Purchasing Including E- Procurement, Negotiation,

E-Tendering etc.

BONIYA P BOCHAN

School of Management Studies

CUSAT, Kochi-22
E-mail: boniya57@gmail.com

Abstract: A Supply chain is the network of activities that delivers a finished product or service
to the customer and for which include certain steps which helps in attaining an effective
supply chain. The management of these steps in a supply chain is supply chain management.
One of the important step in supply chain management process is purchasing. In this paper
it deals with the purchasing process in Supply Chain Management, which includes a wide
range of functionalities. Purchasing can be simply defined as the process of acquiring goods
or service to accomplish the goal of the organization. Different types of purchasing, methods
of purchasing, levels of purchasing etc. are there related to purchasing all are included in this
paper. Procurement is another aspect which is included in this paper, procurement is actually
sourcing activities, negotiation and strategic selection of goods and services that are usually
of importance to an organization. Procurement is different from purchasing in the way that
purchasing is mainly the process of how goods and services are ordered. Different methods
and types of procurement are there, which are adopted in an effective supply chain. Today
in this electronic and technology driven world E- procurement is more efficient as compared
to traditional way of procurement due to its advanced features. So in this paper it mainly deal
with purchasing and procurement, its methods, types, functionalities and working in supply
chain management process.

Keywords: Supply chain management, Purchasing, Procurement, Strategic selection, E –

procurement, Negotiation
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The concept and importance of supply chain management (SCM) has been introduced and
described at length in the literature. Several mostly conceptual definitions of SCM were found.
To classify these multiple definitions and extend SCM to include a process orientation a
conceptual model of SCM evolution was developed. This research proposes that SCM is an
evolving concept with individual firms at different stages in their adoption of the concept. In
its most advanced form SCM is not a subset of logistics but is a broad strategy which cuts
across business processes both within the firm and through the channels required to reach
the customer and involves the firm's suppliers. Thus SCM as a concept is organization‐wide;
not logistics‐specific. An exploratory study of purchasing professionals was performed and it
was determined that their definitions of SCM focused on developing relations with suppliers
including partnerships. SCM provided purchasers multiple benefits including improved
supplier coordination. This improved coordination resulted in greater commitment to long‐
term supplier relations, with a focus on reducing cost to the buying organization. [1]

In order for a product to go from the manufacturing stage and into the hands of a consumer,
it must follow a long journey guided by purchasing and supply management professionals
who make important decisions regarding cost, quality and scheduling. These decisions can
affect whether or not someone will buy a company’s product, and also make a big impact on
the company’s revenue and sales. What would happen if Valentine’s Day chocolates were
not available until September? Purchasing and supply management professionals focus on
ensuring the right products are available at the right time and right place for their
consumers.[2]

2.0 PURCHASING

Purchasing is the act of buying the goods and services that a company needs to operate
and/or manufacture products.[3]

Many people are ignorant of what purchasing is all about. “Purchasing” is the term used in
industries, commerce, public corporations to denote the act of and the financial responsibility
for procuring material, supplies and services. It simply describes the process of buying.
However in a broader sense, the term involves determining the needs, selecting the supplier,
arriving at a proper price, terms and conditions, issuing the contract or order, and following
up to ensure proper delivery. It focus is to purchase or obtain materials in the right quantity,
in the right quality, at the right price, at the right time, and from the right supplier and delivering
to the right place.[4]

2.1 FUNCTIONS OF PURCHASE DEPARTMENT

1. To maintain an uninterrupted flow of materials to support the development schedules

2. To procure materials economically at a cost consistent with the quality and service
required. However, generally all purchases may be attempted at the lowest cost.
3. To provide the necessary expertise, advice, information to the management with
regard to the best quality of material available in the market, supplier’s capability and
performance etc.
4. To develop a good buyer-seller relationship
5. To promote source development
6. Selection of authorized suppliers
7. Checking legal conditions of contracts
8. Maintenance of purchase records
9. Maintenance of vendor performance data
10. Keeping various departments informed of the progress of their indents in case of
delay in obtaining supplies maintenance.
11. Purchase order - To file purchase order copy of all Consumables.[5]

2.2 TYPES OF PURCHASES

Depending on what type of purchase you are going to make, then the process concerned is
not the same. The following examples show the different processes that take place
concerning the different purchase types.

