following assumptions has to be made.
(i) Observer is at infinite distance so that the ray
 Convergent projection methods find its
of vision is parallel to each other.
application in civil and architectural engineering.
(ii) Projection planes are transparent so that
 Axonometric projections, oblique projection observer can look through them.
and perspective projections are called pictorial (iii) Projection planes are rotatable so that 3D
projection. views can be converted to 2D views.

 Horizontal plane (HP) : It is a plane parallel to pictorial drawing of an object by rotating the object
the ground. on an axis relative to a projection.
 Vertical plane (VP) : It is a plane perpendicular  Isometric Projection: In this projection, the three
to the ground plane. mutually perpendicular edges of an object makes
equal inclination with plane of projection (POP)
 Profile plane (PP) : It is a plane perpendicular to
both VP and HP and intersecting both of them. because of which true shape of the object is
obtained. In this isometric scale is used due to
 XY : It is also known as ground line or reference which its true size cannot be ascertained.
line. Which is intersection of VP and HP.
 Diametric Projection : In this projection two of
 In India, 1st angle projection method is used. the three mutually perpendicular edges of an object
 In rest of the world either 1st or 3rd angle are equally inclined to the plane of projection
projection method is used. (POP). In this two different diametric scales are
2nd and 4th angle projection methods are not used. used.

 Any projectional view obtained on Vertical Plane  Trimetric projection : In this projection, all the
(VP) is Front view (FV). three mutually perpendicular edges of an object
make different inclination with plane of projection
 Any projectional view obtained on Horizontal Plane (POP). In this three different trimetric scales are
(HP) is Top View (TV). used.
 Any projectional view obtained on Profile Plane  Oblique Projection: In oblique projection, the
(PP) is Side View (SV). object is aligned such that one face (front face) is
FOR 1ST ANGLE PROJECTION parallel to the projection plane. In such projection,
the projectors are not perpendicular to the plane
 Left Side View (LSV) is obtained on Right Profile of projection rather inclined to the plane of
Plane (RPP) i.e on the right side of Front View projection (POP) at 30°, 45° or 60°. Here oblique
(FV). axis is called as receding axis. In oblique projection,
 Right Side View (RSV) is obtained on Left Profile projectors from various points on the object are
Plane (LPP) i.e. on the left side of Front View (FV). drawn parallel to each other and inclined to the
Note that Side Views (SV) always comes along plane of projection.
Front View (FV).  The location of LHSV in the third-angle method of
 Front View (FV) lies above XY line, Top View (TV) projection is on the left-hand side of FV.
lies below XY line.  The TV of a rectangular shaped room will show
length and width.
FOR 3RD ANGLE PROJECTION
 The face of an object containing circles, irregular
 Right Side View (RSV) is obtained at Right Profile shapes, etc., is kept parallel to the plane of
Plane (RPP) i.e. on the right side of Front View projection is known as oblique projection.
(FV). In an oblique projection, the front surface of the

 Left Side View (LSV) is obtained at Left Profile object is kept at an angle either respect to plane
Plane (LPP) i.e. on the left side of Front View (FV). of projection is parallel.
 Front View (FV) is below XY line and Top View  The drawings in which the receding lines are drawn
(TV) is above XY line. to half the scale are called Cabinet.
 Axonometric Projection: In this projection, only  The distortion in oblique projections can be
one view showing all the three dimensions of an decreased by reducing the length of the receding
object is drawn on a plane of projection (POP). lines.
The object is so placed that its three mutually In oblique projections, the receding lines meet the

perpendicular edges will remain inclined to the plane of projection at an angle less than 90°
plane of projection (POP). Axonometric projection
is a parallel projection technique to create a  In oblique projections, a semi-circle parallel to the
plane of projection appears as semi-circle.

 In the cavalier projection, an angle at which the height, then what dimensions of an object are
projectors meet the plane of projection is 45°. exhibited by a right side view?
 In the cabinet projection, an angle at which the  For orthographic projections, BIS recommends
projectors meet the plane of projection is 6326„a„S which of the following projection first-angle
projection
 Projection of an object shown by three views is
known as Orthographic.  If a principal face of an object is parallel to the
picture plane, the perspective projection is called
 If the front view of an object exhibits width and
Parallel perspective
5. PROJECTIONS OF POINTS
 The actual points are denoted by capital letters A, XY line. Its front view will be on XY line.
B, C etc.  A point whose elevation and plan are above XY is
 The TV of these points are denoted by small letters situated in second-angle.
a, b, c etc.  A point whose elevation is above XY line may be
 The FV of these points re denoted by small letters situated in
a dash a , b , c etc.  A point is 20 mm below the H.P. and 30 mm
 The SV of these points are denoted by small letters behind the V.P. Its top view will be 30 mm above
with a double dash a , b , c etc. XY.
 The intersection of HP and VP is shown by XY  If both the front and the top views of a point lie
line and is called reference line. on opposite sides of the reference line, the point
may be situated in the following angles: First or
 Projectors are drawn using 2H pencil and thin lines
are used. third.
The line joining the front and top views of a point  If both the front and the top views of a point lie

is called Projector. on the same side of the reference line, the point
may be situated in the following angles : Second or
 A point lying in the H.P. has its top view above the fourth.
6. PROJECTIONS OF LINES
 A line is the locus of a point moving along a fixed  Horizontal trace of a line exits when the line
path .in space. The shortest distance between two inclined to horizontal plane
given points is a straight line.  If a line is inclined at 45° to the H.P. and 30° to the
 Plan length (PL) or Top View length : It is the V.P., its front view is inclined at greater than 45°
length of line seen from TV.  For a line situated in the first angle, H.T. and V.T.
 Elevation length (EL) or Front View length : It is may lie below XY, H.T. lies below XY and V.T. lies
the length of line seen from FV. above XY, H.T. and V.T. may lie above XY
 Hidden part is shown by keeping it inside small  If a line is inclined to the HP and parallel to the VP,
bracket. it will have only HT
 If a line is parallel to both H.P. and V.P., its true  If a line is parallel to both the RPs, then TL > EL
length will be seen in both front and top view  The projection of VT on XY
 The point at which the line intersects the V.P.,  To obtain the point view of a line, the auxiliary
extended if necessary, is known as vertical trace plane is set perpendicular to TL
 If the front view of a line is parallel to the XY line,  The distance between two skew lines is equal to
its true length is shown in top view the length of the perpendicular from the point view
 If top view of a line is a point, its front view is of one line to the corresponding view of another
perpendicular to XY line and of true length line.

7. PROJECTIONS OF PLANES
 A plane (known as Lamina if it has limited extent)  In a multi view orthographic projection, the front
is a two dimensional geometrical entity which has view of a circular plane may be a circle, an ellipse,
only two dimensions viz. length and breadth having a straight line.
negligible thickness (since dimension of thickness  If both the front and top views of a plane are
is too small compared to other dimensions). A straight lines, the true shape will lie on profile plane.
plane can be a regular plane surface (if all sides are
 If a circular plane is inclined at 30° with the H.P.
equal) otherwise irregular plane surface. Composite and 60° with the V.P. its side view will be a straight
planes are those planes which is composed of two line.
or more
 The front view of an elliptical plane may be an
 Different planes. Ex: plane composed of a triangle ellipse, a circle, a straight line.
and a semi circle.
 If the top view of a plane is a rhombus, the object
 If a plane is parallel to the HP, its TV gives the true may be a square or a rhombus.
shape. Hence TV should be drawn first.
 The trace of a hexagonal plane may be an
 FV will be an edge view parallel to XY and SV will equilateral triangle.
be perpendicular to X1Y1.
 If both the principle views of a plane object are
 There exist no horizontal trace (HT). ellipses of the same size, the side view will be an
 If a plane is parallel to VP, then its FV gives true inclined line.
shape of it hence it should be drawn first.
 If a corner of a pentagonal plate is in the VP, then
 TV will be an edge view parallel to XY and SV will its TV has one point on XY.
be parallel to X1Y1.
 If a plane is parallel to an RP, its projection on that
 If a thin set-square is kept perpendicular to both RP shows the true shape and size.
the horizontal and vertical planes, its true shape is
 The trace of a plane is a line.
seen in profile plane.
 A continuous straight line in FV of an object may
 Planes which are inclined to both the horizontal represent.
and vertical planes are called oblique planes.
 Either an edge or a face of the object.
8. PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS
 If axis is not perpendicular to its base i.e. it is at a string at some suitable point. The projections of
any angle then such type of solid is called as oblique such a solid should be treated as special
solid. If axis of a solid is perpendicular to HP then case. The interesting fact is that an imaginary
its base will be parallel to HP. So the true shape line joining the point of attachment of the
and size of the base will be seen in the top view. string to the centre of gravity (CG) of the
Hence, the top view of the solid should be drawn solid is always vertical. Therefore, the location of
first and from its projectors, the front view must CGs of the various solids should be known.
be drawn. Table shows the location of CGs of basic
 Axis Perpendicular to VP: If the axis is solids.
perpendicular to VP then the base of the solid is CGS of the solids
parallel to VP. Hence true shape and size will be
obtained on VP. Therefore, front view (FV) should Group of solids Location of CG
be drawn first and then TV is projected from it. Pyramids (including 1/4 (Height) from base along
Tetrahedron) and cone the axis
 Axis Perpendicular to both H.P. and V.P.: In this
case true shape and size will be obtained only when Prism (including cube) and Midpoint of the axis
viewed from side i.e. side view. Hence, side view is cylinder
drawn first and all other views are projected from it. Sphere Centre
Hemisphere 3/8 (Radius) from circular
SUSPENDED SOLIDS face along the perpendicular
to the face at centre.
 A solid may be suspended freely in air by attaching

FV shows TL of axis, SV of axis is perpendicular to
Solid Position of the True shape of XY, TV of axis is parallel to XY.
cutting Plane section
 The largest possible section of a pentagonal prism
Cylinder Perpendicular to the Circle
axis will have Seven edges.
Inclined to the axis Ellipse  To obtain the true shape of the section of a solid,
cutting all generators an auxiliary plane is set Parallel to cutting plane.
Parallel to the axis Rectangle  If the cutting plane includes the axis of a cylinder,
Inclined to the axis Ellipse the section obtained is a Rectangle.
cutting all generators
 The development of all the surface of a cube will
Cone Parallel to a generator Parabola be 6 squares.
Inclined to and on one Hyperbola
side of the axis
 Whenever a prism and a pyramid intersect, the
curve seen at their intersection is a Segmented-
Parallel to the axis Rectangular line curve.
Hyperbola
Passing through the Triangle  Type of views are used to provide clarity and reveal
axis or the apex interior features of a part is section views.
 A cone is cut by a section plane parallel to the
profile plane. Its true shape of section is seen In
 If a cutting plane is parallel to a face of the side view.
tetrahedron, the section will be an equilateral
 When two prisms intersect at right angle, the curve
triangle.
of intersection is made up of straight line.
 If a cutting plane is parallel to a side of the
 When two cylinders of equal diameters envelope
tetrahedron, the section will be a rectangle.
a common sphere, the curve of intersection is made
 If a cutting plane is parallel to a side of the up of straight line.
tetrahedron and passes through the midpoints of
 The line of intersection between cylinder and cone,
other edges, the section will be a square of side unless they envelope a common sphere, is made
equal to half of the side of the tetrahedron. up of curved line. The study of intersection of
 An orthographic view of a hemi-sphere may appear surface helps in sheet metal work.
as circle
 The intersection of a cone by a plane results in
 A square pyramid is resting on a face in the V.P. conic section.
The number of dotted lines which will appear in
 When a cylinder penetrates into a vertical cone
the front view is Two with their axes parallel to each other, the top view
 A cube is resting on the H.P. with a solid diagonal of the curve of intersection is a circle.
perpendicular to it. The top view will appear as
 When a vertical cylinder is penetrated by a
regular hexagon horizontal cylinder, the top view of the curve of
 A cylinder rests on a point of its base circle in the intersection is circular arc
H.P., having the axis inclined at 30° to the H.P. and
 The curve of intersection of a vertical cone with
60° to the V.P. The inclination of the top view of
an auxiliary vertical plane is hyperbolic curve.
the axis with the reference line will be 90°
 The points at which the curve of intersection
 A pentagonal pyramid is resting on its triangular changes its nature are known as key points.
face on the HP with its axis parallel to the VP then
8. PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS
Surface generated by moving a straight line is called  The development of a curved surface of a cylinder
plane surface and that generated by a curve is called will be a Rectangle.
curved surface.
 The method by which the development of surface

