42

CHAPTER 3

MATHEMATICAL MODELING

3.1 GENERAL

This chapter presents the proposed multiobjective cascade control

system for control of liquid level in regulatory processes such as liquid level
control systems. It presents the proposed cascade control system for control of
speed in servo processes like DC servo motor. An introduction to
mathematical modeling and flow diagram of the modeling process with
applications is given as a prerequisite. Mathematical models for servo and
regulatory processes are developed to obtain the transfer function.

3.2 PROPOSED CASCADE CONTROL SYSTEM

This section introduces the proposed multiobjective cascade control

system for the liquid level (regulatory) and DC servo motor (servo) processes.

3.2.1 Liquid Level Control System

Block diagram of cascade control system for liquid level control in

liquid level control system is shown in Figure 3.1. The primary (outer) loop
monitors the control variable and uses deviation from its set point to provide
an output to secondary loop. The secondary loop receives its set point from
primary loop and controls the reference variable (level) accordingly.
 43

Overshoot
NSGA-II/
NSPSO
Settling Time

KP, Ki Kp1, Ki1 D

Controlled
+ +
SP + output
Primary Secondary Process + Process
controller - controller (Flow) (Level)
-
PV Inner Loop

Outer Loop

Figure 3.1 Multiobjective cascade control of liquid level control system

Level is the primary output variable to be controlled for the system

shown in Figure 3.1. Level is controlled by flow invoked in the secondary
loop. The dynamics of the secondary loop is faster than primary loop. PI
controllers are employed for primary (level) and secondary (flow) processes
because PI controllers are most preferred for fast processes like flow process.
Overshoot and settling time from the inner loop are measured and based on
the specifications, multiobjective evolutionary algorithms NSGA-II and
NSPSO optimizes the primary and secondary gains of the respective
controllers. The primary PI controller gains are denoted by Kp and Ki. The
secondary PI controller gains are denoted by Kp1 and Ki1.

The proposed research aims at developing a multiobjective cascade

control system for tuning both the primary and secondary gains of cascade
control of liquid level control system based on evolutionary multiobjective
optimization algorithms such as NSGA-II (Non dominated Sorting Genetic
Algorithm-II) and NSPSO (Non dominated Sorting Particle Swarm
Optimization), taking into consideration the two conflicting objectives,
overshoot and settling time.
 44

3.2.2 DC Servo Motor Control System

Block diagram of cascade control system employed for speed

control in DC servo motor control system is shown in Figure 3.2. Outer loop
monitors the control variable and uses deviation from its set point to provide
an output to inner loop i.e. it serves as set point to the secondary controller.
The secondary loop receives its set point from primary loop and controls the
output speed at the reference value accordingly.

Overshoot
NSGA-II/
NSPSO
Settling Time

KP, Ki Kp1, Ki1 D

Controlled
+ +
SP + output
Primary Secondary Process + Process
controller - controller (Ia ) (Speed)
-
PV
Inner Loop

Outer Loop

Figure 3.2 Multiobjective cascade control of DC servo motor control system

Speed of DC servo motor is the primary output variable to be

controlled. Speed in the primary loop of armature controlled DC servo motor
is controlled by armature current (Ia) in the secondary loop. If the load
attached with the shaft of the mechanical system varies, Ia also varies. The
dynamics of the secondary loop is considered to be faster than primary loop.
PI controllers are employed for primary (speed) and secondary (armature
current) processes. Overshoot and settling time from the inner loop are
measured and based on the specifications, multiobjective evolutionary
algorithms as NSGA-II and NSPSO optimizes the primary and secondary
gains of the respective controllers. The primary PI controller (Speed) gains
 45

are denoted by Kp and Ki. The secondary PI controller (armature current)

gains are denoted by Kp1 and Ki1.

The proposed research aims at developing a multiobjective cascade

control system for tuning both the primary and secondary gains of cascade
control system for DC servo motor based on Evolutionary Multiobjective
Optimization Algorithms such as NSGA-II (Non dominated Sorting Genetic
Algorithm-II) and NSPSO (Non dominated Sorting Particle Swarm
Optimization), taking into consideration the two conflicting objectives,
overshoot and settling time.

3.3 OVERVIEW OF MATHEMATICAL MODELING

Modeling is important in process industries. There is no definite

algorithm to construct a mathematical model that performs better in all
situations. Modeling is viewed as a state-of-art technique. It involves
mathematical knowledge of the system of interest and making the knowledge
to create models. Researchers have different knowledge base, and a unique
way of looking at problems. Various researchers may come up with variety of
models for the same system. There is usually plenty of room for argument
about which model is “best". It is very important to understand at the outset
that for any real system, no “perfect” model exists. All the models are
subjected to realistic assumptions.

A mathematical model is defined as the set of equations that

describes the behaviour of the system. It is the art of translating problems
from an application area into tractable mathematical formulations whose
theoretical and numerical analysis provides insight, answers and guidance
useful for the originating application. Developing a precise model of the
system is difficult, but the model validates if it describes the dominating
dynamic properties of the system. Modeling can be performed using
 46

experimental data referred to as system identification and by physical

principles. A model may consist of algebraic, differential, or integral
equations, stochastic processes, geometrical structures, etc.