Personal Purchases. The consumer purchases for the consumption of themselves, then
they fall into this very important category class. They are ultimately driving the economy
through the purchase of its products. Therefore, the economy becomes dependent on them.

Mercantile Purchasing. Facilitated by middlemen for the intention of re-sale to meet others
requirements. Agents, wholesalers and retailers come under this category providing their own
channels of distribution to the consumer.

Industrial Purchasing. The purchaser is buying to convert material into finished goods and
product. It entails buying raw materials. Components, supplies and consumable stores,
spares and tools, machines and equipment and office appliance.

Institutionalized or government purchasing. Government agencies or institutions are very

important, critical, they purchase in bulk for public utilities.

Organizations buy many different goods and services. The challenge for purchasing is
deciding on the supplier that offers the best opportunity for items an organization must
purchase externally. Table 1-5 lists and describes many of the items that a purchasing
department is responsible for buying. Services are a special category of spend and the
involvement of purchasing depends on the organization.[6]
2.3 METHODS OF PURCHASING

Purchasing by Requirement: This method refers to those goods which are purchased only
when needed and in required quantity. The goods which are not regularly required are
purchased in this way. On the other hand it refers to the purchase of emergency goods.
These goods are not kept in store. Purchasing department must be in knowledge of the
suppliers of such goods so that these are purchased without loss of time.

Market Purchasing: Market purchasing refers to buying goods for taking advantages of
favorable market situations. Purchases are not made to meet immediate needs but are
acquired as per the future requirements. This method will be useful if future needs are
estimated accurately and purchases are made whenever favorable market situations arise.
The market situation is constantly studied for forecasting price trends.

The advantages of this method are: lower purchase prices, more margin on finished products
due to lower material cost and saving in purchase expenses. This method suffers from some
limitations: losses in case of wrong judgment, fear of obsolescence, higher storing expenses
due to more purchases.

Speculative Purchasing: Speculative purchasing refers to purchases at lower prices with a

view to sell them at higher prices in future. The attention in this method is to earn profits out
of price rises later on. The purchases are not made as per the production needs of the plant
rather these are far in excess of such requirements. A cloth mill may purchase cotton in the
market when prices are low with the attention of earning profits out of its sales when prices
go up.

Speculative purchasing should not be confused with market purchasing. The former is done
to earn profits out of future price rises where as the latter is concerned with purchasing for
own needs when favorable market situations exist. Though speculative purchasing may result
in profits but there are chances of prices going down in future, fear of obsolescence and
incurring higher storage costs.

Purchasing for Specific Future Period: This method is used for the purchase of those
goods which are regularly required. These goods are needed in small quantity and chances
of price fluctuations are negligible. The needs for specific period are assessed and purchases
made accordingly. The requirements for such purchases may be assessed on the basis of
past experience, period for which supplies are needed, carrying cost of inventory etc.
5. Contract Purchasing:

In the words of Spriegel it is “the purchasing under contract, usually formal, of needed
materials, delivery of which is frequently spread over a period of time.” Under this method a
specific quantity of materials is contracted to be purchased and delivery is taken in future.
Even though the goods are procured in future but the price and other terms and conditions
are fixed at the time of contract. This method may be useful when price rises in future may
be expected and material requirements for future may be accurately estimated.
Scheduled Purchasing: Under this method the suppliers are supplied a probable time
schedule for material requirements so that they are in a position to arrange these in time. An
accurate production schedule is prepared for estimating future material needs. The suppliers
are informed of probable needs and orders are sent accordingly. The schedule provided by
the purchaser to the vendor is not a contract. This is only a gentleman’s agreement for terms
and conditions of purchases. The main objectives of this method are: minimum inventory,
prompt service. low prices, quality goods etc.

