Fusion Welding Processes

Fusion welding processes can be grouped according to the source of the heat, for example,
electric arc, gas, electrical resistance and high energy.

These processes include:

Arc Welding Processes - with the most common processes being:

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA or
MMAW), flux shielded arc welding or stick welding. Suitable for welding ferrous and non-
ferrous materials in all positions.

Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG) and Metal Active Gas Welding (MAG), also known
as Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). MIG and MAG welding are the most common arc
welding processes, in which an electric arc forms between a consumable wire electrode and
the workpiece leading them to melt and join. Both use a shielding gas to protect the weld
from airborne contaminants, or oxidation in the case of MIG welding.

Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG), also known as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW).
This arc process uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to create the arc between the
electrode and the base plate. An inert shielding gas is used to protect from oxidation or other
atmospheric contamination. This process can be used autogenously on thin parts, but will
require the addition of a wire, rod, or consumable to be added for thicker parts.

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW). This process uses an electric arc created between an electrode
and the torch nozzle. The electric arc ionises the gas (usually argon) in the chamber creating
what is called a 'plasma.' It is then forced through a fine bore copper nozzle that constricts the
arc and directs it to the workpiece, allowing the plasma arc to be separated from the shielding
gas (which is usually made from a mixture of argon and hydrogen).

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW). This frequently-used arc welding process uses a
continuously-fed consumable electrode and a blanket of fusible flux which becomes
conductive when molten and provides a current path between the workpiece and the
electrode. The flux also prevents spatter and sparks while suppressing ultraviolet radiation
and fumes.

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW). Developed as an alternative to SMAW, this process
uses a continuously fed consumable electrode with a flux and a constant voltage
or constant current power supply. Sometimes using a shielding gas this process can also just
use the flux to provide protection from the atmosphere.

1. Metal Inert Gas (MIG) and Metal Active Gas (MAG) welding are gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) processes that use heat created from a DC electric arc between a
 consumable metal electrode and a workpiece which melt together to create a weld
pool that fuses to form a join.

MIG and MAG welding are known as gas metal arc welding (GMAW) processes in the USA.

This is part of a series of TWI Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs).

MIG/MAG is similar to MMA in that heat for welding is produced by forming an arc
between a consumable metal electrode and the workpiece; the electrode melts to form the
weld bead. The main difference is that the metal electrode is a small diameter wire fed
through the contact tip from a wire feeding spool gun, while a shielding gas is fed through the
welding torch. As the wire is continuously fed, the manual process is sometimes referred to
as semi-automatic welding. MIG and MAG welding both use gas bottles to provide the
shielding gas and compatible filler materials. For example, to weld aluminium, an aluminium
wire should be used, whereas steel MIG welding would require an appropriate steel filler
wire.

What is the Difference Between MIG and MAG?

MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding is a welding process in which an electric arc forms between
a consumable wire electrode and the work piece. This process uses inert gases or gas
mixtures as the shielding gas. Argon and helium are typically used for the MIG welding of
non-ferrous metals such as aluminium.

MAG (Metal Active Gas) welding is an arc welding process where an electric arc is created
between a consumable wire electrode and the material to be joined. MAG welding uses active
shielding gases, primarily for the welding of steels. These shielding gases are mixtures of
carbon dioxide, argon and oxygen.

Examples of these active gases include CO2 , Ar + 2 to 5% O2 , Ar + 5 to 25% CO2 and Ar +

10% CO2 + 5% O2.

The only difference between MIG and MAG is the type of shielding gas used.

The make-up of the shielding gas is important as it has a significant effect on the stability of
the arc, the metal transfer and the degree of spatter. The shielding gas also impacts the
behaviour of the weld pool, with particular regard to the penetration and mechanical
properties of the welded joint.