of an oblique solid is obtained is triangulation to plane projection.
method.  Parallel line development method is suitable for
 Methods for the development of solids are parallel cubes, prisms and cylinders. Since tetrahedron is
line method. not included in any of the above classification, hence
 Development of sphere is done by zone or Lune this method is not suitable for tetrahedron.
method.  The shortest possible length of the thread
 The nature of lateral surface of a cylinder is singly will be the longest chord of the development
curved surface. sector.
 The nature of surface of a sphere is doubly curved  The development of a curved surface of a cylinder
surface. will be a rectangle.
 If a semi-circular thin sheet is folded to form a  Pictorial views drawn on isometric scale are called
cone, then the front view of the cone appears as isometric projection.
equilateral triangle.  Perspective projections are mostly used in
Isometric drawings fall into the category of architectural and civil engineering drawings,

axonometric drawings. advertisement campaigns etc. It is to note that
perspective views are not used in manufacturing
 The projectors in isometric view are perpendicular drawings.

DESIGN
1. INTRODUCTION
 Engineering design is basically the process of detailed listing of the product requirements is called
developing workable plans for the construction or a product design specification (PDS).
manufacture of equipments, processes, machinery,  Gathering Information : Engineering design present
or structures to satisfy an identified requirements. special requirements over engineering research in
It basically includes mathematics, natural sciences, the need to acquire a broad spectrum of
engineering sciences in order to develop elements, information.
systems, and processes to meet the requirement.  Conceptualization : Concept generation involves
It is a creative, iterative and open-ended process, creating a broad set of concepts that potentially
subject to constraints which may be ‘governed by satisfy the problem statement. Team-based
standards or statutory guide line to varying degrees creativity methods, combined with efficient
depending upon the discipline. These constraints information gathering, are the key activities.
may also related to economic, health, safety,
environmental, societal or other interdisciplinary  Concept Selection : Evaluation of the design
factors. concepts, modifying and evolving into a single
preferred concept, are the activities in this step.
DESCRIPTION OF DESIGN PROCESS The process usually requires several iterations.
 Refinement of the PDS : The product design
 Morris Asimow was among the first to give a specification is revisited after the concept has been
detailed description of the complete design process selected. The design team must commit to
in what he called the morphology of design. His achieving certain critical values of design
seven phase of design are described below, with parameters, usually called critical-to-quality (CTQ)
slight changes of terminology to conform to current parameters, and to living with trade-offs between
practice. First three phases of design is conceptual cost and performance.
design, embodiment design, and detail design.
 Design review : Before committing funds to move
PHASE I. CONCEPTUAL DESIGN to the next design phase, a design review will be
held. The design review will assure that the design
 Conceptual design is the process by which the is physically realizable and that is economically
design is initiated, carried to the point of creating worthwhile. It will also look at a detailed product
a number of possible solutions, and narrowed down development schedule. This is needed to devise a
to a single best concept. It is sometimes called the strategy to minimize product cycle time and to
feasibility study. Conceptual design is the phase that identify the resources in people, equipment, and
requires the greatest creativity, involves the most money needed to complete the project.
uncertainty, and requires coordination among many
functions in the business organization. The following PHASE II. EMBODIMENT DESIGN
are the discrete activities that we consider under
 Structured development of the design concept
conceptual design.
occurs in this engineering design phase. It is the
 Identification of customer needs : The goal of this place where flesh is placed on the skeleton of the
activity is to completely understand the customers’ design concept. An embodiment of all the main
needs and to communicate them to the design functions that must be performed by the product
team. must be undertaken. It is in this design phase that
 Problem definition : The goal of this activity is to the decisions are made on strength, material
create a statement that describes what has to be selection, size, shape and spatial compatibility.
accomplished to satisfy the needs of the customer. Beyond this design phase, major changes become
This involves analysis of competitive products, the very expensive. This design phase is sometimes
establishment of target specifications, and the listing called preliminary design. Embodiment design is
of constraints and trade-offs. Quality function concerned with three major tasks - product
deployment (QFD) is a valuable tool for linking archicture, configuration design, and parametric
customer needs with design requirements. A design.

 Product architecture : Product architecture is activities are completed and documents are
concerned with dividing the overall design system prepared :
into subsystems or modules. In this step we decide  Detailed engineering drawings suitable for
how the physical components of the design are to manufacturing. Routinely these are computer-
be arranged and combined to carry out the generated drawings, and they often include three-
functional duties of the design. dimensional CAD models.
 Configuration design of parts and components :  Verification testing of prototypes is successfully
Parts are made up of features like holes, competed and verification data is submitted. All
ribs, splines, and curves. Configuring a part means critical-to-quality parameters are confirmed to be
to determine what features will be present and under control. Usually the building and testing of
how those features are to be arranged in space several preproduction versions of the product will
relative to each other. While modeling and be accomplished.
simulation may be performed in this stage to check
 Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also
out function and spatial constraints, only
will be completed. The bill of materials for all
approximate sizes are determined to assume that
assemblies will be completed.
the part satisfies the PDS. Also, more specificity
about materials and manufacturing is given here.  A detailed product specification, updated with all
The generation of a physical model of the part the changes made since the conceptual design
with rapid prototyping processes may be phase, will be prepared.
appropriate.  Decisions on whether to make each part internally
 Parametric Design of Parts : Parametric design or to buy from an external supplier will be made.
starts with information on the configuration of the  With the preceding information, a detailed cost
part and aims to establish its exact dimensions and estimate for the product will be carried out.
tolerances. Final decisions on the material and
 Finally, detail design concludes with a design review
manufacturing processes are also established if this
before the decision is made to pass the design
has not been done previously. An important aspect
information on to manufacturing.
of parametric design is to examine the part,
assembly, and system for design robustness. PHASE IV. PLANNING FOR MANUFACTURE :
Robustness refers to how consistently a component
performs under variable conditions in its service  A great deal of detailed planning must to be done
environment. The methods developed by Dr. to provide for the production of the design. A
Genichi Taguchi for achieving robustness and method of manufacture must be established for
establishing the optimum tolerance. Parametric each components in the system. As a usual first
design also deals with determining the aspects of step, a process sheet is created; it contains a
the design that could lead to failure. Another sequential list of all manufacturing operations that
important consideration in parametric design is to must be performed on the component. Also, it
design in such a way that manufacturability is specifies the form and condition of the material
enhanced. and the tooling and production machines that will
be used. The information on the process sheet
PHASE-III. DETAIL DESIGN : make possible the estimation of the production
cost of the component. High costs may indicate
 In this phase the design is brought to the stage of
the need for a change in material or a basic change
a complete engineering description of a tested and
in the design. Close interaction with manufacturing,
producible product. Missing information is added
industrial, materials, and mechanical engineers is
on the arrangement, form, dimensions, tolerances,
important at this step.
surface properties, materials, and manufacturing
processes of each part. This results in a PHASE-V. PLANNING FOR DISTRIBUTION :
specifications for each special purpose part and
for each standard part to be purchased from  Important technical and business decisions must
supplies. In the detail design phase the following be made to provide for the effective distribution

to the consumer of the products that have been Phase VI of design is less well defined than the
produced. In the strict realm of design, the shipping others, but it is becoming increasingly important
package may be critical, Concepts such as the shelf with the growing concerns for consumer protection
life of the product may also be critical and may and product safety. More strict interpretation of
need to be addressed in the earlier stages of the product liability laws is having a major impact on
design process. A system of warehouses for design. An important phase VI activity is the
distributing the product may have to be designed acquisition of reliable data on failures, service lives,
if none exists. The economic success of the design and consumer complaints and attitudes to provide
often depends on the skill exercised in marketing a basis for product improvement in the next design
the product. If it is a consumer product, the sales cycle.
effort is concentrated on advertising in print and
video media, but highly technical products may PHASE-VII. PLANNING FOR RETIREMENT OF
require that the marketing step be a technical THE PRODUCT :
activity supported by socialized sales brochures,
 The final step in the design process is the disposal
performance test data, and technically trained sales
of the product when it is has reached the end of
engineers.
its useful life. Useful life may be determined by
PHASE VI. PLANNING FOR USE : actual deterioration and wear to the point at which
the design can no longer function, or it may be
 The use of the product by the consumer is all- determined by technological obsolescence, in which
important, and considerations of how the consumer a competing design performs the product’s
will react to the product pervade all step of the functions either better or cheaper. In consumer
design process. The following specific topics can products, it amy come about through changes in
be identified as being important user-oriented fashion or taste.
concerns in the design process : ease of
 Design for the environment, also called green
maintenance, durability, reliability, product safety,
design, has become an important consideration in
convenience in use (human factors engineering),
design. As a result, the design of a product should
atheistic appeal, and economy of operation.
include a plan for either its disposal in an
Obviously, these consumer-oriented issues must
environmentally safe way or, better, the recycling
be considered in the design process at its very
of its materials or the remanufacture or reuse of
beginning. They are not issues to be treated as
its components.
afterthoughts.
2. TYPES OF ENGINEERING DESIGN

ORIGINAL DESIGN (INNOVATIVE DESIGN) REDESIGN
 This form of design is at the top of the hierarchy.  It means improving an existing design. The task
A truly original design involves invention. It involves may be to redesign a component in a product that
an original, innovative concept to achieve a need. is failing in service, or to redesign a component so
Some times, the need itself may be original. e.g. as to reduce its cost of manufacture. Often redesign
Design of microprocessor. is accomplished without any change in the working
principle or concept of the original design.
ADAPTIVE DESIGN
 When redesign is achieved by changing some of
 This form of design occurs when the design team the design parameters, it is often called variant
adapts a known solution to satisfy a different need design.
or to produce a novel application. Adaptive designs
involve synthesis and are relatively common in SELECTION DESIGN
design. Synthesis means pulling together something  In this case the design task consists of selecting the
new or arranging existing things in a new way to components with the needed performance, quality,
satisfy a recognised need of society. and cost from the catalogue of potential vendors.