Group Purchasing of Small Items: Sometimes a number of small items are required to be
purchased. The prices of these items are so small that costs of placing orders may be more
than prices. In such situations the buyer places order with a vendor for all these items. The
purchase price is agreed to be by adding some percentage of profit in the dealer’s cost. This
method will be used only when dealer’s records are open to inspection for determining his
cost. This type of purchasing reduces the cost of the buyer by eliminating much clerical work.

Co-operative Purchasing: Small industrial units may join to pool their requirements and then
place bulk orders with dealers. This will help them in availing rebates on large quantity
purchases, cash discounts and savings in transportation costs. After receiving the materials
these are divided among the member units. Co-operative purchasing helps small units in
availing the benefits of bulk purchasing. [8]

2.4 TYPES OF METHODS OF PURCHASING

Your small business needs either supplies or raw materials in order to operate. You’ll need
to replenish these supplies as they deplete or you could face embarrassing delays serving
your customers. However, the goods your business requires may vary in size and scope. By
familiarizing yourself with the variety of methods of purchasing available you can keep
operations running smoothly and best ensure your procurement strategy success.

There are many ways to purchase the resources you need to run your business, ranging from
petty cash purchasing to purchase orders, P-cards, discounted bulk purchasing and like
exchanges with other small businesses.

Keep Petty Cash on Hand. One of the most common types of purchases are the small
expenditures for office supplies, stamps and other minor purchases. Many office managers
use petty cash for these expenses because they are typically small enough to not warrant a
check or special requisition. Keep a specified amount of money in the petty cash fund, and
record the amounts coming in and out for audit purposes. In order to deter theft and not tie
up company assets, you should keep your petty cash fund at a level that requires replenishing
every two to four weeks as well as require receipts from everyone who has access to the
fund.
Formalized Purchase Orders. Your business will want to use purchase orders for larger
procurement or regular deliveries. This purchasing process creates a formal request and
agreement between you and your supplier regarding the prices and terms agreed upon for
your purchase. You can use this form to verify the correct goods and quantities delivered
once your materials arrive. You may also use purchase orders as legal documents should
any disputes between you and the vendor arise.

Convenient Purchase Cards. Purchase cards, or “P-Cards” work well for medium-sized
purchases that you need to track but that don’t necessitate a purchase order requisition.
Similar to a consumer credit card, P-cards allow you to take advantage of existing credit
infrastructure to conduct purchasing transactions electronically. You can use your statement
to track your miscellaneous purchases, while only having to make a single payment. Unlike
consumer cards, though, you can’t carry a balance. Most card issuers require the cardholder
to pay their bill in full each month.

Barter for Goods or Services. Not every purchase procedure requires cash to obtain goods
and services. Making like exchanges with other small businesses is a great way to meet
your needs for little or no monetary investment. Bartering involves trading the services of
another business with the product or service you offer. For example, as a web designer you
may offer to build a website for a printing company in exchange for having business cards
printed. Both parties benefit, and these exchanges may even lead to future monetary
transactions down the line.

Save with Bulk Purchases. Another popular purchasing methodology is to buy your needed
supplies or goods in large quantities in order to realize a discounted unit price. While
this strategy requires that you have the floor space or storage necessary to house your goods
it can provide an excellent advantage to your business. Higher stock volumes mean that you
are in a better position to always meet your customers' demand and a lower cost means you
can pass along the savings. Customers who know they can always get a low price by
purchasing from your company are likely to make repeat purchases, thereby increasing your
sales.
On-Demand Purchasing and Zero Inventory.

For retailers that prefer to not house inventory, a zero inventory purchasing process works
well. Items are only purchased when they are needed and only in the quantities in which they
definitely will be sold. This system requires that the supply chain is operating efficiently so
that customers can receive their orders in a timely fashion. The model works well for
businesses that offer customized or perishable products.[9]

3.0 PROCUREMENT

Procurement describes all those processes concerned with developing and implementing
strategies to manage an organisation’s spend portfolio in such a way as to contribute to the
organisation’s overall goals and to maximise the value released and/or minimise the total cost
of ownership. Procurement is a more comprehensive term than purchasing, which is more
focused on the tactical acquisition of goods and services and the execution of plans rather
than the development of strategies.[10]
Procurement is the process of getting the goods and services your company needs to fulfil
its business model.