Metal Transfer Mode

The manner, or mode, in which the metal transfers from the filler wire to the weld pool
largely determines the operating features of the process. There are three principal metal
transfer modes:

 Short circuiting (dip transfer)

 Spray transfer
  Pulsed transfer

Short-circuiting and pulsed metal transfer are used for low current operation, while spray
transfer is only used with high welding currents. In short-circuiting or 'dip' transfer, the
molten metal forming on the tip of the wire is transferred by the wire dipping into the weld
pool. This is achieved by setting a low voltage. Care in setting the voltage and the inductance
in relation to the wire feed speed is essential to minimise spatter. Inductance is used to
control the surge in current which occurs when the wire dips into the weld pool.

For spray transfer, a much higher voltage is necessary to ensure that the wire does not make
contact, i.e. short-circuit, with the weld pool. The molten metal at the tip of the wire transfers
to the weld pool in the form of a spray of small droplets (less than the diameter of the wire).
However, there is a minimum current level or threshold, below which droplets are not
forcibly projected across the arc. If an open arc technique is attempted much below the
threshold current level, the low arc forces are insufficient to prevent large droplets forming at
the tip of the wire. These droplets transfer erratically across the arc under normal
gravitational force. The pulsed mode was developed as a means of stabilising the open arc at
low current levels, i.e. below the threshold level, to avoid short-circuiting and spatter. Spray
type metal transfer is achieved by applying pulses of current, each pulse having sufficient
force to detach a droplet.

Conventional MIG/MAG welding is carried out using a constant voltage power source which
provides an inherently stable 'self adjusting' arc. For pulsed welding, either a constant voltage
or constant current power source with voltage feedback is used.

What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of MIG

Welding?
MIG welding allows for the fast production of high quality welds and, due to a lack of flux
being used, there is no chance of slag being trapped in the weld metal. The shielding gas
protects the arc, meaning that there is little loss of alloying elements and only minor weld
spatter. MIG welding can be operated in several ways, including semi and fully
automatically, and is a versatile process which can be used to join a variety of metals and
alloys.

The disadvantages of MIG welding are that it cannot be performed in a vertical or overhead
position, due to the high heat and fluid nature of the weld pool. Also, the equipment used by a
MIG welder can be complex.

What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of MAG

Welding?
Because the weld area is protected by the shielding gas, MAG welding creates no oxidation.
This is a fast welding process, which means that there is a lower heat effect on the
surrounding material. MAG welding can be performed in all positions, making it one of the
most widely-used welding processes.
The disadvantages include the experience needed to perform this process correctly. MAG
welding cannot be performed outdoors as the welding gas needs to be protected from the
wind, while all rust must be removed from the workpiece before welding commences. Flux
cored arc welding is more suitable for outdoor applications or underwater welds, which can
also be better performed using shielded metal arc welding or gas tungsten arc welding. As
with all arc processes, proper PPI must be worn and, in particular, eye protection.

MIG and MAG Welding Expertise

TWI has a considerable amount of experience in the development and qualification of
MIG/MAG welding procedures for a variety of applications across industry.

2. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding, also known as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW) is an arc welding process that produces the weld with a non-consumable
tungsten electrode.

Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding became an overnight success in the 1940s for joining
magnesium and aluminium. Using an inert gas shield instead of a slag to protect the
weldpool, the process was a highly attractive replacement for gas and manual metal arc
welding. TIG has played a major role in the acceptance of aluminium for high quality
welding and structural applications.

Process characteristics

In the TIG welding process the arc is formed between a pointed tungsten electrode and the
workpiece in an inert atmosphere of argon or helium. The small intense arc provided by the
pointed electrode is ideal for high quality and precision welding. Because the electrode is not
consumed during welding, the TIG welder does not have to balance the heat input from the
arc as the metal is deposited from the melting electrode. When filler metal is required, it must
be added separately to the weldpool.