Mathematical modeling increases the understanding of the system,

predicts the future system behaviour, carry technical and quantitative
computations for control design from which optimization can be done.
Various steps involved in developing dynamic model of a system are as
follows

Step 1 : Define System Boundaries

Step2 : Make Simplifying Assumptions

Step3 : Formulate the balance equations

Step4 : Draw a block diagram involving all inputs, outputs, parameters.

Step5 : Present the Model in State Space or Transfer Function form

A general model exists which includes the system of interest as a

special case, but it is very difficult to compute with or analyze the general
model. The goal is then to simplify or make approximations to the general
model which will still reflect the behaviour of the particular system of
interest. The scientific method of modeling process is given below.

Step 1 : Make general observations of phenomena

Step 2 : Formulate a hypothesis

Step 3 : Develop a method to test hypothesis

Step 4 : Obtain data

Step 5 : Test hypothesis against data

Step 6 : Attempt to confirm or deny hypothesis

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Specific reasons for modeling is related in one way or other with

the following two categories. First category is to gain understanding. A
mathematical model accurately represents some behaviour of a real-world
system of interest which can often gain improved understanding of that
system through the analysis of the model. Furthermore, in the process of
building the model, certain factors are most important in the system, and how
different parts of the system are related. Second category is to predict or
simulate. Very often it becomes mandatory to know how a real-world system
behaves, as in the case of nuclear reactor, space flight etc. It is expensive,
impractical, or impossible to experiment directly with the system. Modeling is
an important task to be carried out in such situations and based on the
mathematical model, computer simulations can be performed before
implementing the same on hardware.

A reasonable trade off exists between accuracy, cost and flexibility.

Increasing the accuracy of a model generally increases cost and decreases
flexibility. The goal in creating a model is usually to obtain a sufficiently
accurate and flexible model at a low cost.

Formulation
Real World Data Model

Analysis
Test

Predictions and Mathematical

Explanations Interpretation Results

Figure 3.3 Flow diagram of modeling process

 48

The flow diagram of modeling process is shown in Figure 3.3. Real

world data represents quantitative measurements of the system of interest.
This data is processed and the information pertaining to the real world data
have been collected. Based on the collective information of data obtained,
models have to be formulated or constructed. Formulated Model is analyzed
and mathematical results are obtained. Interpretation on the results is carried
out and predictions on input-output behaviour of the system under
consideration were studied. The obtained results with the formulated model
are tested with real world data.

Mathematical modeling is indispensable in many applications,

successful in many further applications, gives precision and direction for
problem solution , enables a thorough understanding of the system modelled,
prepares the way for better design or control of a system and allows the
efficient use of modern computing capabilities. Modeling finds its
applications in Anthropology for Modeling, classifying and reconstructing
skulls, in Archaeology for Reconstruction of objects from preserved
fragments, in Artificial intelligence for Computer vision, Image interpretation,
Robotics, Speech recognition, Optical character recognition and Reasoning
under uncertainty, in Arts for Computer animation (Jurassic Park), in
Astronomy for Detection of planetary systems, correcting the Hubble
telescope, Origin of the universe and Evolution of stars, in Biology for Protein
folding, Human genome project and Population dynamics, in Chemical
engineering for Chemical equilibrium and Planning of production units, in
Chemistry for Chemical reaction dynamics, Molecular modeling and
Electronic structure calculations, in Computer science for Image processing,
Realistic computer graphics (ray tracing), Criminalist science, Finger print
recognition and Face recognition, in Economics for Labour data analysis, in
Electrical engineering for Stability of electric circuits, Microchip analysis,
Power supply network optimization, in Finance for Risk analysis and Value
 49

estimation of options, in Fluid mechanics for Wind channel and Turbulence,

in Geosciences for Prediction of oil or ore deposits, Map production, Earth
quake prediction, in Internet for Web search and Optimal routing , in
Linguistics for Automatic translation, in Materials Science for Microchip
production, Microstructures and Semiconductor modeling, in Mechanical
engineering for Stability of structures (high rise buildings, bridges, air
planes), Structural optimization and Crash simulation, in Medicine for
Radiation therapy planning, Computer-aided tomography, Blood circulation
models, in Meteorology for Weather prediction, Climate prediction (global
warming, what caused the ozone hole), in Music for Analysis and synthesis of
sounds, In Neuroscience for Neural networks, Signal transmission in nerves,
in Pharmacology for Docking of molecules to proteins, Screening of new
compounds, in Physics for Elementary particle tracking and Laser dynamics,
In Political Sciences for Analysis of elections, in Space Sciences for
Trajectory planning, Flight simulation and Shuttle re-entry, in Transport
Science for Air traffic scheduling, Taxi for handicapped people and
Automatic pilot for cars and airplanes.

Thus it can be concluded that mathematical modeling plays a vital

role in almost all applications and the analysis of complex non linear and
MIMO systems are made easier.