e.g., in a car manufacturing, few standard other ’s business operations. Benchmarking
components (spark plug, battery, head light etc.) measures the concepts of ‘best-in-class’
of a car are supplied by some other potential organisations, determines how the best in class
designers/vendors and in such a case these achieve those concepts and uses that information
components are selected with the help of available as the basis for new idea generation and
potential designers/vendors catalogue. breakthrough design. Design of Delhi Metro is
benchmark for design of Metro in another cities of
INDUSTRIAL DESIGN (AESTHETIC DESIGN) India.
 This form of design deals with improving the visual  Reverse engineering is the process of
appeal of a product to the human senses. Industrial decomposing an existing solution to understand
design encompasses the consideration of how the how it has been constructed and where its design
human user can best interface with the product. limitation lie. It is a process by which an engineer
dissects someone else product to learn how it
EVOLUTIONARY DESIGN works. It is done in order of duplicate or enhance
 Adaptive design and redesign can be combinedly an object. It appears to be an unfair practice.
called evolutionary design. Evolutionary design Chinese products in local market in India are the
involves competitor analysis, benchmarking and best example of reverse engineering.
reverse engineering.
IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING DESIGN
 Competitor analysis : It involves lining up
competitors side-by-side and highlighting similarity  Engineering Design is essential because
and differences. It results in strategy document that  Decision made in the design process costs
helps define the general direction for design without very less in terms of the overall product cost
defining the design itself. but have a major effect on the cost of the
 Benchmarking : It is a process for measuring a product.
company’s operations against the best practices of  We cannot compensate in manufacturing for
companies both inside and outside of their industry. defects introduced in the design phase.
It is a way to learn from other businesses through  It reduces product cycle time i.e., the time
an exchange of information. Benchmarking operates required to bring the product to market. This
most effectively on a quid pro quo basis - as an leads to increase in the marketability of product
exchange of information between companies that and reduces the cost of product development.
are not direct competitors but can learn from each
3. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
 Brainstorming is a technique of generating many dimensional representations of what our mind is
ideas with the hope that a few good ideas will seeing. Sketching ideas quickly on paper allows us
develop into something workable. Brainstorming to store the visual image, modify the idea, and add
is a group activity; it only works when the members details to the design later.
of the group develop synergism (i.e. the recognition  Ergonomics: Ergonomics is the human factor in
that the product of the whole group is greater engineering. It is the study of how people interact
than the product of the individual members). Here with machines. Most products have to work with
are a few guidelines for a brainstorming session : people in some manner. People occupy a space in
 Sketchstorming is the engineer’s response to or around the design and they may provide a source
brainstorming. Sketchstorming is the visual creation of power or control or act as a sensor for the
and recording of ideas. Since solutions to design. A design solution can be considered
engineering problems typically come in visual rather successful if the design fits the people using it. The
than verbal images, it is important to record these handle of a power tool must fit the hand of
ideas onto paper in sketch form. Sketches are not everybody using it. The geometric properties of
detailed drawing of our ideas. They are quick, two- people – their weight, height, reach, circumference,

and so on- are called anthropometric data. The  The House of Quality translates customer
difficulty in designing for ergonomics is the requirements into quantifiable design variables,
abundance of anthropometric data. called engineering characteristics. This mapping of
 Production are designed to maintain safe and clean customer want to engineering characteristics
environment. This is called green designs. govern the remainder of the design process. It can
also be used to determine which engineering
 Life cycle analysis: It starts with the conception
characteristics should be treated as constraints for
of a need and ends with the retirement and disposal
the design process and which should become
of the product. One of the key element in shaping
decision criteria for selecting the best design
the total life cycle is the material selection. For
concept.
selecting the material we should consider effect
on material due to environmental conditions, Such  All the rooms of the HOQ, that are arranged
as corrosion, microstructural changes due to horizontally pertain to customer requirements
temperature, effect due to loading condition such (CRs). The HOQ rooms aligned vertically are
as fatigue, creep, toughness, ductility and effect organized according to engineering characteristics
such as manufacturability. Current social issues of (ECs).
energy conservation, material conservation,  The end result of the HOQ is the set of target
material recycling and protection of environment values for Engineering characteristics that flow
necessities due consideration in the selection of through the HOQ and exit at the bottom of the
material. house.
 Design parameters are set of physical properties
MORPHOLOGICAL CHART
whose values determine the form and behavior of
a design. Parameters include the features of a  The morphological chart is a method to arrange all
design that can be set by designers. Design variable the functions and sub-functions in a logical order.
is a parameter over which the design team has a The morphological chart also enlists the possible
choice. “hows” for each sub-functions with an aim to
 Constraints are limits on design freedom. realize the combinations of ideas comprising several
Constraints may be limits on the maximum or design concepts.
minimum value of a design variable or a
THE AXIOMS
performance parameter.
 The functional requirements (FRs) represent the
QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT goals of the design or what we want to achieve.
 It consist in translating customer desires (for The design parameters (DPs) express how we want
example, the ease of writing for a pen) into design to satisfy the functional requirements. The FRs and
characteristics or engineering characteristics (pen DPs can mathematically be described as a vector.
ink viscosity, pressure on ball-point) for each stage The relationship between the FRs and the DPs can
of the product development. In a few words: The be stated as a matrix. This matrix is called the
voice of the customer translated into the voice Design Matrix (DM). Design - as used in the
of the engineer. axiomatic design - is defined as the mapping process
from the functional space to the physical space to
 In Akao’s words, QFD “is a method for
satisfy the designer-specified functional
developing a design quality aimed at satisfying
requirements.
the consumer and then translating the
consumer’s demand into design targets and  Axiomatic design consists of two axioms:
major quality assurance points to be used 1. The independence axiom: Maintain the
throughout the production phase”. independence of the functional requirements.
2. The information axiom: Minimize the
HOUSE OF QUALITY
information content of the design.
 It is named as house of quality because it looks like  Optimization : Optimization is the process of
a house. determining the values of the variables, subject to

various constraints, that make a desired criterion well when the conditions to which they are
a maximum or minimum; means it is the strategy exposed are far from ideal. By performing the
which choose the best possible solution by process of robust design high quality in product
considering all the parameters. A common criterion can be assured as it reduces the variability in
is cost of weight, such as power to weight ratio. performance and manufacture over a wide range
An optimization problem usually involves three of operating conditions. The following are typical
types of function relationships among the steps undertaken towards the approach for robust
specifications and design parameters. These are : design:
(i) Criterion function : This is the mathematical  System design: This relates to what we have
expression of the quantity whose maximum or referred to as the product architecture where
minimum is to be found as a function of the design the engineering principles are used to
parameters. This criterion may be single or a ratio determine the basic configuration of the
of several characteristics. There can only be one system.
criterion function.  Parametric design: Statistical methods and
(ii) Functional constraints : These equations are the techniques are used to set nominal values for
physical laws involved in the proposed design. They the design variables that minimize the variability
constitute the mathematical model as previously from uncontrollable variables in the
described. The number of equation in this set must environment.
be less than the number of design parameters.  Tolerance design: Extensive statistical methods
(iii) Regional constraints: There are no are used to set the widest required tolerances
limit to the number of regional constraints and on the design variables without increasing their
they are always expressed as inequalities. These variability.
function are mathematical statements of  Reliability is a measurement of the ability of a
the limits between which design parameters must component or system to operate without failure
lie. There are many methods of optimization in the service environment. It is expressed as the
including linear programming, differential calculus, probability of the component functioning for a given
dual variables and geometric programming etc. time without failure.
 Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA): By  Durability is the amount of use that a person gets
performing FMEA we can determine all possible out of a product before it deteriorates-that is, it is
ways by which the components can possibly fail in a measure of the product lifetime.
service and establish the effects of the failure on
the system thus improving the performance and  In the worst-case tolerance design scenario the
quality of the product. assumption is made that the dimension of each
component is at either its maximum or minimum
 Design for reliability: By designing for reliability limit of the tolerance.
the capacity for the product to operate without
failure in the service environment increases.  Life cycle design emphasizes giving attention in
embodiment design to those issues that impact a
 Robust design: Robustness means achieving long, useful service life to the product.
excellent performance under the wide range of
Rapid Prototyping (RP) is a technology that
conditions that will be found in service. All products
produces prototypes directly from computer-aided
function reasonably well under ideal (laboratory)
design (CAD) model.
conditions, but robust designs continue to function
4. SYSTEM ENGINEERING AND PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

SYSTEMS ENGINEERING : up the system are designed, fitted together,
checked and operated in the most efficient way.”
 Systems engineering has been defined as “the It refers to the conception, design, and
science of designing complex system in their totality development of complex systems where the
to insure that the component subsystems making components themselves must be designed,

developed, and integrated together to fulfill the DESIGNING PROCESSES FOR AGILITY
system objectives. Systems engineering is a way to
bring a whole system into being and to account  Agility is an important factor in being competitive.
for its whole life cycle—including operation and Agility is a term that is commonly used to
phase-out—during its early conception and design. characterize flexibility and short cycle times. Agility
is crucial to such customer-focused strategies as
MODULARIZATION: ITERATIVE ANALYSIS- mass customization, which requires rapid response
SYNTHESIS-EVALUATION CYCLE : and flexibility to changing consumer demand.
Flexibility refers to the ability to adapt quickly and
 The process of creating a system concept is a series effectively to changing requirements. It might mean
of steps to define the subsystems and elements rapid changeover from one product to another,
that will comprise the system. The process involves rapid response to changing demands, or the ability
an iterative cycle of (1) top-down analysis of details to produce a wide range of customized services.
(i.e., decomposing the system into smaller parts), Flexibility might demand special strategies such as
(2) bottom-up synthesis (building up and integrating modular designs, sharing components, sharing
the parts into successively larger parts), and (3) manufacturing lies, and specialized training for
evaluation (checking to see that results meet employees. It also involves outsourcing decisions,
requirements). agreements with key suppliers, and innovative
 Systems are designed and assembled from partnering arrangements.
subsystems that themselves are systems designed  Enablers of agility include close relationships with
and assembled from subsystems, and so on. The customers to understand their emerging needs and
practice, called modularization, is what makes the requirements, empowering employees as decision
design, assembly, and operation of complex systems makers, effective manufacturing and information
feasible and practical. technology, close supplier and partner relationships,
and breakthrough improvement.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT :
Product development encompasses much more DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

than conceiving and designing a product. It involves  In this method, the team identifies the parameters
the preliminary assessment of the market for the that can be controlled and the noise factors itwishes
product, the alignment of the product with the to investigate. The team then designs, conducts,
existing product lines of the company, and an and analyzes experiments to help determine the
estimate of the projected sales, cost of parameter setpoints to achieve robust
development, and profits. These activities takes performance.
place before permission is given to proceed with
 DOE is not a substitute for technical knowledge of
concept development, and they occur throughout
the system under investigation. In fact, the team
the product development process as better
should use its understanding of the product and
estimates are obtained for the cost of development
how it operates to choose the right parameters to
and estimated sales.
investigate by experiment. The experimental results
 System-level Design : The system-level design can be used in conjunction with technical
phase includes the definition of the product knowledge of the system in order to make the
architecture, decomposition of the product into best choices of parameter setpoints. Furthermore,
subsystems and components, and preliminary the experimental results can be used to build better
design of key components. Initial plans for the mathematical models of the product’s function of
production system and final assembly are usually passenger sizes and collision types. These models
defined during this phase as well. The output of allow Ford to size the mechanical elements and
this phase usually includes a geometric layout of to determine the belt attachment geometry. Based
the product, a functional specification of on empirical and simulation data, Ford’s analytical
each of the product’s subsystems, and a models and seat belt design guidelines gain precision
preliminary process flow diagram for the final over time, reducing the need for time-consuming
assembly process. empirical and simulation studies. Eventually, this