Power source

TIG welding must be operated with a drooping, constant current power source - either DC or
AC. A constant current power source is essential to avoid excessively high currents being
drawn when the electrode is short-circuited on to the workpiece surface. This could happen
either deliberately during arc starting or inadvertently during welding. If, as in MIG welding,
a flat characteristic power source is used, any contact with the workpiece surface would
damage the electrode tip or fuse the electrode to the workpiece surface. In DC, because arc
heat is distributed approximately one-third at the cathode (negative) and two-thirds at the
anode (positive), the electrode is always negative polarity to prevent overheating and melting.
However, the alternative power source connection of DC electrode positive polarity has the
advantage in that when the cathode is on the workpiece, the surface is cleaned of oxide
contamination. For this reason, AC is used when welding materials with a tenacious surface
oxide film, such as aluminium.

Arc starting
The welding arc can be started by scratching the surface, forming a short-circuit. It is only
when the short-circuit is broken that the main welding current will flow. However, there is a
risk that the electrode may stick to the surface and cause a tungsten inclusion in the weld.
This risk can be minimised using the 'lift arc' technique where the short-circuit is formed at a
very low current level. The most common way of starting the TIG arc is to use HF (High
Frequency). HF consists of high voltage sparks of several thousand volts which last for a few
microseconds. The HF sparks will cause the electrode - workpiece gap to break down or
ionise. Once an electron/ion cloud is formed, current can flow from the power source.

Note: As HF generates abnormally high electromagnetic emission (EM), welders should be

aware that its use can cause interference especially in electronic equipment. As EM emission
can be airborne, like radio waves, or transmittedalong power cables, care must be taken to
avoid interference with control systems and instruments in the vicinity of welding.

HF is also important in stabilising the AC arc; in AC, electrode polarity is reversed at a

frequency of about 50 times per second, causing the arc to be extinguished at each polarity
change. To ensure that the arc is reignited at each reversal of polarity, HF sparks are
generated across the electrode/workpiece gap to coincide with the beginning of each half-
cycle.

Electrodes

Electrodes for DC welding are normally pure tungsten with 1 to 4% thoria to improve arc
ignition. Alternative additives are lanthanum oxide and cerium oxide which are claimed to
give superior performance (arc starting and lower electrode consumption). It is important to
select the correct electrode diameter and tip angle for the level of welding current. As a rule,
the lower the current the smaller the electrode diameter and tip angle. In AC welding, as the
electrode will be operating at a much higher temperature, tungsten with a zirconia addition is
used to reduce electrode erosion. It should be noted that because of the large amount of heat
generated at the electrode, it is difficult to maintain a pointed tip and the end of the electrode
assumes a spherical or 'ball' profile.

Shielding gas

Shielding gas is selected according to the material being welded. The following guidelines
may help:

 Argon - the most commonly-used shielding gas which can be used for welding a wide
range of materials including steels, stainless steel, aluminium and titanium.
 Argon + 2 to 5% H2 - the addition of hydrogen to argon will make the gas slightly
reducing, assisting the production of cleaner-looking welds without surface oxidation.
As the arc is hotter and more constricted, itpermits higher welding speeds.
Disadvantages include risk of hydrogen cracking in carbon steels and weld metal
porosity in aluminium alloys.
 Helium and helium/argon mixtures - adding helium to argon will raise the
temperature of the arc. This promotes higher welding speeds and deeper weld
penetration. Disadvantages of using helium or a helium/argon mixtureis the high cost
of gas and difficulty in starting the arc.

Applications
TIG welding is applied in all industrial sectors but is especially suitable for high quality
welding. In manual welding, the relatively small arc is ideal for thin sheet material or
controlled penetration (in the root run of pipe welds). Because deposition rate can be quite
low (using a separate filler rod) MMA or MIG may be preferable for thicker material and for
fill passes in thick-wall pipe welds.

TIG welding is also widely applied in mechanised systems either autogenously or with filler
wire. However, several 'off the shelf' systems are available for orbital welding of pipes, used
in the manufacture of chemical plant or boilers. The systems require no manipulative skill,
but the operator must be well trained. Because the welder has less control over arc and
weldpool behaviour, careful attention must be paid to edge preparation (machined rather than
hand-prepared), joint fit-up and control of welding parameters.

3. Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process very similar to TIG welding as the arc
is formed between a pointed tungsten electrode and the workpiece. However, by
positioning the electrode within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be separated from
the shielding gas envelope. Plasma is then forced through a fine-bore copper nozzle which
constricts the arc.

Three operating modes can be produced by varying the bore diameter and plasma gas flow
rate -

Microplasma welding (0.1 - 15A)

Microplasma is used for welding thin sheets (down to 0.1mm thickness), and wire and mesh
sections. The needle-like, stiff arc minimises arc wander and distortion.

Medium current welding (15 - 200A)

When used in the melt mode, this is an alternative to conventional TIG. The advantages are
deeper penetration (from higher plasma gas flow), greater tolerance to surface contamination
including coatings (the electrode is within the body of the torch) and better tolerance to
variations in electrode to workpiece distance, without significant change in heat input.

Keyhole welding (over 100A)

By increasing welding current and plasma gas flow, a very powerful plasma beam is created
which can achieve full penetration in a material, as in laser or electron beam welding. During
welding, a keyhole is formed which progressively cuts through the metal with the molten
weld pool flowing behind to form the weld bead under surface tension forces. This process
can be used to weld thicker material (up to 10mm of stainless steel) in a single pass.

The plasma arc is normally operated with a DC, constant current (drooping) characteristic
power source. Because its unique operating features are derived from the special torch
arrangement and separate plasma and shielding gas flows, a plasma control console can be
added on to a conventional TIG power source. Purpose-built plasma systems are also
available.
Although the arc is initiated using HF, it is first formed between the electrode and plasma
nozzle. This 'pilot' arc is held within the body of the torch until required for welding then it is
transferred to the workpiece. The pilot arc system ensures reliable arc starting and, as the
pilot arc is maintained between welds, it obviates the need for HF re-ignition which may
cause electrical interference.

The electrode used for the plasma process is tungsten-2% thoria, and the plasma nozzle is
copper. The plasma nozzle bore diameter is critical and too small a bore diameter for the
current level and plasma gas flow rate will lead to excessive nozzle erosion or even melting.

Normal gas combinations are argon for the plasma gas, with argon or argon plus 2 to 5%
hydrogen for the shielding gas. Helium can be used for plasma gas but because it is hotter this
reduces the current rating of the nozzle. Helium's lower mass can also make the keyhole
mode more difficult. Helium argon mixtures are used as a shielding gas for materials such as
copper.

4. Submerged-arc welding (SAW) is a common arc welding process that involves the
formation of an arc between a continuously fed electrode and the workpiece. A
blanket of powdered flux generates a protective gas shield and a slag (and may also be
used to add alloying elements to the weld pool) which protects the weld zone.

A shielding gas is not required. The arc is submerged beneath the flux blanket and is not
normally visible during welding.

This is a well established and extremely versatile method of welding.

The electrode may be a solid or cored wire or a strip made from sheet or sintered material.
The flux may be made by either fusing constituents to form a glassy slag (which is then
crushed to form a powder) or by agglomerating the constituents using a binder and a corning
process. The chemical nature and size distribution of the flux assists arc stability and
determines the mechanical properties of the weld metal and the shape of the bead.

SAW is usually operated as a mechanised process. Welding current (typically between 300
and 1000 amperes), arc voltage and travel speed all affect bead shape, depth of penetration
and chemical composition of the deposited weld metal. Since the operator cannot observe the
weld pool, great reliance must be placed on parameter setting and positioning of the filler
wire.

