AnalystPrep | CFA Study Notes

Activity, Liquidity, Solvency, Profitability, and Valuation Ratios

Introduction
Financial ratios are used to express one financial quantity in relation to another
and can assist with company and security valuations, as well as with stock
selections, and forecasting.

A variety of categories may be used to classify financial ratios. Although the names
of these categories and the ratios that are included in each category can vary
significantly, common categories that are used include: activity, liquidity, solvency,
profitability, and valuation ratios. Each category measures a different aspect of a
company’s business; however, all are useful for evaluating a company’s overall
ability to generate cash flows from operating its business.

Activity Ratios
Activity ratios aka asset utilization ratios or operating efficiency ratios measure how
efficiently a company performs its daily tasks such as managing its various assets.
They generally combine income statement information in the numerator and
balance sheet information in the denominator.

The list below provides a list and description of the most commonly used activity
ratios:

Inventory turnover
Computation: Cost of goods sold/average inventory

Interpretation: The ratio can be used to measure the effectiveness of inventory

management. A higher inventory turnover ratio implies that inventory is held for a
shorter time period.

Days of inventory on hand (DOH)

Computation: Number of days in period/inventory turnover

Interpretation: The ratio can also be used to measure the effectiveness of inventory
management. A lower DOH implies that inventory is held for a shorter time period.

Receivables turnover
Computation: Revenue/Average receivables

Interpretation: This measures the efficiency of a company’s credit and collection

processes. A relatively high receivables turnover ratio may indicate that a company
has highly efficient credit and collections, or it could imply that a company’s credit
or collection policies are too stringent.

Days of sales outstanding (DSO)

Computation: Number of days in period/Receivables turnover

Interpretation: This measures the elapsed time between a sale and cash collection,
and reflects how fast a company collects cash from customers to whom it offers
credit. A low DSO indicates that a company is efficient in its credit and collection
processes.

Payables turnover
Computation: Purchases/Average trade payables

Interpretation: This measures how many times per year a company theoretically
pays off all its creditors.

Number of days of payables

Computation: Number of days in period/Payables turnover

Interpretation: This reflects the average number of days that a company takes to
pay its suppliers.

Working capital turnover

Computation: Revenue/Average working capital

Interpretation: This indicates how efficiently a company generates revenue with its
working capital. A high working capital turnover ratio indicates greater efficiency.

Fixed asset turnover

Computation: Revenue/Average net fixed assets

Interpretation: This measures how efficiently a company generates revenues from

its investments in fixed assets. A higher fixed asset turnover ratio indicates a more
efficient use of fixed assets in generating revenue.

Total asset turnover

Computation: Revenue/Average total assets

Interpretation: This measures a company’s overall ability to generate revenues with

a given level of assets. A low asset turnover ratio can be indicative of inefficiency or
of the relative capital intensity of the company.

Liquidity Ratios
Liquidity ratios measure a company’s ability to satisfy its short-term obligations. The
list below provides a list and description of the most commonly used liquidity ratios.
These ratios reflect a company’s position at a point in time and, therefore, usually
uses ending balance sheet data rather than averages.

Current ratio
Computation: Current assets/Current liabilities

Interpretation: A higher current ratio indicates a higher level of liquidity or ability to

meet short-term obligations.

Quick ratio
Computation: Cash + Short-term marketable investments + Receivables/Current
liabilities
Interpretation: A higher quick ratio indicates a higher level of liquidity or ability to
meet short-term obligations. It is a better indicator of liquidity than the current ratio
in instances where inventory is illiquid.

Cash ratio
Computation: Cash + Short-term marketable investments/Current liabilities

Interpretation: The ratio is a reliable measure of liquidity in a crisis situation.

Defensive interval ratio

Computation: Cash + Short-term marketable investments + Receivables/Daily cash
expenditures

Interpretation: This measures how long a company can pay its daily expenditures
using only its existing liquid assets, without any additional cash inflow.

Other ratios
In addition to the above ratios, the Cash conversion cycle is an additional liquidity
measure that can be used. Computed as DOH+ DSO – Number of days of payables,
it measures the length of time that is required for a company to go from cash paid
(used in operations) to cash received (as a result of operations).

Solvency Ratios
Solvency ratios measure a company’s ability to satisfy its long-term obligations.
They provide information relating to the relative amount of debt in a company’s
capital structure and the adequacy of earnings and cash flow to cover interest
expenses and other fixed charges as they fall due.

There are two types of solvency ratios: (i) debt ratios, which focus on the balance
sheet and measure the amount of debt capital relative to equity capital, and (ii)
coverage ratios, which focus on the income statement and measure the ability of a
company to cover its debt payments. Both sets of ratios are useful in assessing a
company’s solvency and evaluating the quality of its bonds and other debt
obligations.

The list below provides a list and description of the most commonly used solvency
ratios:

Debt-to-assets ratio
Computation: Total debt/Total assets

Interpretation: This measures the percentage of a company’s total asssets that are
financed with debt. A higher ratio implies higher financial risk and weaker solvency.

