1.

The most ductile cast iron to the least ductile cast iron: Nodular graphite iron, grey cast iron,
white cast iron. The different ductility can be caused from the microstructure difference. In
nodular graphite iron, the graphite phase is in the form of nodule (round-like) this create a
more ductile structure compare to the rest. On the other hand, grey cast iron has flaky
graphite resulting in a more brittle property. Different from the rest white cast iron doesn’t
have graphite phase in the microstructure, it rather has a cementite microstructure causing
it to be the hardest amongst all.
2. In grey cast iron the formation of graphite happens at the final stage of solidification. It
causes the expansion that counteract the shrinkage of the metal which result in an overall
expansion. Hence why grey cast iron undergoes expansion rather than contraction.
3. Damping Capacity is the ability of a material to absorb vibration stress (cyclic stress) by
internal friction, which convert mechanical energy into heat. In grey cast iron graphite in the
form of flakes can restrict the vibration by transferring it from one side to another, this will
cause grey cast iron to absorb more stress during the cyclic stress making it to have excellent
damping capacity.
4. The inoculant in nodular graphite iron are Mg and Ce. They’re added as an alloying element
in the making of nodular graphite iron to form graphite into round shapes. The act as a
nucleation media for the graphite to form and as a stabilizer for the graphite so that it will
not form a flake microstructure.
5. Compare to other type of cast iron white cast iron created by fast cooling, here’s why the
absence of graphite is there. The absence of graphite causes the white cast iron to have light
microstructure. Due to the fast cooling process white cast iron has cementite phase instead
of graphite, these eutectic carbides are much too large to provide the benefit of
precipitation hardening, rather they increase the bulk hardness and volume fraction.
Because of this, white cast iron has higher hardness compare to other cast irons.

1. One of the ways to form steel is by basic oxygen furnace (BOF). The molten metal is poured
into a ladle then it is directly sent into BOF at high temperature and pressure around 150 psi.
BOF is done to reduce sulphur, silicon, and phosphorus elements. After that the furnace is
add with what is called as charging, which is steel or iron crap. The vessel then sets upright
and water cooled, copper tipped lance nozzles are lowered into it and high purity oxygen is
delivered. The lance blows 99% pure oxygen over the hot metal, igniting the carbon
dissolved in the steel, which turns into carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide, this happens at
about 1700 degrees Celsius. This will eliminate unwanted element and reducing the carbon
content in the steel, then the flux is fed into the vessel to form slag to maintain basicity
above 3 and absorb impurities during the making. BOS vessel is tilted towards the slagging
side and the steel is pour through a tap hole into a steel ladle, the steel is further refined in
ladle furnace, by adding alloying elements for added properties. After the BOS vessel, the
slag is poured into the pots and dumped.
2. The most notable difference between cast iron and steel is the carbon content. As we all
know steel has a carbon content of less than 2% while cast iron has carbon content more
than 2%. The amount of carbon will determine how ductile the steel is and in this case the
lower percentage of carbon (steel) is more ductile than cast iron.
3. HSLA is typically strengthen by grain refinement, precipitation hardening, and some can use
solid solution strengthening.
a) Grain refinement used are as followed reheating, hot rolling, and cooling. The addition
of titanium or aluminium to retard austenite grain growth when the steel is reheated for
 hot deformation or subsequent heat treatment. The controlled rolling of microalloyed
steels to condition the austenite so that it transforms into fine-grain ferrite. The use of
alloy additions and/or faster cooling rates to lower the austenite-to-ferrite
transformation temperature.
b) Precipitation strengthening occurs from the formation of finely dispersed carbontrides
developed during heating and cooling. Precipitation strengthening is influenced by the
type of carbonitride, its grain size, and, of course, the number of carbonitrides
precipitated. The formation of MC is the most effective metal carbide in the
precipitation strengthening of microalloyed niobium, vanadium, and/or titanium steels.
The number of fine MC particles formed during heating and cooling depends on the
solubility of the carbides in austenite and on cooling rates. Because precipitation
strengthening is generally associated with a reduction in toughness, grain refinement is
often used in conjunction with precipitation strengthening to improve toughness.
c) For solid solution strengthening some alloying elements are used. Alloying elements are
also selected to influence transformation temperatures so that the transformation of
austenite to ferrite and pearlite occurs at a lower temperature during air cooling. This
lowering of the transformation temperature produces a finer-grain transformation
product, which is a major source of strengthening. At the low carbon levels typical of
HSLA steels, elements such as silicon, copper, nickel, and phosphorus are particularly
effective for producing fine pearlite. Element such as, manganese and chromium, which
are present in both the cementite and ferrite, also strengthen the ferrite by solid-
solution strengthening in proportion to the amount, dissolved in the ferrite.