The tasks involved in procurement include:

• The development of quality standards

• Financing purchases
• Negotiating price
• Goods and services purchases
• Aligning purchases to company ethics and policies
• Inventory control
• Disposal of waste products like the packaging [11]

3.1 PROCUREMENT PROCESS

It's the series of processes that are essential to get products or services from requisition to
purchase order and invoice approval. Although we use ‘procurement' and ‘purchasing'
interchangeably, they slightly differ from each other.

A professional procurement process can be incredibly beneficial if you’re looking to

streamline purchasing. It can ensure that you pay the best price for goods or services, save
time by choosing the most reputable vendors, and minimize order delays and mistakes Let it
be known that there is no one-size-fits-all procurement process. Some organizations require
a formal process to suit their complex environment, which is often the case in government or
education. In those industries, vendors must comply with strict guidelines. Others, like
enterprise businesses, require a few key steps in an effort to manage budgets more
effectively.

While purchasing is the overarching process of obtaining necessary goods and services on
behalf of an organization, procurement describes the activities involved in obtaining them.
The procurement process in an organization is unique to its context and operations.

Regardless of the uniqueness, every procurement management process consists of 3 Ps',

namely Process, People, and Paperwork.

Process. The list of rules that need to be followed while reviewing, ordering, obtaining, and
paying for goods/services. Checkpoints/steps increase with the complexity of the purchase.

People. These are stakeholders and their specific responsibility in the procurement cycle.
They take care of initiating or authorizing every stage of the process. The number of
stakeholders involved is directly proportional to the risk and value of the purchase.

Paper. This refers to the paperwork and documentation involved in every stage of the
procurement process flow, all of which are collected and stored for reference and auditing
reasons.
3.2.1 PROCUREMENT PROCESS FLOW

To keep the procurement management process fair, transparent, and efficient, a good
understanding of the procurement process flow is key. Although the procurement process of
organizations differs from each other, the flowchart below sums up the important steps in a
procurement process.

Every procurement management process involves several elements, including requirements

determination, supplier research, value analysis, raising a purchase request, reviewal phase,
conversion to purchase order, contract administration, monitoring/evaluation of received
order, three-way matching, payment fulfilment, and record keeping. These are the important
stages in the procurement process flow:

Step 0: Needs Recognition

The preliminary step in a procurement process is recognizing the need for a product. Be it a
brand new order or a recurring purchase, needs are analyzed and the availability is double-
checked before creating a request for purchase.

Step 1: Purchase Requisition

Typically, a procurement process starts with a purchase requisition. The requester sends a
request for procurement (paper form, electronic, or phone) to the purchasing department.

Step 2: Review of Request

The purchase request is then reviewed by the procurement/finance team. Approved requests
become POs, while rejected requests are sent back to the requester with the reason for
rejection. All these can be handled with a simple purchase order app

Step 3: Budget Approval

In enterprises, once the procurement team raises a PO, it is forwarded to the accounting
department to receive budget approval.

Step 4: Quotation Requests

Once the budget is approved, the procurement team forwards several requests for quotation
(RFQ) to vendors with the intention to receive and compare bids to shortlist the perfect
vendor.

Step 5: Negotiation & Contract

Once a vendor is selected, the contract negotiation and signing are completed, and the
purchase order is then forwarded to the vendor. A legally binding contract activates right after
a vendor accepts a PO and acknowledges it.
Step 6: Receive Goods/Services

The vendor delivers the promised goods/services within the stipulated timeline. After
receiving them, the purchaser examines the order and notifies the vendor of any issues with
the received items.