technical knowledge may improve to the point the design process, and later for manufacturing (or
where only confirming tests of new seat belt construction), maintenance, and support. The
configurations are required. information can include many hundreds or
thousands of documents (specification, schematics,
TERMS RELATED TO ROBUST DESIGN : drawings, etc.), each likely to be modified in some
 Control factors: These are the design variable to way during the project. Keeping track of all the
be varied in a controlled manner during the changes and knowing which version is the most
experiment, in order to explore the product’s current for every item can be difficult. Thus, any
performance under the many combinations of project aimed at delivering a technical product
parameter setpoints. needs a system or process to keep up with and
manage all the information; such is the purpose of
 Noise factors: Noise factors are variables that configuration management.
cannot be explicitly controlled during the
manufacturing and operation of the product. Noise  Configuration management includes policies and
factors may include manufacturing variances, procedures for monitoring and tracking design
changes in materials properties, multiple user information and changes, and ensuring that
scenarios or operating conditions, and even everyone involved with the project (and, later, the
deterioration or misuse of the product. The input operation of the deliverable) has the most current
parameters that affect the quality of the product information. Policies and procedures that form the
or process may be classified as design parameters configuration management system for a project
and disturbance factors. The former are parameters should be included in the quality plan.
that can be specified freely by the designer. It is
CONFIGURATION CONTROL
the designer’s responsibility to select the optimum
levels of the design parameters. Disturbance factors  Configuration control, the second aspect of
are the parameters that are either inherently configuration management, concerns more quality
uncontrollable or impractical to control. control than quality assurance. The design of a
 Taguchi uses the term noise factors to refer to those system is normally specified by means of a large
parameters that are either too difficult or expensive number of documents, such as performance
to control when a product is in service or during specifications, drawings, manuals, and testing
manufacture of its components. procedures, that are generated during the design
process. As the design evolves these documents
CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENT are subject to change, and an orderly scheme is
needed to manage and keep track of all the
 During design and development of a system vast changes. Such is the purpose of configuration
amounts of information are generated for use in control.
5. FEW MORE DEFINITIONS
 Decision-based design: Decision-Based Design performance of alternative proposals and provides
is an advanced way of thinking about design. The useful information to the design team. Synthesis
DBD perspective on design differs from past design of all the information available at the embodiment
models that focus on problem solving in two major stage, including cost estimates, guides the term in
ways. The first is the incorporation of the the development of an optimum design proposal.
customers' requirements as the driver of the  Product centered design: The product centered
process. The second is using the design outcomes design is the technique designed the product with
(e.g., maximum profit, market share capture, or increased efficiency and output and by reducing
high-quality image) as the ultimate assessment of the manufacturing time and cost, so that the
good designs. customer needs are met. It is a product of favorable
 Value engineering: The Value engineering design.
process runs in parallel with the embodiment  Freezing the design: In industry, freezing the
process. Value engineering established the cost and design plays an important role during product

development. Before manufacturing starts the known as design for X. Here a detailed design is
entire design needs to be frozen. ‘Freezes’ Mark done to improve life-cycle, optimum cost, quality
the end point of a development stage. When a increased design flexibility, and increased efficiency
freeze is imposed, no further changes will be and productivity using the concurrent design
permitted unless they go through a formal review concept. The letter “X” in DFX is constituted of
by a design control board. This prevents the human measure (ability).
tendency to continually make slight improvements,  Noted that concurrent engineering play an
thereby not allowing the design sequence to move important role in the development of DFX
forward. Only important changes that affect safety, methodologies.
performance or cost are approved.
 DFX tools are referred to as concurrent
 The 6–3–5 method : It is a type of brainstorming engineering tools, The tools are as follows :
which have six team members. Each member
 Design for Quality
writes down three design ideas. The ideas are
circulated among other team members in a  Design for Reliability
sequence i.e. five rotations.  Design for Safety
 Fidelity: It is accuracy with which model of design  Design for manufacturing/Construction
(prototype) represents the proposed final design  Design for Assembly
in terms of material and construction.
 Agile design approach: Related to concurrent DESIGN FOR QUALITY
engineering is agile design approach generally used The main objectives of the Design for Quality

in software engineering. It involves cross-functional
team who have autonomy to develop and carry (i) Design a product to meet customer
out quick-paced design task as a part of iterative requirements.
design cycle of larger project. (ii) Design a robust product that can minimize the
effect of potential variation in manufacture of
 Bill of materials (BOM) : It is a list of individual
components in the product. BOM is used the product and the products environment.
for manufacturing and in determining the product (iii) Continuously improved product reliability
cost. performance and technology to meet customer
Cognition refers to the way in which a user learns expectations.

about the device and masters its features until using DESIGN FOR RELIABILITY
them becomes a habit.
 Concept selection principles: These are basically  It is a measurement of the ability of a component
of five types which are as follows: (i) Convergence or a system to operate without failure over a period
: During concept generation the problem is of time. It is also defined as the probability that a
broadened. During concept selection the process physical body delivers its functional requirements
of convergence towards a single solution is being. for an intended period under several operating
(ii) Intuition : Concept selection methods vary conditions.
from the purely intuitive, which is to be avoided
DESIGN FOR SAFETY
for complex problems to the formal and rigid.
However, there is always from for some intuition  The design for safety may be divided into four
and professional judgement in the evaluation and types: They are
decision making process. (iii) Visibility: Decision’s  Abstraction : The operations of generalizing
made must be transparent and easily recorded. the steps in identifying the needs.
(iv) Ranking: The relative importance of the design
 Decomposition : The process of reducing an
criteria can be augmented by the addition of relative
object into a number of simpler, smaller parts,
weightings.
interfaces and structures (modularization).
DESIGN FOR X (DFX)  Elaboration the operation of detailing and
adding features.
 The best ways to explain a design methodology is

 Decision making Identification and selection of DESIGN FOR LOGISTICS
alternative strategies.
 Design for logistics is the efficient transfer
DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING / of goods from the source of supply, through
CONSTRUCTION the place of manufacture to the point of
consumption in a cost effective way while providing
 More conventional manufacturing is divided an acceptable service to the customer. Hence, we
into the following functions: (1) process can say logistics is the management of all activities
engineering, (2) tool engineering, (3) work which facilitates movement and the co-ordination
standards, (4) plant engineering, and (5) of supply and demand with respect to time and
administration and control. Process engineering is place.
the development of a step-by-step sequence of
operations for production. DESIGN FOR HANDLING
 Mistake Proofing: An important element of  Material Handling may be defined as the functions
DFMA (design for manufacturing and assembly) is and systems associated with the transportation,
to anticipate and avoid simple human errors that storage and physical work in manufacturing process.
occur in the manufacturing process by taking It is also include the usage of the cost effective
preventive action early in the product design method to deliver safely, the appropriate material
process. This is usually referred to as mistake- at the required place, with precision in timing
proofing or error proofing. Mistake proofing aims sequence and orientation.
at reaching a state of zero defects, where a defect
is defined as any variation from design or DESIGN FOR DISASSEMBLY
manufacturing specification.
 Designing for disassembly is done to optimize a
DESIGN FOR ASSEMBLY product’s life. It facilitate by which the product is
more serviceable for users, and aid in maintenance
 The lowest assembly cost can be done by designing
and repairability. Remanufacture, reuse and
a product in such a way that it can be assembled
recycling, require the ability to economically
by the most economical assembly system. There
are three main basic types of assembly systems. remove the most valuable components when the
They are product reaches the end of its life.
(i) Manual DESIGN FOR RECYCLING
(ii) Special purpose machine
 Recycling is adopted and done to safe the
(iii) Programmable machine assembly environment and the economy. Much of the
DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABILITY difficulties inherent in recycling arise from the fact
that most products are not designed with recycling
 Maintainability may be termed as “the probability as a design factor.
that a failed system can be repaired in a specific
interval of time”. The objective is to assure that DESIGN FOR REENGINEERING
the design will perform satisfactorily throughout
 Reengineering is the systematic transformation of
its intended life with a minimum expenditure of an existing system into a new form to realize quality
budget and effort. Maintainability requirement can improvements in operation, functionability,
be qualitative and quantitative. Both qualitative and performance at a lower cost, schedule or risks to
quantitative maintainability requirements are used customer. Analysis and Redesign are its first and
to define the maintainability characteristics in a second phase respectively.
system or equipment. Design for maintainability
(DFM), Design for Serviceability (DFS) and Design  Forward engineering is similar to reverse
for Reliability (DFR) are related because minimizing engineering as it uses the concept of a high level
maintenance and facilitating service can be achieved existing model in a low level need based model, in
by improving reliability. an analogous way.

SAFETY IN ENGINEERING/CONSTRUCTION
 Safety is a discipline which requires identification  Hazard control: This is a means of lowering the
and control of causal factors in engineering in order risk from exposure from a perceived hazard.
to provide value to organizations.  Injury: This is a wound or other specific/certain
 There are many goals of engineering safety and damage.
some of these are as follows: —  Safety plan: This is a series of procedures followed
 Reduce accidents, Control or eliminate hazards, to enable all safety related requirements of an item
Develop new methods on safety efforts, Maximize to be identified ans satisfied.
public confidence with respect to product safety.  Software prpcess: This is a series of procedures
followed to enable all safety related requirements
Important Definition: of an item to be identified and satisfied.
 Safety: This is conservation of human life and its  Software safety: This is the freedom from
effectiveness and the prevention of damage to items software related hazard.
as per mission requirements.  Software hazard: This is a software condition
 Unsafe condition: This is any condition under prerequisite to an accient.
the right set of conditions that will result in an
HAZARD AND IT’S TYPE:
accident.
 Accident: This is an unplanned and undesired  A hazard is any practice, behaviour or condition or
event. combination of these that can cause injury or illness
to people or damage to property.
 Safety Management: This is the accomplishment
of safety through the efforts of others.  Hazard Exposure  Accident
Hazard: This is the source of energy and the  Material Handling Hazards : Manual material

physiological and behavioral factors which when handling can involve lifting, carrying, lowering,
uncontrolled effectively, result in harmful pushing, and pulling. All of these activities can lead
occurrences. to muscle strains, tears and pulls ofthe back,
shoulders, arms and abdomen. Handling of
 Safe: This is protected against any possible hazard. hazardous materials, such as corrosives, flammables
 Safety Management work: This is accomplishing and reactives is another key area.
safety by using per suasive approaches and Machine Hazards : Any machine can be a hazard,

information in a closed loop system. especially those with moving parts that can get
 Safety assessment: This is qualitative/quantitative tangled in a worker’s clothes or come into contact
detemination of safety. with a worker’s body.
 Safeguard: This is a barrier guard, device, or  Energy Hazards : Workers can be seriously
procedure developed to protect people. injured by the sudden movement of machine
 Safety movement: This started during world war components, electrical shock or other releases of
II when all of the various practitioners of energy when they are adjusting or maintaining
occupational health and safety realized the equipment.
desperate need for cooperative efforts.  Work Practice Hazards : Failure to have or to
 Unsafe act: This is an act that is not safe for and follow safe work practices is a significant cause of
individual/employee. injuries. Performing work safely in accordance with
established safe work procedures is a fundamental
 Accidnet report: This is a document that records
the findings of an accident investigation the accident element in the control of safety hazards.
cause/causes and the recommended measures.  Confined Space Hazards : Confined spaces are
workspaces where hazardous gases, vapours, dusts
 Unsafe behavior: This is the manner in which an
individual conducts himself/herself that is unsafe to or fumes may build up or where an oxygen-
himself/herself or others. deficient atmosphere may be created. Examples

include: storage tanks, vaults, pits, vats, silos, of safety engineers in the early 1970s and seeks to
pipelines, ducts and tunnels. highlight systemic causes rather than assigning
Physical Hazards : Physical hazards are forms of blames with respect to safety. TOR allows

energy that can harm the body if exposed. management and employees to work jointly to
analyze workplace accidents, incidents, and failures.
 Chemical Hazards : Chemical hazards can take TOR may simply be described as a hands on
the form of solids, liquids, vapors, gases, dusts, analytical methodology developed to identify the
fumes or mists. root system causes of an operation malfunction.
 Biological Hazards: Biological hazards are living The approach makes used of a work sheet
things or substances produced by living things that containing simple terms, basically, requiring yes/
can cause illness in humans. No decisions.
 Ergonomic or Work Design Hazards:  Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA): This

