Frank Ruda

Preface by Slavoj ïiz e k

Hegel’s Rabble
An investigation into Hegel’s
Philosophy of Right

C ontin u u m S tu d ies in P hilosop hy Λ

c o n tin u u m
H e g e l’s R abble
C o n tin u u m S tu d ie s in P h ilo so p h y
S eries E ditor:
Ja m e s Fieser, University o f Tennessee al M artin, USA

C o n tin u u m Studies in Philosophy is a m a jo r m o n o g r a p h s e rie s f r o m C o n tin u u m .

T h e s e rie s f e a tu r e s first-c la ss s c h o la rly r e s e a r c h m o n o g r a p h s a c r o s s t h e w h o le
fie ld o f p h ilo s o p h y . E a c h w o rk m a k e s a m a jo r c o n t r i b u tio n to t h e fie ld o f p h ilo ­
s o p h ic a l r e s e a r c h .

Aesthetic in Kant, Ja m e s K irwan

Analytic Philosophy: The History o f an Illusion, A aro n P re sto n
A quinas a n d the Ship o f Theseus, C h risto p h e r Brow n
A ugustine a n d Roman Virtue, B rian H a rd in g
The Challenge o f Relativism, P atrick P hillips
Deniands o f Taste in K ant's Aesthetics, B re n t Kalar
Descartes a n d the Metaphysics o f H um an Nature, J u s tin Skirry
Descartes' Theory o f Ideas, D avid C lem e n so n
Dialectic o f Romanticism, P e te r M u rp h y a n d D avid R oberts
D uns Scotus a n d the Problem o f Universals, T o d d Bates
Hegel's Philosophy o f Language, J im V ern o n
Hegel's Philosophy o f Right, D avid Ja m e s
Hegel's Theory o f Recognition, Sybol S. C. A n d e rso n
The History o f Intenlionality, R yan H ick erso n
Kantian Deeds, H e n rik J o k e r B jerre
Kierkegaard, Metaphysics a n d Political Theory, A lison A ssiter
Kierkegaard’s Analysis o f R adical Evil. D avid A. R oberts
I j’ibniz Re-interpreted, Lloyd S trick lan d
Metaphysics a n d the E n d o f Philosophy, H . O . M ounce
Nietzsche a n d the Greeks, D ale W ilkerson
Origins o f Analytic Philosophy, D e lb e rt R eed
Philosophy of Miracles, D avid C o rn e r
Platonism, M usic an d the Listener's Share, C h ris to p h e r N o rris
Popper's Theory o f Science, C arlos G arcia
Postanalytic a n d M etacontinental e d ite d by Ja m e s W illiam s, J a c k R eynolds, Ja m e s
C h ase a n d E d M arcs
Rationality a n d Feminist Philosophy, D e b o ra h K. H eikes
Re-thinking the Cogito, C h ris to p h e r N orris
Role o f God in Spinoza 's Metaphysics, S h e rry D eveaux
Rousseau an d Radical Devwcracy, Kevin In slo n
Rousseau an d the Ethics o f Virtue, Ja m e s D elaney
Rousseau's Theory o f Freedom, M atthew S im p so n
Spinoza anti the Stoics, F in n in D c B ra b a n d c r
Spinoza's Radical Cartesian M ind, T am m y N yden-B ullock
St. A ugustine a n d the Theory o f f u s t Wir, J o h n M ark M attox
St. A ugustine o f Hippo, R.W. Dyson
Thomas A quinas à f John D uns Scotus, A lex H all
Tolerance a n d the Ethical Life, A n d re w Fiala
 H egel’s Rabble
A n In v estig atio n in to
H e g e l’s P h ilo so p h y o f R ight

F ran k R uda

C o n tin u u m Studies in Philosophy

A
continuum
C o n tin u u m I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h in g G ro u p
T h e T o w er B u ild in g 8 0 M a id e n L a n e
11 Y ork R oad S u ite 704
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B ritis h L ib ra ry C a ta lo g u in g -in -P u b lic a tio n D ata

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ISBN: 978-1-4411-5693-8 (h ard co v e r)