Step 7: Three-Way Matching

At this step, three documents “purchase orders, packaging slips (that arrive with the order),
and vendor invoices are lined up and reconciled to pinpoint discrepancies and ensure that
the transaction is accurate. Discrepancies should be addressed once they are discovered.

Step 8: Invoice Approval Payment

Once three-way matching is complete, the invoice is approved and forwarded to payment
processing depending on organizational norms.

Step 9: Record Keeping

After the payment process, buyers make a record of it for bookkeeping and auditing. All
appropriate documents right from purchase requests to approved invoices are stored in a
centralized location.[12]

4.0 E-PROCUREMENT

E-Procurement or electronic procurement is the process of purchasing goods or services

online. e-Procurement software solutions help to automate the entire manual procurement
process right from requisition of goods to issue of the purchase order.[13]

Organizations, mainly those in manufacturing or related sectors, typically spend 60% to 70%
of their total expenditure on the procurement of material and services. These materials and
services have a large impact on their final product quality, product cost, product delivery, and
customer satisfaction. Hence, procurement has become a vital business function for most
organizations. Moreover, almost every organization has adopted some element of digitization
with the use of computers, internet, mobility, etc. All these factors increase the need for
implementing e-Procurement software solutions in small, medium and large enterprises.[14]

4.1 IMPLEMENTATION OF E-PROCUREMENT SOFTWARE

An organization can implement an e-Procurement software solution either as a standalone

system or they can integrate it with their ERP or EDI (electronic data interchange system). e-
Procurement software solution offers many advantages over manual procurement. Primarily,
e-Procurement helps to save effort, time and costs involved in the procurement process. [15].
The components of e-Procurement software solutions are:
Indent Management Indenting is the process of recording the demand. Indents can be
prepared in the e-Procurement system or can be pulled from an ERP or EDI system. Most e-
Procurement solutions have indent approval and indent assignment features.

RFQ Creations Request for quotation is the process for requesting vendors to submit their
bid against demand. RFQ document contains procurement requirements details along with
terms and condition for supply the goods or services. e-procurement software solution
suggests matching vendors based on their registered category.

Bid/ Quote Submission Vendor submits their quotes for requested items against RFQ. Bids/
Quotes also include details such as delivery days required, make of items, freight type,
payment terms, other terms (such as insurance, packing forwarding, etc.). If requested by
buyers, vendors can also submit a revised quotation.

Reverse Auction In the eProcurement process, buyers may also request vendors to
participate in the reverse auction process. In reverse auctions, vendors submit their
quotations/bids/ prices in decreasing order. This creates competition among suppliers and
improves the efficiency of the procurement process such as lower purchase time, lower cost
of procurement, etc.

Bid Evaluation After receiving bids/quotations from vendors, evaluation of quotes is done by
buyers. Bid evaluation is generally done through a comparative statement (CS). A
comparative statement is a report which displays a list of items requested in RFQ and list of
all quotes received through vendors along with other terms & condition mentioned by the
vendor. Listing all items and quotes from all vendors along with their terms and condition
makes it easy for buyers to evaluate all quotes in a single place.
 Vendor Selection & PO Preparation Once the evaluation of bids/quotation has been
completed by the buyer or committee of buyers; vendors are selected for the items
demanded. All items can be assigned to multiple vendors or any one vendor. After vendor
selection, Purchase order is generated in the system and mailed to the respective vendors.
e-procurement software solutions facilitate vendor selection and PO preparation process.

Vendor Management. An e-Procurement software solution provides a platform for vendors

to manage their own profiles. They can manage their profile information and/or make changes
to their contact details, items category they deal in, bank details, and other profile information.
Vendors can also see their pending inquiries, orders, etc.

Catalog Management. Vendors can manage their own catalog in e-Procurement solution.
In the basic form of catalog management vendors can quickly specify items they supply,
along with their price and terms conditions. A catalog help buyers to instantly evaluate their
demand with available prices, terms & conditions. An updated catalog save time and efforts
of both buyers and suppliers.