Ergonomic hazards arise from the design and method is basically used during the conceptual
organization of work. They can harm the body by design phase and is relatively an unstructured
approach because of the unavailability of definitive
placing strain on the musculoskeletal system and
information such as drawings and functional flow
overloading the muscles, tendons, joints, ligaments,
diagram. Nonetheless, PHA has is useful tool to
nerves and blood vessels.
take early steps to highlight and eliminate hazards
 Stress or Psychosocial Hazards: Workplace when all the desirable data are unavailable. Its
stressors can lead to excess stress or distress and findings are extremely useful to serve as a guide in
have been identified as important factors in many future detailed analysis.
types of illness, including heart disease and high Hazards and Operability Analysis (HAZOP):

blood pressure. The hazard and operability (HAZOP) technique
also termed as structured brainstorming. The
HAZARD ANALYSIS METHODS :
technique is applied. to precisely specified
 Failuare modes and effect analysis (FMEA): equipment, processes, or systems; therefore, the
FMEA is a powerful design tool to analyses design must be beyond the concept stage and in a
engineering systems from their reliability aspect. more concrete form before the technique can be
More specifically, the method is used to conduct used.
analysis of each potential failure mode in a system Control Charts: It developed by water A.

to examine the effects of such failure modes on Shewhart in 1924 fro application in quality control.
the system. Today, are used in various areas including safety
 Fault tree analysis (FTA): This method was analysis. A control chart may simply be described
developed in the early 1960s to perform reliability as a graphical method used to determine whether
analysis of the Minuteman Launch Control System. a process is in a state of statistical control or out
FTA is widely used in industry to perform reliability of control.
analysis of engineering systems during design and
development. There could be many objectives in  Job Safety analysis (JSA): A job safety analysis
conducting FTA, including identifying critical areas or (job hazard analysis) is a procedure to make a
and cost-effective improvement, confirming the job safe by:
ability of the system to meet its imposed safety (i) Identifying the hazard or potential of accidents
requirements, confirming system reliability, and associated with each step of the job.
understanding the functional relationship of system (ii) Developing a solution for each hazard that will
failures. Fault events that can cause the top event either eliminate or control the exposure. If
are generated and connected by logic operators some job hazards are known, proper solution
such as OR and AND. The OR gate provides a can be developed. Some solutions may be
true output (i.e. fault) if one or more inputs are physical changes that control the hazard, such
true (fault). Similarly, the AND gate provides a as placing a guard over exposed moving
true output (fault) if all the inputs are true (fault). machine parts. Other hazard may be job
 Technic of Operations Review (TOR): It was procedure which can be eliminated or
developed by D.A. weaver of the American Society minimized. Job safety analysis is also helpful in

discovering elimination or safe guarding of COMMON HAZARDS IN EXCAVATION
motions, positions actions and data hazards. It
adds the determination of equipment’s and  Quicksand: The tendency of quicksand to run
tools needed for safety. necessitates the use of closed continuous sheathing;
while damp sand, being more stable, may require
 Checklists: These are useful when a design has
generated from a previous design for which all only bracing. Rock shall be sealed as often as
hazard sources were carefully listed, so that the necessary to ensure against falling fragments.
consequences of the generation are easy to identify.  Water Content or Degree of Saturation: The
Safety and Economics are closely related. The side walls of a trench which may be reasonably
economics occupational safety suggests little more stable when dry, may become highly unstable due
than how can better working conditions be made to saturation of the earth following a heavy rainfall.
profitable for business. It focuses primarily on the
 Effect of Freezing and Thawing: Due to
ways in which individuals and communities produce,
expansion of water when freezing rock fragments,
distribute and consume goods and services.
and boulders, etc., are frequently loosened.
RISK MANAGEMENT  Adjacent Loose Fills: The possibility of pockets
of unstable material, such as dry and quicksand or
 We must have good understanding to identify the
old fills adjacent to a trench requires special
hazards that are present, estimate the probability
investigation and care. Such material may be
of their occurrence, generate alternative action to
separated from the pit by only a thin wall of stable
reduce the probability of occurrence, and, finally,
material which might easily collapse and allow the
tool to manage the risk. Therefore, risk
unstable material to flow into the cut.
management can be a three-step process :
(a) Risk Analysis  Surcharge Imposed by Adjacent Buildings,
Lumber piles: Proximity of buildings piles of
 Risk analysis, has two parts: identifying hazards or lumber, crushed rock, sand and other construction
finding their undesirable consequences and materials, derricks, concrete mixtures, crawler,
estimating the probabilities of their happening. cranes and other plants, large trees or other heavy
Hazard identification and probability estimation objects may impose such a surcharge on the side
needs logic, deduction, and mathematical concepts, of the trench to cause a slide unless precautions
so we can say risk analysis is basically objective are taken. Under these conditions additional bracing
and mathematical. shall be provided to support the sides of trench.
 Once the hazards and their occurrence probabilities
have been known, the consequent damage or injury Safety in Shoring and Timbering
must be evaluated.
 Trenches in soil more than 1.5 m deep shall be
(b) Risk Evaluation (assessment) securely shored and timbered.
 In the second step, alternative courses of action to  Trenches in friable or unstable rock exceeding 2 m
reduce hazards are developed, their costs and in depth shall be securely shored and timbered.
benefits are calculated, the risk perceptions of the
 The above requirements do not apply in cases
persons affected are studied in detail, and value
where the sides of the trenches are sloped to within
judgments are made.
1.5 m of the bottom. The slope that is provided
 Therefore, risk evaluation is less objective than for such purposes shall be inspected and certificates
risk analysis. stable by the persons in charge of work of work
(c) Management Decisions: The final stage of risk in all cases.
management include:  Notwithstanding any thing said above, it shall be
 Selecting the risks that will be managed understood that the need for shoring is a matter
which shall receive careful and frequent
 Implementing these decisions
consideration even in trenches less than 1.5 m or
 Allocating the required resources and controlling, 2 m in depth (as the case may be) and where
 Monitoring, reviewing, and revising these activities. there is any doubt as to the safety of the work

without shoring, no further excavation or other longitudinally and the double pole scaffolds shall
work shall be continued until adequate shoring is be braced both longitudinally and transversely so
provided. that the scaffolds form a rigid and stable structure.
 Where the sides of trenches are sloped as specified  Longitudinal bracing: The longitudinal bracing
in above but not to within 1.5 m of the bottom, shall be provided on the outer face of the
the vertical sides shall be shored and the shoring scaffolding by means of:
shall extend at least 30 cm above the vertical sides.
A diagonal face bracing in the end bays and one or
When open spaced sheathing is used, a toe board
more diagonal face braces (or facade braces)
shall be provided to prevent material rolling down
the slope and falling into the part of the trench between the end bays pitched at an angle to form
with vertical walls. a diagonal across the bays.
 Shoring and timbering shall be carried along with  Distance between braced bays: The maximum
the opening of a trench but when conditions distance between braced bays in any lift of scaffold
permit, protection work, such as sheet piling may shall not exceed 10 m.
be done before the excavation commences.  Length of brace: The brace member shall be
continuous (that is, without any break) except when
Composition of Materials Shoring and it is necessary to change the direction of the brace.
Timbering Transverse bracing: In case of double pole

 Approved quality of sal wood shall be used for scaffolds, in addition to face or zig-zag bracings,
shoring and timbering a trench. Any other structural transverse bracing or ‘heel’ and ‘toe’ braces shall
material having strength not less than that of sal also be provided at each end of the scaffold and if
wood may also be used for the purpose. the length of the scaffold exceeds 15 metre, it
shall be provided in addition at intervals not
Ladders : exceeding 15 metres apart.
 Excavations shall have at least on ladder per 15 m Protection from Falling Bodies :
of length or fraction thereof in case of hazardous
work and per 30 m of length or fraction there of  To protect workers on lower platform against falling
in case of relatively less hazardous works. Ladders objects from higher levels, overhead protection
shall extend at least one meter above the top of should be provided on the scaffold.
the cut to provide a hand hold when stepping on  Protection Under Scaffolds: Where persons are
of off the ladder. required to work or pass underneath (for example,
building entrances or pathways) a scaffold upon
SCAFFOLDS : which men are working, a screen or canopy shall
 Scaffold: A temporary structure consists of be provided for their protection from falling
standards, putlogs, ledgers, generally of bamboo, objects.
ballies, timber or metal to provide a working
General Safety Requirements :
platforms for workmen and materials in the course
of construction, maintenance, repairs and  The erection, alterations and removal should be
demolition, and also to support or allow hoisting done only under the supervision of men who are
and lowering of workmen, their tools and materials. thoroughly experienced in this work.
 The use of barrels, boxes, loose tile blocks or other
Safety in Design of Scaffold: unsuitable objects as supports for working
platforms shall not be permitted.
Bracing and Tying
 Where planks are butt-jointed, two parallel putlogs
 Any scaffold consisting merely of standards, ledgers shall be used not more than 100 mm apart, giving
and transoms or putlogs is not a rigid or stable each plank sufficient support. Nails shall penetrate
structure. Every scaffold shall be effectively braced to the holding piece to a depth of at least 12 times
to make it rigid and tied or guyed to make it stable. the diameter of the nail.
Bracing: Single pole scaffolds shall be braced  It scaffolds are to be used to a great extent or for

a long period of time, a regular plank stairway Built-up Ladders
wide enough to allow two people to pass shall be
erected. Such stairways shall have handrails on both  These are built on the job to its particular
sides. requirements. They are fastened to the structure
in a fixed position, securely held in place and not
 A scaffold platform plank shall not project beyond moved about as required.
its end supports to a distance exceeding four times
the thickness of the plank unless it is effectively Portable Ladders of Rigid Construction
secured to prevent tipping. Cantilever of scaffold
planks shall be avoided. Ledgers or putlog should  These are used as and where required to give
be erected to support the ends of such planks. access to scaffolds, platforms, etc., in a building or
other structure under construction or to any
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST PARTICULAR required location for repairs or maintenance. These
HAZARDS are of following types:
Electrical Hazards Stock Ladders
Care shall be taken to see that no uninsulated  Ladders which have one section and in which the

electric wire exists within 3 m of the working side rails may be either parallel or spread wider at
platform, gangways, runs, etc., of the scaffold. the bottom. They are lean-to-ladders, that is
their upper ends are supported by leaning
 While carrying bars, rods or pipes of any kind against a wall or any other rigid support.
conducting material of length greater than 3m, in
the vicinity of electric wires, special care shall be STRUCTURAL WORK, LAYING OF
taken that these do not touch the electric wires. REINFORCEMENT & CONCRETING
 Scaffold for safe operation braced and tied
into permanent structure or otherwise General Provisions
stabilized. It should be provided with platform that
are fully boarded and wide enough for work and  The erection or dismantling of buildings, structures,
civil engineering works, formwork, falsework and
access. Scaffold provided with scaffold boards that
shoring should be carried out by trained workers
are properly supported and rest on atleast 3-
only under the supervision of a competent person.
supports.
 Precautions should be taken to guard against danger
Mechanical and Traffic Hazards to workers arising from any temporary state of
weakness or instability of a structure.
 Care shall be taken to see that no part of a scaffold
is struck by a truck or other heavy moving  Formwork, falsework and shoring should be so
equipment and no material shall be dumped designed, constructed and maintained that it will
against it. safety support all loads that may be imposed on
it. Conformity with design during job execution
LADDERS shall be certified by the competent person and the
relevant records shall be maintained.
 An appliance or equipment usually consisting of
two side rails joined together at regular intervals
Erection and Dismantling of Steel and
with cross pieces like steps, rungs or cleats and
used in ascending or descending between two Prefabricated Structures
points at different levels.  The safety of workers employed on the erection
 Overall length of the ladders are up-rights position and dismantling of steel and prefabricated
of the ladder measured from end to end. structures should be ensured by appropriate means,
such as provision and use of:
Classification of Ladders Ladders, gangways or fixed platforms;