L ib ra ry o f C o n g re s s C a ta lo g in g -in -P u b lic a tio n D a ta

R u d a, F ra n k .
H e g e l's ra b b le : a n in v e stig a tio n in to H e g e l's P h ilo so p h y o f rig h t /
F ra n k R u d a ; w ith a p re fa c e by Slavoj Zizek.
p . cm . - (C o n tin u u m stu d ie s in p h ilo so p h y )
In clu d e s b ib lio g ra p h ic a l referen c es.
ISB N 978-1-4411-5693-8
1. H egel, G e o rg W ilh elm F rie d ric h , 1770-1831-Political a n d so c ia l views.
2. H egel, G e o rg W ilh elm F rie d ric h , 1770-1831. G ru n d lin ie n d e r P h ilo so p h ie
d e s R echts. 3. P o o r-P o litic a l a sp ec ts. I. T itle . II. S eries,

JC 2 3 3 .H 4 6 R 8 3 2011
3 2 0 .0 9 2 -d c 2 3

2011016510

T y p ese t by N ew gen Im a g in g S ystem s Pvt L td. C h e n n a i, In d ia

P rin te d a n d b o u n d in G re a t B rita in
 C o n ten ts

A bbreviations vi
A ck n o w le d g m en Is ix
T h e Politics o f N e g a tivity b y S la v o j Z iz e k X

I n t r o d u c t i o n : F r o m d i e R a b b le to t h e P r o l e t a r i a t 1
C h a p te r 1 L u t h e r a n d t h e T r a n s f ig u r a tio n o f P o v e rty 6
C h a p te r 2 P a u p e r - R a b b le : T h e Q u e s t i o n o f P o v e rty 10
C h a p te r 3 T h e E m e r g e n c e o f t h e R a b b le f r o m th e
U n - E s ta te o f P o v e rty 15
C h a p te r 4 T r a n s it io n : F r o m th e P o o r to t h e R a b b le 32
C h a p te r 5 P a u p e r - R a b b le 35
C h a p te r 6 L u x u r y - R a b b le vs. P o v e r ty -R a b b le 49
yy
C h a p te r 7 T h e F o r m u l a o f I n f i n i t e U n b i n d i n g : “T h is is t h e r a b b l e ,
o r R e s e n t m e n t - R a b b le a n d A b s o lu te R a b b le 58
C h a p te r 8 T h e L o s t H a b it: E l e m e n t s to a H e g e lia n
T h e o r y o f L a z in e s s / F o u l n e s s 75
C h a p te r 9 W i t h o u t A ttit u d e ? R a b b le a n d S ta te 100
C h a p t e r 10 W i t h o u t R ig h t, W i t h o u t D u ty — R a b b le ,
R ig h t w ith o u t R ig h t, o r U n - R ig h t 124
C h a p t e r 11 T o W ill N o t h i n g o r N o t to W ill A n y m o r e :
T h e R a b b le a s W ill a n d P r e s e n ta tio n ? 136
C h a p t e r 12 T h e S o le A im o f t h e S ta te a n d t h e R a b b le as
U n - O r g a n ic E n s e m b le 14 9
C o n c lu s io n : H e g e l ’s R a b b le — H e g e l 's I m p o s s ib ility 16 5
C oda: P r e lim i n a r y N o te s c o n c e r n i n g t h e A n g e lo - H u m a n is m
a n d t h e C o n c e p t i o n o f t h e P r o l e t a r i a t i n E a r ly M a r x 16 9

N otes 18 0
Bibliography 209
In d e x 217
 A bbreviation s

Hegel:

HAI H e g e l, Aesthetics. Lectures o n Fine A rt, vol. I, N ew Y ork: O x f o r d /N e w