3.4 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF REGULATORY

PROCESS

This section describes the formulation of mathematical models for

level and flow process of Liquid level control system with the set of equations
describing the process.
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3.4.1 Mathematical Modeling of Level Process

Mathematical modeling of level process is performed by

experimentation with a liquid level control system setup with a rectangular
tank of height 25cm by first principle model. The following parameters are
calculated using process reaction curve method.

Control valve gain K = B/A= 1.03

B= ultimate response of the system.

A= input at steady state.

Dead time td = 0.5 seconds.

W = time constant = 63.2% of final value

Time constant W = 49.5 seconds.

The transfer function of primary process (level) G 1 (s) is given by

1.03e 0.5 s
49.5s  1
G 1 (s) = (3.1)

Level process is modelled as a first order system with dead time of

0.5 seconds and time constant of 49.5seconds.

3.4.2 Mathematical Modeling of Flow Process

The relationship between control valve gain and control valve

coefficient is given by

Kv = 0.856 Cv

where Kv = control valve gain

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Cv = valve coefficient = 20.6 for valve size of 1 inch and valve

type linear

Kv = 0.856 x 20.6 = 17.6336

ଵ
Gଶ (s) = K ୴ x
ୱ

The transfer function of primary process (level) G 2 (s) is given by

17.6336
G 2 (s) = (3.2)
s

Thus it can be concluded that flow process is modeled as an

integrator with gain of 17.6336.

3.5 MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF DC SERVO MOTOR

The equivalent circuit of armature controlled dc motor is shown in

Figure 3.4. Field current is kept constant in the armature control mode of
operation. The motor torque TM is related to the armature current Ia by a
constant factor

T୑ = K ୘ Iୟ (3.3)

Back emf eb is related to the rotational velocity ɘ by

eୠ = K ୠ ɘ (3.4)

where K ୘ is the torque constant and K ୠ is the back emf constant

DC servomotor has two main components, electrical component

which consists of resistance, inductance, input voltage and the back
electromotive force. The second component is the mechanical part that
consists of motor’s shaft, inertia of the motor and load inertia and damping.
 52

If
Ra La
+

J, b
T

Va Eb ʘ

Figure 3.4 Equivalent representation of DC motor

They exhibit excellent torque-speed characteristics and controlled

by changing the voltage signal connected to the input. Non linear equations of
DC motor based on Newton's law combined with Kirchhoff's law are given in
Equations (3.5) and (3.6).

Torque equation of DC servo motor is given in Equation (3.5)

dZ
 BZ K T I a  Tw
wt
J (3.5)

The differential equation of the armature circuit is

 Ra I a Ea  K bZ
dI a
La (3.6)
dt

where Va is the applied armature voltage in volts, Tw is the disturbance torque

in Newton-meter (N-m). Specifications of DC Servo motor employed in the
modeling process are tabulated in Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1 Specifications of DC servo motor

Parameters Value
Rated speed 1200 rpm
Rated Voltage 50 volts
Electrical Time Constant 4.17 msec
Mechanical Time Constant 17.35 msec
Viscous-friction coefficient (B) 0.035 N-m/krpm
Torque Constant (KT) 0.086 N-m/amp
Voltage Constant 0.286 Vrms/krpm
Armature Resistance (Ra) 1.8 ohms
Armature Inductance (La) 7.5 mH
Moment of Inertia (J) 3.67 Kg-cm2

Laplace Transform of Equation (3.4) with Tw =0 is given by

JsZ ( s )  BZ ( s ) K T I a (s)  0 (3.7)

( Js  B)Z ( s)
I a ( s) (3.8)
KT

Transfer function of the process involved in the primary loop

relating Z and I a is given by

Z ( s) KT
( Js  B)
(3.9)
I a (s )

Laplace Transform of Equation (3.6) is given by

La sI a ( s)  Ra I a (s) E a ( s)  K bZ (s) (3.10)

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La sI a ( s)  Ra I a ( s) Ea ( s )  Eb ( s ) (3.11)

where E b ( s ) K b Z (s )

( La s  R a ) I a ( s ) E a ( s )  Eb ( s ) (3.12)

Transfer function of the process involved in the secondary loop

relating I a and ( E a  E b ) is given by

I a ( s) 1
E a ( s )  Eb ( s ) ( La s  Ra )
(3.13)

Non linear differential equations of the DC servo motor as given in

Equations (3.5) and (3.6) are used for the multiobjective cascade control
system design of DC servo motor, thus preserving the non-linear
characteristics. However the transfer functions of primary and secondary
process are derived to analyze the stability of closed loop control system.

From Equation (3.9), after substitution of the parameters J, B and

K T , the transfer function of primary process G 3 (s) is given by

0.086
0.0367 s  0.035
G 3 (s) = (3.14)

From Equation (3.13), after substitution of the parameters La and

Ra, the transfer function of secondary process G 4 (s) is given by

1
0.0075s  1.8
G 4 (s) = (3.15)
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3.6 SUMMARY

Multiobjective cascade control system for control of liquid level in

regulatory processes such as liquid level control systems and control of speed
in servo processes like DC servo motor are presented. An overview of
mathematical modeling and flow diagram of the modeling process with
applications is given. In the final part of the chapter, mathematical models for
servo and regulatory processes are developed based on set of equations
governing the system.