 Ladders used in construction may be classified as  platforms, buckets, boatswain’s chairs or other
follows.

appropriate means suspended from lifting  While they are being stored, transported, raised
appliances; or set down, structural steel or prefabricated parts
 safety harnesses and lifelines supported on properly should not be subjected to stresses prejudicial to
designed anchor, catch nets or catch platforms; their stability.
 Mechanical/power-operated mobile working  Every lifting appliance should:
platforms;  be suitable for the operations and not be
 Proper personal protective equipment. capable of accidental disconnection;
Steel and prefabricated structures should be so  be approved or tested as per statutory

designed and made that they can be safely requirement.
transported and erected. Route survey to be  Lifting hooks should be safety latch (self closing
carried out from works to construction site route type).
considering the load bearing capacity of the bridges,  Lifting hooks, tongs, clamps and other appliances
height of the bridges en-route and maximum width for lifting structural steel and prefabricated parts
and length permissible without causing any hazard should:
to public, the route and the equipment.
 be of such shape and dimensions as to ensure
 In addition to the need for the stability of the part a secure grip without damping the part;
when erected, the design should explicitly take
 be marked with the maximum permissible load
following into account: in the most unfavourable lifting conditions.
(i) The conditions and methods of attachment in  be periodically inspected and certified to ensure
the operations of transport, storing and further usage as per requirement of factory
temporary support during erection or act/Building & Construction Workers
dismantling as applicable; Regulation (BOCWR).
(ii) Methods for the provision of safeguards such
 Structural steel or prefabricated parts should be
as railings and working platforms, and, when
lifted only after rigging plan approved by competent
necessary, for mounting them easily on the
person to prevent them from spinning, slipping or
structural steel or prefabricated parts.
dropping accidentally.
 The hooks and other devices built in or provided
 When necessary to prevent danger, before they
on the structural steel or prefabricated parts that
are raised from the ground, structural steel or
are required for lifting and transporting them should
prefabricated parts should be provided with safety
be so shaped, dimensioned and positioned as:
devices such as railings and working platforms to
(i) To withstand with a sufficient margin the prevent falls of persons.
stresses to which they are subjected;
 When the method of erection does not permit the
(ii) Not to set up stresses in the part that could provision of other means of protection against fall
cause failures, or stresses in the structure itself of persons, the workplaces should be protected
not provided for in the plans, and be designed by guardrails, and if appropriate by toe-boards.
to permit easy release from the lifting  If necessary, to prevent danger, structural steel parts
appliance. Lifting points for floor and staircase should be equipped with attachments for
units should be located (recessed if necessary) suspended scaffolds, lifelines or safety harnesses
so that they do not protrude above the surface; and other means of protection.
 To avoid imbalance or distortion of the lifted load.  The risks of falling, to which workers moving on
high or sloping girders are exposed, should be
 Storeplaces should be so constructed that:
limited by all means of adequate collective
(i) There is no risk of structural steel or protection or, where this is impossible, by the use
prefabricated parts falling or overturning; of a safety harness that is well secured to a properly
(ii) Storage conditions generally ensure stability and designed support.
avoid damage having regard to the method of  When structural steel or prefabricated parts are
storage and atmospheric conditions; being erected, a sufficiently extended area

underneath the workplace should be barricaded  During pouring, shuttering and its supports should
or guarded. be continuously watched for defects.
 Never look into the drum mounted on truck (such
Reinforcement
as in case of Ready Mix Concrete).
 Ensure that workers use Personnel Protective
equipment like safety helmet with chin straps, safety ROAD WORK
shoes, gloves, full body safety harness, safety  Mixing aggregate with bitumen shall preferably be
goggles, etc. done with the help of bitumen batch mixing plant,
 Don’t place the hand below the rods for checking unless operationally non-feasible.
clear distance. Use measuring devices.  Workers handling hot bitumen sprayers or
 Don’t wear loose clothes while checking the rods. spreading bitumen aggregate mix or mixing bitumen
Don’t stand unnecessarily on cantilever rods. with aggregate shall be provided with PVC hand

gloves and rubber shoes with legging up to knee
 Don’t carry out welding/cutting of rods, safety joints.
procedures/precautions to be followed.
 At the end of day’s work, surplus hot bitumen in
 While transporting material by trucks/trailers, the tar boiler shall be properly covered by a metal
rods shall not protrude in front of or by the sides sheet, to prevent anything falling in it.
of driver’s cabin. In case such protrusion cannot
be avoided behind the deck, then it should not  If bitumen accidentally falls on ground, it shall be
extend 1/3 rd of deck length or 1.5 meters immediately covered by sprinkling sand, to prevent
whichever is less and tied with red flags/lights. anybody stepping on it. Then it shall be removed
with the help of spade.
 Reinforcement rods, cut pieces etc. should be
properly stored at identified locations and the scrap  For cement concrete roads, besides site barricading
should be disposed off promptly on regular basis. and installation of warning signs for traffic diversion
shall be used.
Concreting  Any excavation for road work should be done only
after surveying underground utilities and after taking
 Ensure stability of shuttering work before allowing
suitable precautions. The underground utilities to
concreting.
be rerouted as required after approval of
 Barricade the concreting area while pouring at competent person/authority.
height/depths.
 All the raw material for road construction/
 Keep vibrator hoses, pumping concrete maintenance to be stored on designated place
accessories in healthy conditions and mechanically which should be away from the running road. The
locked. running road should not be used for storing the
 Pipelines in concrete pumping system shall not be sand, hot bitumen, etc.
attached to temporary structures such as scaffolds
and formwork supply as the forces and movements CUTTING AND WELDING
may affect their integrity.
 Check safety cages & guards around moving Safety Practices Related to Gas Welding
motors/parts etc. provided in concreting mixers.  In case acetylene is to be generated or utilized at
 Use Personal Protective Equipment like gloves, a pressure in excess of 0.14 kgf/cm 2, prior
safety shoes, full body safety harness, safety goggles, permission of the chief Inspector of Explosives,
etc. while dealing with concrete and wear Government of India, shall be obtained.
respirators for dealing with cement.  Use of liquid acetylene shall be prohibited.
 Earthing of electrical mixers, vibrators, etc. should All portable cylinders used for storage and shipment

be done and verified. of compressed gas shall be constructed and
 Don’t allow the same workers to pour concrete maintained in accordance with the requirements
round the clock. Insist on shift pattern. specified in the Gas Cylinder Rules, 1940.

 The word ‘buildings’ shall mean buildings having  The carbide used each time for recharging the
occupancy other than that directly associated with generator shall be just sufficient to refill the space
the production of acetylene or the storage and provided for calcium carbide without ramming the
manifolding of gases used in welding and cutting. charge. Only a wooden tool shall be used in
 The heating of generator houses or rooms shall be distributing the charge.
by steam, hot water or other indirect heating
Gas Holders
system; the furnace shall be so located that no
flame or fire is in or near the generator enclosure.  All gas holders shall be constructed on the
gasometer principle, the bell being suitable
 Where artificial lighting is necessary, it shall
be restricted to electric lamps set in air-tight guided. The gas bell shall move freely without
frames in the exterior walls or roof of the tendency to bind and shall have a clearance
generator house or room without being of at least 5.0 cm from the shell.
enclosed by wired glass panels. Electrical  When the gas holder is not located within a heated
installations, not of the flame-proof type, may building, gas holder seals shall be protected against
be permitted in the generator room provided freezing.
air under pressure is blown through the
electrical conduits and fittings. Calcium Carbide
 No person shall smoke within 5m of a generator  Storage: The storage of calcium carbide shall
house or room. conform to the requirements laid down in the
Carbide of Calcium Rules, 1937 issued by the
 Water Supply Connections: Water shall not be
Government of India.
supplied through a continuous connection to the
generator, except when the generator is provided  The metal from which the containers are made
with an adequate open overflow or automatic may contain not more than 0.1 percent of copper.
water shut-off which would effectively prevent  Not more than 1000 × 103 kg of carbide of calcium
overfilling of the generator. The supply pipe shall shall be stored in any one building, provided that
terminate at a point not less than 5.0 cm above not more than 250 × 10’ kg of carbide of calcium is
the regularly provided opening for filling so that it stored in any one room or other part of the building.
is possible to see the water as it enters the
 Hot solution of tri-chloroethylene, caustic soda and
generator.
tri-sodium phosphate solutions have been found
 An open connection for the sludge draw-off at the effective cleaning agents for piping.
generator is desirable to enable the generator
operator to observe leakage of generating water Blow Pipes
from the drain valve or sludge cock. A blow pipe of the injector type intended for use

 When recharging the generator, the instructions of with low pressure shall not be used in connection
the manufacturer shall be strictly followed with with high pressure acetylene unless a suitable
regard to the sequence of operations. control valve is fitted. A blow pipe of the non-
 The supply of calcium carbide and water to the injector type intended for use with high pressure
generator shall be so regulated that the shall not be used with low pressure acetylene.
temperatures of the generating and cooling water  All equipment shall be installed by a qualified
do not rise above those indicated by the electrician, in accordance with the Indian
manufacturer, but in no case above 82°C. Electricity Act, 1910.
 The calcium carbide shall be completely
decomposed in the apparatus, so that the lime Resistance Welding
sludge discharged therefrom shall not be capable Installation and operation of resistance welding
of generating more gas. equipment:
 Charging of calcium carbide at other than daylight  All external weld initiating control circuits shall
hours is allowed, if the generator room is lighted operate on voltage not over 120 volts.
in accordance with previously mentioned point.