Although SAW is normally operated with a single wire using either AC or DC current, there
are a number of variants including the use of two or more wires, adding chopped wire to the
joint prior to welding, and the use of metal powder additions. Additional productivity may be
gained by feeding a small diameter non-conducting wire into leading edge of the weld pool.
This can increase deposition rates by up to 20%. These variants are used in specific situations
to improve productivity through increasing deposition rates and/or travel speed. Replacing
the wire with a 0.5mm thick strip, typically 60mm wide, enables the process to be used for
surfacing components.

SAW is ideally suited to the longitudinal and circumferential butt welds required for the
manufacture of line pipe and pressure vessels. Welding is normally carried out in the flat (BS
EN ISO 6947 PA) position because of the high fluidity of the weld pool and molten slag and
the need to maintain a flux layer. Fillet joints may also be produced, welding in either the flat
or horizontal-vertical (PB) positions.

Applications

SAW is ideally suited for longitudinal and circumferential butt and fillet welds. However,
because of high fluidity of the weld pool, molten slag and loose flux layer, welding is
generally carried out on butt joints in the flat position and fillet joints in both the flat and
horizontal-vertical positions. For circumferential joints, the workpiece is rotated under a fixed
welding head with welding taking place in the flat position. Depending on material thickness,
either single-pass, two-pass or multipass weld procedures can be carried out. There is
virtually no restriction on the material thickness, provided a suitable joint preparation is
adopted. Most commonly welded materials are carbon-manganese steels, low alloy steels and
stainless steels, although the process is capable of welding some non-ferrous materials with
judicious choice of electrode filler wire and flux combinations.

TIG WELDING
 MIG WELDING PROCESS

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
 (TIG) welding, is an arc welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to
produce the weld. The weld area is protected from atmospheric contamination by an inert
shielding gas (argon or helium), and a filler metal is normally used, though some welds,
known as autogenous welds, do not require it. A constant-current welding power supply
produces electrical energy, which is conducted across the arc through a column of highly
ionized gas and metal vapors known as a plasma.TIG is most commonly used to weld thin
sections of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium, and copper
alloys. The process grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing
processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing for
stronger, higher quality welds. However, TIG is comparatively more complex and difficult to
master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower than most other welding techniques. A
related process, plasma arc welding, uses a slightly different welding torch to create a more
focused welding arc and as a result is often automated.

Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding

Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the welding gun, which shields
the process from contaminants in the air. The process can be semi-automatic or automatic. A
constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with MIG, but constant
current systems, as well as alternating current, can be used. There are four primary methods
of metal transfer in MIG, called globular, short-circuiting, spray, and pulsed-spray, each of
which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and limitations.Originally
developed for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous materials in the 1940's, MIG was
soon applied to steels because it provided faster welding time compared to other welding
processes. The cost of inert gas limited its use in steels until several years later, when the use
of semi-inert gases such as carbon dioxide became common. Further developments during the
1950's and 1960's gave the process more versatility and as a result, it became a highly used
industrial process. Today, MIG is the most common industrial welding process, preferred for
its versatility, speed and the relative ease of adapting the process to robotic automation.
Oxy Acetylene
Uses fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals. Pure oxygen, instead of air, is used to
increase the flame temperature to allow localized melting of the work piece material.
In oxy-fuel welding, a welding torch is used to weld metals. Welding metal results when two
pieces are heated to a temperature that produces a shared pool of molten metal. The molten
pool is generally supplied with additional metal called filler. Filler material depends upon the
metals to be welded.
In oxy-fuel cutting, a torch is used to heat metal to its kindling temperature. A stream of
oxygen is then trained on the metal, burning it into a metal oxide that flows out of the kerf as
slag.
SMAW Welding (Stick Welding)
The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel) but
aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this method.

How stick welding works:

An electric current, in the form of either alternating current or direct current from a welding
power supply, is used to form an electric arc between the electrode and the metals to be
joined. The work piece and the electrode melts forming the weld pool that cools to form a
joint. As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off vapors that
serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area
from atmospheric contamination.The process is used primarily to weld iron and steels
(including stainless steel) but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with
this method.