E-Communication. The major advantage of e-Procurement is automating the entire

procurement process. Procurement either manual or through electronic means requires
communication among various stakeholders. E-Communication facilitates all such
communication for various events among various stakeholders. It provides the facility to
define, configure and execute communication during various procurement activity and
events.

ERP/ EDI integration. Leveraging on technology e-Procurement solutions can be integrated

with existing ERP/ MIS solution. This integration can be done using intermediate EDI
(electronic data interchange) integration tools which facilitate communication of data with
different computer application such as ERP and eProcurement.[16]

Each of these components forms a crucial part of the e-Procurement process and play a
defining role in ensuring the effectiveness of automating the procurement process using an
e-procurement software solution.[17]

4.2 TYPES OF E PROCUREMENT

Knudsen (2003) and Smart (2010) have reviewed simple classification of different types or
applications of e-procurement. These are the main types:
E-sourcing. Finding potential new suppliers using the internet during the information
gathering step of the procurement process.

E-tendering. The process of screening suppliers and sending suppliers requests for
information (RFI) and requests for price (RFP)

E-informing. Qualification of suppliers for suitability. It doesn’t involve transaction but instead
handles information about the supplier’s quality financial status or delivery capabilities.

E-reverse auctions. Enable the purchasing company to buy goods and services that have
the lowest price or combination of lowest price and other conditions via internet technology.

E-MRO and web-based ERP. These involve the purchase and supply of products which are
the core of the most e procurement applications. The software used manages the process of
creating and approving purchasing requisitions, placing orders and receiving goods or service
ordered.

Smart (2010) also reviewed the business benefits of e-procurement through case studies of
three companies. He identified five key drivers or supplier selection criteria for e-procurement
adoption related to improving:

1. Control – improving compliance, achieving centralisation, raising standards, optimising

sourcing strategy and improved auditing data. Enhanced budgetary control is achieved
through rules to limit spending and improved reporting facilities.
2. Cost – improved buying leverage through increased supplier competition, monitoring
savings targets and transactional cost reduction.
3. Process – rationalising and standardisation of e-procurement process giving reduced cycle
time, improved visibility of processes for management and efficient invoice settlement.
4. Individual performance – knowledge sharing, value-added productivity and productivity
improvements.
5. Supplier management – reduced supplier numbers, supplier management and selection
and integration.

Process efficiencies result in less staff time spent in searching and ordering products and
reconciling deliveries with invoices so potentially leading to reduced costs of employees can
be reassigned. Savings also occur due to automated validation of pre-approved spending
budgets for individuals and departments, leading to fewer people processing each order, and
in less time. It is also possible to reduce the cost of physical materials such as specially
printed order forms and invoices.[18]

5.0 CONCLUSION

Today, purchasing is recognized as having an overwhelming impact on the bottom line of the
organization. It has a direct impact on the two forces that drive the bottom line: sales and
costs. Purchasing is becoming a core competency of the firm, finding and developing
suppliers and bringing in expertise that is highly valued by the organization. Purchasing is
generally responsible for spending more than 50 percent of all the revenues the firm receives
as income from sales. More money is often spent for purchases of materials and services
than for any other expense, and the spend in services is rapidly increasing. Often, the cost
of materials is 2.5 times the value of all labour and payroll costs and nearly 1.5 times the cost
of labour plus all other expenses of running the business. In the area of services, millions of
dollars are spent on marketing and advertising, legal, information technology, logistics,
temporary labour, and other categories. Although the involvement of purchasing in the
services area is different than in a typical purchase of materials, there is significant
opportunity for most organizations to save money by involving purchasing in this area of
spend.[19]

Well-managed procurement ensures that supplies of the required quality are available at the
right time, place and cost. Supply chain managers help to:

• reduce costs and improve profitability – bulk buying can provide economies of scale
• reduce waste by selecting inputs that generate less waste (and also lower costs)
• manage demand, for example, through just-in-time supply
• improve cash flow by securing favorable prices and payment terms
• improve efficiency by making sure suppliers hit deadlines
• improve the competitiveness of the business by seeking out innovative products and
services to add value.[20]

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