 In the case of stored energy or condenser discharge  A dry chemical powder (DCP) type fire
type of resistance welding equipment, control panels extinguisher shall be made available in the
involving voltages over 550 volts shall be suitably work area.
insulated and protected by complete enclosures.  The welding receptacles shall be rated for 63
The doors of these shall be provided with suitable A suitable for 415V, 3-Phases system with a
locks or interlocks so as to make the equipment scraping earth. Receptacles shall have
safe from any residual charge in the condensers. A necessary mechanical interlocks and earthing
manually operated switch shall also be installed so facilities.
as to provide an additional safety measure, thus
assuring discharge of all the condensers. WORKING IN CONFINED SPACE
 Portable Welding machines: Wherever possible  When the work is going on in the confined
welding guns shall have suitable, counter-balanced space, there should always be two men
devices for supporting the gun, including secondary standby at the nearby manway/manhole
leads. equipped with communication arrangement
 Where the work permits, the welder shall be to contact seniors and to evacuate the worker
enclosed in an individual booth painted with inside confined space in case of emergency.
a non-reflecting paint, such as zinc oxide or  Before entering inside the vessels
lamp black. Alternately, an enclosure of non- underground/sewer or located at lower
combustible screens similarly painted shall be elevation, probability of dense vapours
provided. Booths and screens shall permit accumulating nearby should also be
circulation of air at floor level. considered in addition to inside the vessel and
 Protective Clothing: Protecting clothing required corrective action should be ensured.
for any welding operations varies with the size,  Ensure requisite O 2 level before entry in the
nature and location of the work to be performed. confined space and monitor level periodically or
 Lead Cadmium and Mercury: All welders engaged other wise use required respiratory devices.
in welding or cutting metal containing (or coated  Check for no Hydrocarbon or toxic substances
with) lead, cadmium, or mercury-bearing before entry and monitor level periodically
substances, shall be provided with an approved or use requisite Personal Protective
type air-line respirator or hose mask except where Equipment.
local exhaust ventilation, sufficient to control the Ensure adequate ventilation or use respiratory

fumes generated. devices.
 All welding and cutting operations carried on in  Use 24V flameproof lamp fittings only for
confined spaces shall be adequately ventilated to illumination.
prevent the accumulation of toxic gases or possible
oxygen deficiency.  Use tools with air motors or electric tools with
maximum voltage of 24V.
 All air, replacing that withdrawn shall be clean and
respirable. In such circumstances where it is  The gas cylinders used for cutting/welding
shall be kept outside. Care to be taken for
impossible to provide such ventilation, air-supplied
the integrity of gas hoses and welding cables
respirators or hose masks shall be used.
while work is in progress.
 Where welding operations are carried on in
 All cables, hoses, welding equipment etc., shall
confined spaces and welders and helpers are
be removed from confined space at end of
provided with approved air-supplied respirators or
each work day, even if the work is to be
hose masks, a workman shall be stationed on the resumed in the same space the next day.
outside of such confined space to service the power
and ventilation lines to ensure the safety of those  No naked light or flame or hot work such as
working within. welding, cutting and soldering should be
permitted inside a confined space or area
 Oxygen from a cylinder or torch shall never be unless it has been made completely free of
used for ventilation.

the flammable atmosphere, tested and found conditions that threaten the safety of workers.
safe by a competent person. Only non- Crawling boards, walkways and roof ladders should

sparking tools and flameproof hand lamps be securely fastened to a firm structure.
protected with guard and safety torches
should be used inside such confined space or  Roofing brackets should fit the slope of the roof
area for initial inspection, cleaning or other and be securely supported.
work required to be done for making the area  Where it is necessary for a person to kneel or
safe. crouch near the edge of the roof, necessary
 Inside the confined space spray painting precautions should be taken.
should be avoided.  On a large roof where work have to be carried
out at or near the edge, a simple barrier consisting
WORKING AT HEIGHTS of crossed scaffold tubes supporting a tubing
 While working at a height of more than 2.2 meters, guardrail may be provided.
ISI approved full body harness shall be used.  Roofs with a pitch of more than 10 should be
 While working at a height of more than 2.2 meters, treated as sloping.
permit should be issued by competent person  When work is being carried out on sloping
before commencement of the job. roots, sufficient and suitable crawling boards
 Worker should be well trained on usage of full or roof ladders should be provided and firmly
body harness including its proper usage at the time secured in position.
of ascending/descending.
HANDLING AND LIFTING EQUIPMENT
Fall Protection
General Safety Provisions
 Elimination: Explore possibility whether job can
be done avoiding work at height. Following are the general guidelines to be followed with
regard to all types of handling and lifting equipment in
 Prevention: Prevent fall of a worker by providing
appropriate fall prevention system. addition to the guidelines for specific type of equipments
dealt later on:
 Fall arrest system: Arrest the fall using suitable
fall arrest system. Ensure to have a strong suitably  There should be a well-planned safety programme
to ensure that all the lifting appliances and lifting
designed anchor point.
gear are selected, installed, examined, tested,
 Warning Lines: Use a warning line using a rope maintained, operated and dismantled with a view
or wire barrier around roof to warn workers that to preventing the occurrence of any accident;
they are getting close to the roof edge.
 All lifting appliances shall be examined by
 Safety Monitoring: Use a safety monitor to warn competent persons at frequencies as specified in
the workers. “The Factories act”.
 Administration: Prepare a written administrative  Check thoroughly quality, size and condition of all
procedure to ensure workers are doing the best lifting tools like chain pulley blocks, slings, U-clamps,
that they can. D-shackles etc. before putting them in use.
Safety in Roof Work  Safe lifting capacity of all lifting & handling
equipment, tools and shackles should be got
 All roof-work operations should be pre-planned verified and certificates obtained from competent
and properly supervised. authorities before its use. The safe working load
Roof work should only be undertaken by workers shall be marked on them.

who are physically and psychologically fit and have  Check periodically the oil, brakes, gears, horns and
the necessary knowledge and experience for such tyre pressure, lighting fixtures of all moving
work. equipments like cranes, forklift, trailers, etc. as per
manufacturer’s recommendations.
 Work on roofs shouldn’t be carried on in weather

 Check the weights to be lifted and accordingly SAFETY WITH DERRICKS
decide about the crane capacity, boom length and
angle of erection. Stiff-Leg Derricks
 Allow lifting slings as short as possible and check  Derricks should be erected on a firm base capable
packing at the friction points. of taking the combined weight of the crane
 Don’t allow booms or other parts of crane to come structure and maximum rated load.
within 3 meters reach of overhead electrical cables. Devices should be used to prevent masts from

lifting out of their seating.
Hoists
 Electrically operated derricks should be effectively
Following are the safety provisions: earthed from the sole plate or framework.
 Hoist shafts should be enclosed with rigid panels  Counterweights should be so arranged that they
or other adequate fencing at: do not subject the backstays, sleepers or pivots to
(a) ground level on all sides; excessive strain.
(b) all other levels at all points at which access is  When derricks are mounted on wheels:
provided;
(a) a rigid member should be used to maintain
(c) all points at which persons are liable to be the correct distance between the wheels;
struck by any moving part.
(b) they should be equipped with struts to prevent
 The enclosure of hoist shafts, except at approaches them from dropping if a wheel breaks or the
should extend where practicable at least 2 meters derrick is derailed.
above the floor, platform or other place to which
access is provided except where a lesser height is Guy Derricks
sufficient to prevent any person falling down the
 The restraint of the guy ropes should be ensured
hoistway and there is no risk of any person coming
by fitting stirrups or anchor plates in concrete
into contact with any moving part of the hoist, but
foundations.
in no case should be enclosure be less than 1 meter
in height.  The mast of guy derricks should be supported by
six top guys spaced approximately equally.
 The guides of hoist platforms should offer sufficient
resistance to bending and, in the case of jamming  The spread of the guys of a guy derrick crane
from the mast should not be more than 45° from
by a safety catch, to buckling.
the horizontal.
 Hoist should be provided with devices that stop
 Guy ropes of derricks should be equipped with a
the hoisting engine as soon as the platform reaches
stretching screw or turnbuckle or other device to
its highest stopping place.
regulate the tension.
 Winches should be so constructed that the brake
is applied when the control handle is not held in GIN POLES SAFETY
the operating position.
 Gin poles should:
 Winches should not be fitted with pawl and ratchet (a) be straight;
gears on which the pawl must be disengaged before
(b) consists of steel or other suitable metal;
the platform is lowered.
(c) be adequately guyed and anchored;
 Hoists intended for the carriage of persons
should be provided with a cage so constructed (d) be vertical or raked slightly towards the load;
as to prevent any person from falling out (e) be of adequate strength for the loads that they
or being trapped between the cage and any will be required to lift/move.
fixed part of the structure when the cage gate is  Gin poles should not be spliced and if a gin pole is
shut, or from being struck by the counterbalance composed of different elements, they should be
weight or by articles or materials tailing down the assembled in conformity with their intrinsic material
hoistway. strength.

TOWER CRANES  All the necessary safety appliances shall be issued
to the workers and their use explained.
 Tower cranes should only operate on
gradients within limits specified by the  All gas, water steam and other service lines shall
manufacturer. Tower cranes should only be be shut off and capped or otherwise demolition
erected at a safe distance from excavations work is started.
and ditches.  If a structure to be demolished has been partially
 Tower cranes should be sited where there is clear wrecked by fire, explosion or other catastrophe,
space available for erection, operation and the walls and damaged roofs shall be shored or
dismantling. As far as possible, cranes should be braced suitably
sited so that loads do not have to be handled over
occupied premises, over public thoroughfares, Protection of the Public
other construction works and railways or near  Before any demolition work is started, every
power cables. sidewalk or road adjacent to the work likely to be
 Where two or more tower cranes are sited in affected shall be closed or protected.
positions where their jibs could tough any part of  If the structure to be demolished is more than
the other crane, there should be direct means of two storeyed or 7.5 m high, measured from the
communication between them and a distinct sidewalk or street which cannot be closed or safely
warning system operated from the cab so that one diverted, and the horizontal distance from the
driver may alert the other of impending danger. inside of the side walk to the structure is 4.5 m or
 The manufacturers’ instructions on the methods less a substantial sidewalk shed hall be constructed
and sequence of erection and dismantling should over the entire length of the sidewalk adjacent to
be followed. The crane should be tested before the structure of sufficient width with a view to
being taken into use. accommodating the pedestrian traffic without
causing congestion.
 The climbing operation of climbing tower cranes
should be carried out in accordance with  A toe board of at least 1 m high above the roof of
manufacturers’ instructions. The free-standing the shed shall be provided on the out side edge
height of the tower crane should not extend and ends of the sidewalk shed. Such boards may
beyond what is safe and permissible in the be vertical or inclined outward at not more than
manufacturers’ instructions. 45 degrees.
 A windspeed measuring device should be provided Sequence of Demolition Operation
at an elevated position on the tower crane with
the indicator fitted in the drivers’ cab.  The demolition work shall be proceeded with in
Tower cranes should not be used for magnet, or such a way that:

demolition ball service, piling operations or other  It causes the least damage and nuisance to the
duties, which could impose excessive loading on adjoining building and the members of the
the crane structure. public, and
 It satisfies all safety requirements to avoid any
DEMOLITION accidents.
 All existing fixtures required during demolition
Precautions before Starting Demolition Work
operations shall be will protected with substantial
 On every demolition job, danger signs shall be covering to the entire satisfaction of the rules and
conspicuously posted all around the structure and regulations of the undertakings of they shall be
all doors and openings giving access to the structure temporarily relocated.
shall be kept barricaded or manned except during  Before demolition work is started, glazed sash,
the actual passage of workmen or equipments. glazed doors and windows, etc., shall be removed.
 During nights, red light shall be placed on or about All fragile and loose fixtures shall be removed. The
all the barricades. lath and all loose plaster shall be stripped of

throughout the entire building. This is advantageous Demolition of Steel Structures
because it reduces glass breakage and also
eliminates a large amount of dust producing  When a derrick is used, care shall be taken to see
material before more substantial parts of the that the floor on which it is supported is amply
buildings are removed. strong for the loading so imposed. If necessary
heavy planking shall be used to distribute the load
 All well openings which extend down to floor to floor beam and girders.
level shall be barricaded to a height of not
less than one meter above the floor level.  Over loading of equipment shall not be allowed.
This provision shall not apply to the ground  Tag lines shall be used on all materials being
level floor. lowered or hoisted up and a standard
 All floor openings and shafts not used for  No person shall be permitted to ride the load line
material chutes shall be floored over and be  No beams shall be cut until precautions have
enclosed with guard rails and toe boards. been taken to prevent it from swinging freely
 The demolition shall always proceed and possibly striking any worker of equipment
systematically storey by storey in descending to any part of the structure being demolished.
order and the work on the upper floors shall  All structural steel members shall be lowered from
be completely over before any of the the building and shall not be allowed to drop.
supporting members or other important
portion on the lower floor is disturbed. These RADIOGRAPHY
requirements shall not prohibit the demolition of
structure in sections, if means are taken to prevent  All radiography jobs shall be carried out as per
injuries, to persons or damage to property. BARC Safety Regulations.
 During field radiography, nearby area around the
Demolition of Walls radiation source should be cordoned off.
 While walls or sections of masonry are being  If the field radiography is to be done at the
demolished, it shall be ensured that they are not same location repeatedly, it is advisable to
allowed to fall as single mass upon the floors of provide either a wire fencing around or a
the building that are being demolished so as to temporary brick enclosure.
exceed the safe carrying capacity of the floors. As far as possible, field radiography should be done