Y o r k /T o r o n to : O x f o r d U n iv e rsity P re s s 1975.
HA2 H e g e l, Aesthetics. Lectures on F ine Arts, vol. II, O x f o r d /N e w Y o rk /
T o ro n to : O x f o r d U n iv e rsity P re ss 1975.
HENZ3 H e g e l, E nzyklopädie der philosophischen W issenschaften im G rundrisse
(1830), D ritter Teil: D ie Philosophie des Geistes. M it den m ündlichen
'Ausätzen, in : d e r s ., Werke, B d . 10.
H G PR H e g e l, G r u n d l i n i e n d e r P h ilo s o p h ie d e s R e c h ts o d e r N a tu r r e c h t
u n d S ta a ts w is s e n s c h a f t im G r u n d r is s e . M it H e g e ls e ig e n h ä n d ig e n
N o tiz e n u n d d e n m ü n d li c h e n Z u s ä tz e n , in : d e r s ., W e rk e , B d . 7.
HLH H e g e l, T h e Logic o f Hegel. T ranslated fro m the Encyclopedia o f
Philosophical Sciences, O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P re s s 1892.
HLHP 1 H e g e l, H istory o f Philosophy 1 8 2 5 -6 . Volume I: introduction a n d O riental
Philosophy, O x f o r d /N e w Y ork: O x f o r d U n iv e rsity P re s s 2 0 0 9 .
HLHP3 H e g e l, Lectures o n the H istory o f Philosophy 1 8 2 5 -6 . Volume III: M edieval
a n d M odern Philosophy, O x f o r d /N e w Y ork: O x f o r d U n iv e rsity P re ss
20 0 9 .
H O PR H e g e l, O utlines o f the Philosophy o f R ight, O x f o r d / N ew Y ork: O x f o r d
U n iv e rsity P re ss 2 0 0 8 .
H PH H e g e l, T h e Philosophy o f H istory, N ew Y ork: C o s im o I n c . 2 0 0 7 .
H PM H e g e l, Philosophy o f M in d , O x f o r d /N e w Y ork: O x f o r d U n iv ersity
P re s s 2 0 0 8 .
H PN H e g e l. Philosophy o f Nature. P art Two o f the Encyclopedia o f Philosophical
Sciences (1830), O x f o r d /N e w York: O x f o r d U n iv e rsity P re ss 2 0 0 4 .
H PR 1 H e g e l, Lectures on the Philosophy o f Religion. Vol. 1. Introduction a n d
the Concept o f Religion, O x f o r d /N e w York: O x f o r d U n iv e rsity P re ss
1984.
H PR 2 H e g e l, Lectures o n the Philosophy o f Religion. Vol II. D eterm inate
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P r e s s 1987.
H PS H e g e l, Phenom enology o f Spirit, O x f o r d /N e w Y o rk : O x fo rd
U n iv e rs ity P re ss 1977.
 A b b revia tio n s vu

IIS L I Ie g e l, T h e Science o f Logic, C a m b r id g e : C a m b r id g e U n iv e rs ity P re ss

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U n iv e rs ity P re s s 1998.
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u n d K o m m e n ta r in s e c h s B ä n d e n v o n K a r l- H e in z I ltin g , E rs te r
B a n d , “D e r o b je k tiv e G e is t” a n s d e r H e id e lb e r g e r E n z y k lo p ä d ie
1817, m it H e g e ls V o rlc s u n g s n o tiz e n 1 8 1 8 -1 8 1 9 . “N a tu r r e c h t
u n d S ta a ts w is s e n s c h a f t” n a c h d e r V o rle s u n g s n a c h s c h r ift v o n
C . G . H o m c y c r 1 8 1 8 /1 9 . - Z e itg e n ö s s is c h e R e z e n s io n e n d e r
“R e c h ts p h ilo s o p h ie ”, S tu ttg a r t- B a d C a n n s ta tt 1973.
II V O R I . 2 H e g e l, Vorlesungen über Rechtsphilosophie, 1818-1831. E d itio n u n d
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D ie “R e c h ts p h ilo s o p h ie ” v o n 1820. M it H e g e ls V o rlc s u n g s n o tiz e n
1 8 2 1 -1 8 2 5 , S tu ttg a r t- B a d C a n n s ta tt 1974.
HVORL3 H e g e l, Vorlesungen über Rechtsphilosophie, 1818-1831. E d itio n u n d
K o m m e n ta r in s e c h s B ä n d e n v o n K a rl-H e in z I ltin g , D r i tte r B a n d ,
P h ilo s o p h ie d e s R e c h ts. N a c h d e r V o rle s u n g s n a c h s c h r ift v o n I I.G .
H o th o 1 8 2 2 /1 8 2 3 , S tu ttg a r t- B a d C a n n s t a t t 1974.
HVORL4 H e g e l. Vorlesungen über Rechtsphilosophie, 1818-1831. E d itio n u n d
K o m m e n ta r in s e c h s B ä n d e n v o n K a r l- H e in z I ltin g , V ie r te r
B a n d , P h ilo s o p h ie d e s R e c h ts . N a c h d e r V o rle s u n g s n a c h s c h r ift
v o n K .G . v. G r ie s h e im s 1 8 2 4 /2 5 , D e r o b je k tiv e G e is t. A u s d e r
B e r lin e r E n z y k lo p ä d ie z w e ite u n d d r i t t e A u fla g e (1 8 2 7 u n d
1830), P h ilo s o p h ie d e s R e c h ts . N a c h d e r V o r le s u n g s n a c h s c h r if t
v o n D .F. S t r a u ß 1831 m it H e g e ls V o r le s u n g s n o tiz e n , S tu ttg a r t-
B a d C a n n s t a t t 1974.
H PRV H e g e l, D ie Philosophie des Rechts. Vorlesung vo n 1821/22, F r a n k f u r t a.
M .: S u h r k a m p 2 0 0 5 .