Debt-to-capital ratio
Computation: Total debt/Total debt + Total shareholders’ equity
Interpretation: This measures the percentage of a company’s capital(debt +equity)
that is represented by debt. A higher ratio implies higher financial risk and weaker
solvency.

Debt-to-equity ratio
Computation: Total debt/Total shareholders’ equity

Interpretation: This measures the amount of debt capital relative to equity capital. A
higher ratio implies higher financial risk and weaker solvency.

Financial leverage ratio

Computation: Average total assets/Average total equity

Interpretation: This measures the amount of total assets that is supported for each
one money unit of equity. The higher the ratio, the more leveraged the company in
its use of debt and other liabilities to finance assets.

Interest coverage ratio

Computation: EBIT/Interest payments

Interpretation: This measures the number of times that a company’s EBIT could
cover its interest payments. A higher ratio indicates stronger solvency.

Fixed charge coverage ratio

Computation: EBIT + Lease payments/Interest payments + Lease payments

Interpretation: This measures the number of times a company’s earnings (before

interest, taxes, and lease payments) can cover its interest and lease payments.a
higher ratio indicates stronger solvency.

PROFITABILITY RATIOS
Profitability ratios measure a company’s ability to generate profits from its
resources (assets). There are two types of profitability ratios: (i) Return-on-sales
profitability ratios, which express various subtotals on the income statement as a
percentage of revenue, and(ii) Return-on-investment profitability ratios, which
measure income relative to the assets, equity, or total capital employed by a
company.

The list below provides a list and description of the most commonly used solvency
ratios:

Gross profit margin

Computation: Gross profit/Revenue

Interpretation: This indicates the percentage of revenue that is available to cover

operating and other expenses and to generate profit. A higher gross profit margin
indicates a combination of higher product pricing and lower product costs.

Operating profit margin

Computation: Operating income/Revenue
Interpretation: An operating profit margin which increases faster than the gross
profit margin can indicate improvements in controlling operating costs, such as
administrative overheads.

Pretax margin
Computation: EBT (earnings before tax but after interest)/Revenue

Interpretation: This reflects the effect on profitability of leverage and other non-
operating income and expenses.

Net profit margin

Computation: Net income/Revenue

Interpretation: This measures how much of each dollar collected as revenue

translates into profit.

Operating ROA
Computation: Operating income/Average total assets

Interpretation: This measures the return (prior to deducting interest on debt capital)
that is earned by a company on its assets.

Return on Assets (ROA)

Computation: Net income/Average total assets

Interpretation: This measures the return earned by a company on its assets.

Return on total capital

Computation: EBIT/Short- and long-term debt and equity

Interpretation: This measures the profits that a company earns on all of the capital
that it employs.

Return on Equity (ROE)

Computation: Net income/Average total equity

Interpretation: This measures the return earned by a company on its equity capital,
including minority equity, preferred equity, and common equity.

Return on common equity

Computation: Net income – Preferred dividends/Average common equity

Interpretation: This measures the return earned by a company only on its common
equity.

Valuation Ratios
Valuation ratios measure the quantity of an asset or flow that is associated with the
ownership of a specified claim.
The list below provides a list and description of the most commonly used valuation
ratios:

Price to earnings or P/E ratio

Computation: Price per share/Earnings per share

Interpretation: This tells how much an investor in common stock pays per dollar of
earnings.

Price to cash flow or P/CF ratio

Computation: Price per share/Cash flow per share

Interpretation: This measures a company’s market value relative to its cash flow.

Price to sales or P/S ratio

Computation: Price per share/Sales per share

Interpretation: This compares a company’s stock price to its revenue and is

sometimes used as a comparative price metric when a company does not have
positive net income.

Price to book value or P/BV ratio

Computation: Price per share/Book value per share

Interpretation: This compares a stock’s market value to its book value and is often
used as an indicator of market judgment about the relationship between a
company’s required rate of return and its actual rate of return. A higher ratio implies
that investors expect management to create more value from a given set of assets,
all else equal.

Question 1
Using the following information on company ABC, what is company ABC’s net profit
margin?

December 31, 2016 (audited)$

Revenue: 5,276,987

Gross profit: 3,534,099

Net income: 2,956,123

A. 10.95%

B. 66.97%

C. 56.02%
Solution

The correct answer is C.

Net profit margin = $2,956,123/$5,276,987= 56.02%.

Question 2
Which of the following categories of ratios could be used to evaluate a company’s
ability to pay back a bank loan?

A. Liquidity ratios

B. Solvency ratios

C. Profitability ratios

Solution

The correct answer is B.

As the solvency ratio Measure a company’s ability to meet long-term obligations;

such as: bank loans and bonds.

Reading 26 LOS 26b:

Classify, calculate, and interpret activity, liquidity, solvency, profitability, and

valuation ratios

Financial Reporting and Analysis – Learning Sessions

AnalystPrep | CFA Study Notes

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