 Over loading of floor shall be prevented by only during night time when there is little or no
removing the accumulating debris through chutes occupancy there.
or by other means immediately.
 All personnel working with radiography sources
 The floor shall be inspected by the engineer-in- should wear appropriate protective equipment and
charge before undertaking demolition work and if
film badges issued by BARC.
the some is found to be incapable to carry the
load of the debris, necessary additional precautions  Protection facilities such as manipulator rod,
shall be taken so as to prevent any possible remote handling tongs, lead pots, radiation hazard
unexpected collapse of the floor. placards and means of cordon off shall be available
 Walls shall be removed part by part. Stages shall at each site.
be provided for the men to work one, if the walls  The radiography source shall never be toughed or
are very thin and dangerous to work by standing handled directly with hands.
over them.
 The package containing radiography cameras and
Demolition of Floors sources should never be carried by public transport
like bus, train etc.
 The demolition of floor shall be started only after
 Radiography sources and cameras, when not in
the floor in question and the surrounding floor
use, should be stored inside a source pit with lock
area for a distance of 6.0 m have been entirely
and key arrangement as approved by BARC. The
cleared of persons, and the debris and other
storage room should preferably be located in an
unnecessary material removed.

isolated area of minimum occupancy and radiation maintained.
level outside the storage room should not exceed  The volume of air required shall depend on the
0.25 mR/hr as per BARC Regulations. following:
GRIT SHOT/SLAG BLASTING/SPRAY (a) Length of heading
PAINTING (b) Size of tunnel
(c) Type and amount of explosives used,
 Air compressor used for grit/shot/slag blasting/
painting should have guard and positioned away (d) Frequency of blasting, and
from the work place. (e) Temperature and humidity.
 Exhaust of the prime mover, if IC engine is used,  Rocker or cradle type dump cars shall be
should be fitted with respective statutory body provided with a positive type lock to prevent
approved spark arrester (in case of work in accidental dumping in mucking yards.
hazardous area) and directed away from the work  The scaffolding supporting the pipe shall be
place. designed to carry the pipe when filled with
 Proper fire fighting arrangements are to be made concrete plus 100 percent overload plus the
where spray painting is in progress. estimated weight of the maximum number of
“No Smoking Zone” boards should be displayed workmen that may work on the pipes while the

prominently in paints shop/spray paint area. pump is operating. A factor safety of 4 shall then
be used.
TUNNELING  Fire protection equipment should be provided.
Carbon dioxide extinguishing agents should not be
 This work is specialized and hazardous because of
used, neither should water-based extinguishers be
cramped working space wet and slippery flooring,
used. First-air fire extinguishers should be BCF (e.g.
artificial lighting. Usually characterized by 2.5 kilogrammes). 10 kilogrammes ABC dry
inadequate, ventilation, obnoxious gases, unseen powder extinguishers should be provided for larger
weaknesses of rock, handling of explosives, hauling fires.
muck, etc., leading to accidents.
WORK NEAR OVERHEAD POWER LINE
General Safety Precautions in Tunneling
 As far as possible, earth moving and lifting and
 Guidance of competent foreman is a must for all hoisting machinery shall not be left on highways at
operations to be carried out inside the tunnel. night. If it is at all left, it shall be adequately marked
 Adequate ventilation is required to remove polluted with red lanterns, red flags or other effective
air, gases and smoke produced. means.
 Temperatures of not more than 40°C dry and 29°C  No earth moving and lifting and hoisting machinery
wet at the working place to be ensured. shall be operated without the ballast or counter
 The tests shall be carried out once after every weights in place and the tonnage shall be as
blast or a major rock-fall or at least every 24 hours specified by the manufacturer.
once.
OSHA [OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
 Tests of gases and for temperature measurements
ADMINISTRATION]
and ventilation measurements shall be recorded
properly maintained.  The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
 Adequate steps shall be taken to prevent the (OSHA) is an agency of the United States
liberation, accumulation and the propagation of air- Department of Labour. OSHA’s mission is to
borne dust. “assure safe and healthful working conditions for
working men and women by setting and enforcing
 Periodical medical check up of the workers at least
standards and by providing training, outreach,
once in three months to be done and recorded.
education and assistance”.
 Adequate supply of pure and hygienic air to be
 The agency is also charged with enforcing a variety

of whistleblower statutes and regulations. OSHA are known as Class C fires. Always de-energize
is currently headed by Assistant Secretary of Labour the circuit then use a non-conductive extinguishing
David Michaels. agent. Such as Carbon dioxide.
 OSHA’s workplace safety inspections have been  Class D: Class D Fires are combustible metal fires.
shown to reduce injury rates and injury costs Magnesium and Titanium are the most common
without adverse effects to employment, sales, types of metal fires. Once a metal ignites do not
credit ratings, or firm survival. use water in an attempt to extinguish it. Only use
a Dry Powder extinguishing agent. Dry powder
WORK ON TALL CHIMNEYS agents work by smothering and heat absorption.
Following measures are to be considered:  Class K: Class K Fires are fires that involve cooking
 Safe access should be provided at every stage of oils, grease or animal fat and can be extinguished
construction. using Purple K, the typical agent found in kitchen
or galley extinguishers.
 Scaffolds forming part of the slip-form framework
should be closely boarded. THE DAM SAFETY BILL, 2018
 Slip-form tower frames must be adequately
 It is a bill to provide for surveillance,
designed to take into account loads imposed. A
inspection, operation and maintenance of
larger safety filctor should be used if an elevator is
specified dams for prevention of dam failure
attached on it.
related disasters and to provide for institutional
 Anchoring points for suspended scaffolds should mechanism to ensure their safe functioning
be embedded in the chimney shell as the chimney and for matters connected therewith of incidental
is built. thereto.
 Overhead protection should be provided at the  This Act may be called the Dam safety Act, 2018.
internals and external of the base of chimneys
during construction or repair.  It extends to the whole of India.
 Suspended scaffoldings used on the external GUIDELINES ON SAFETY IN ROAD

of the chimney should be anchored against wind CONSTRUCTION ZONES
forces.
 The guiding principles for safety in road
FIRE SAFETY construction zones are:
 Fire safety is the set of practices intended to reduce (i) warm the road user clearly and sufficiently in
the destruction caused by fire. Fire safety measures, advance;
include those that are intended to prevent ignition (ii) provide safe and clearly marked lanes for
of an uncontrolled fire, and those that are used to guiding road users;
limit the development and effects of a fire after it (iii) provide safe and clearly marked buffer and
starts. work zones; and
Classes of Fire (iv) provide adequate measures that control driver
behaviour through construction zones.
 Class A: Class A Fires consist of ordinary
combustibles such as wood, paper, trash or anything Traffic Control Zone
else that leaves an ash. Water works best to
 The construction describes that area of the
extinguish a Class A fire.
road which is affected by the works and which
 Class B: Class B Fires are fueled by flammable or affects traffic flow and road users. The main
combustible liquids, which include oil, gasoline, and area of interest can be called in this context at the
other similar materials. Smothering effects which “Traffic control zone”.
deplete the oxygen supply work best to extinguish
 It includes all those areas of carriageway in
Class B fires.
advance of the actual work site which are
 Class C: Class C Fires. Energized Electrical Fires required for advanced warning of the hazard

as well as safety zones, the transition zones  Automatic fire detection and alarm system:
and the working zone itself. A system comprising components and sub systems
(i) the turning radius of the longest vehicle the required for automatically detecting smoke, heat
generally uses the road should be the ruling or fire initiating and alarm and other actions as
radius for curves; appropriate. This system also includes manually
(ii) where changes in vertical profile are required operated electronic fire alarm (MOEFA)
these should be shallow enough to allow safe system.
passage of animal drawn vehicles (if these are  Down corner: An arrangement of firefighting
present in significant numbers); within the building by means of down corner
The traffic is taken across the transition zone mostly pipe connected to terrace tank through

with the help of signs, barricades, channelisers and terrace pump, gage valve and non return
prevent markings. valve and having mains not less than 100mm
internal diameter with landing valves on each
 All the signs/barricades are to be maintained floor/landing. It is also fitted with inlet connections
properly and kept clean of dust at all times. at ground level for charging with water by pumping
Sufficient stock of these should be maintained at from fire service appliances and air release valve at
the site so as to replace the damaged or vandalised roof level to release trapped air inside.
signs/barricades.
 Dry riser: An arrangement of firefighting within
 Reflective paints/sheets must therefore be the building by means of vertical rising mains not
used for making the signs/barricades so that less than 100mm internal diameter with landing
these are visible at all times. valves on each floor/landing which is normally dry
but is capable of being charged with water usually
Direction Signs by pumping from fire service appliances.
 Direction or guide signs are required at traffic  Emergency lighting: Lighting provided for use
control zones to provide the necessary information when the supply to the normal lighting fails.
and guidance for the alternative route and work
 Emergency lighting system: A complete but
being done.
discrete emergency lighting installation also fed
Delineators from the stand by power source to the emergency
lighting installation also fed from the standby power
The delineators are the elements of a total system of source to the emergency lighting lamp(s), for
traffic control and have two distinct purposes: example self contained emergency luminaire or a
 To delineate and guide the driver to and along a circuit from central battery (with or without
safe path. monitoring system) connected through wiring to
several escape lighting luminaries.
 As a taper: to move traffic from one lane to another.
 Escape lighting: The part of the emergency
SAFETY IN BUILDING lighting which is provided to ensure that the
escape route is illuminated at all material
Some Important Related Terms : times.
 Atrium: A large volume space created by a floor  Evacuation lift: Lift that can be used, during an
opening or series of floor openings connecting two emergency, for self evacuation.
or more stories that is covered at the top of the  Exit: That unobstructed component of means
series of openings and is used for purposes other of egress which is between the exit access and
than an enclosed stairway, lifts hoist way; an the exit discharge or public way. Exit components
include exterior exit doors at the level of
escalator opening; or as a utility shaft used for
exit discharge, interior exit stairways, exit
plumbing, electrical, air conditioning or passageways, exterior exit stairways and exterior
communications facilities. exit ramps.

Short Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Short Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

General Principles

Web: www.iesmaster.org | E-mail: info@iesmaster.org

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 2

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 3

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 4

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 5

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 6

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 7

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 8

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 9

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 10

2. TYPES OF ENGINEERING DESIGN

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 11

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 12

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 13

4. SYSTEM ENGINEERING AND PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 14

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 15

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 16

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 17

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 18

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 19

 Ergonomic or Work Design Hazards:  Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA): This

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 20

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 21

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 22

Electrical Hazards Stock Ladders

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 23

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 24

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 25

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 26

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 27

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 28

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 29

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 30

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 31

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 32

 Suspended scaffoldings used on the external GUIDELINES ON SAFETY IN ROAD

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 33

F-126, Katwaria Sarai, New Delhi - 110 016 34

You might also like