O thers:

A TS T heodor W. A d o rn o , Three Studies, C a m b rid g e /L o n d o n /

M a s s a c h u s e tts : M IT P re s s 1993.
A I IT S h lo m o A v in e ri, Hegel's Theory o f the M od ern State, C a m b rid g e :
C a m b r id g e U n iv e rsity P re s s 1974.
BBE A la in B a d io u , B ein g a n d Event, N e w Y o r k /L o n d o n : C o n tin u u m
20 0 5 .
11 P I F A x el H o n n e th , T h e Pathologies o f In d iv id u a l Freedom: Hegel’s Social
Theory, P r in c e to n : P r in c e to n U n iv e rsity P re ss 2010.
viii A b b revia tio n s

M C I IR K a rl M a rx , A C ontribution to the C ritique o f Hegel's Philosophy o f R ight.

Introduction (18 4 3 -4 ), in Early W ritings, L o n d o n : P e n g u in 1972,
p p . 2 4 3 -5 8 .
M CI I K a rl M a r x , C ritique o f Hegel's 'Philosophy o f R ig h t', C a m b r id g e :
C a m b r id g e U n iv e rsity P re s s 1977.
M EPM K a rl M a rx , Econom ic a n d Philosophical M an u scrip ts (1844), in Early
W ritings, L o n d o n : P e n g u in 19 7 2 , p p . 2 7 9 - 4 0 0 .
R IIS F r a n z R o s c n z w e ig , Hegel u n d der Staat. Zweiter B a n d . Weltepochen
(1800-1831), M ü n c h e n /B e r lin : S c ie n tia 1920.
 A cknow ledgm ents

T h i n k i n g w o u ld b e im p o s s ib le i f o n e w e re to b e a lo n e . T h e s a m e g o e s f o r th e
p r e s e n t b o o k . I t is th e p r o d u c t o f a general intellect c o m p o s e d o f t h e f r ie n d s , c o m ­
r a d e s , c o lle a g u e s a n d te a c h e r s w h o h a v e m a d e it p o ssib le . A lth o u g h I p r e s e n t
t h e fo llo w in g in v e s tig a tio n s e x c lu siv ely in m y o w n n a m e , I ow e a lo t to : A la in
B a d io u , B r u n o B e s a n a , L a rs B u llm a n n , S a r a h C a m p b e ll. L o r e n z o C h ie sa ,
T o m C ric k , S o p h ie E h r m a n n t r a u t , F e lix E n s s lin , O liv e r F e lth a m , M ik e L ew is,
P e te r H a llw a r d , A n s e lm H a v e rk a m p , C h r is to p h M e n k e , M a rk P o to c n ik , G e r d
R u d a , A n n e lie s e R u d a , C o r n e lia S c h m id t, R a lf S c h m id t, M a n f r e d S c h n e id e r,
A a r o n S c h u s te r, O z r e n P u p o v a c , J a n V ö lk e r a n d S lavoj Z iz ek . I a ls o h a v e to
t h a n k th e d o c t o r a l p r o g r a m " F o rm s o f L ife a n d th e K n o w H o w o f L iv in g ” fo r
th e ir s u p p o r t.
 T h e Politics o f N egativity
S ln v o j Zizek

F r a n k R u d a ’s Hegel's Robbie is o n e of th o s e r e m a r k a b le b o o k s w h ic h , a lth o u g h

f o c u s e d o n a s p e c if ic to p ic , im p lic itly d e a ls w ith th e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l p h ilo ­
s o p h ic a l q u e s tio n s : h is c lo se r e a d in g of a c o u p le o f p a r a g r a p h s o n th e Poebel
in I le g e l's Philosophy o f R ig h t e ffe c tiv e ly c ry s ta lliz e s n o t o n ly t h e v a s t d o m a in of
w h a t is c a lle d "I le g e l’s p o litic s ,” b u t a ls o th e c r u c ia l to p ic o f t h e p o s t-H e g e lia n
b r e a k in th e h is to r y o f p h ilo s o p h y .
T h is b r e a k h a s tw o a s p e c ts w h ic h a r e n o t to b e c o n f u s e d : th e a s s e r tio n o f
t h e p o sitiv ity o f a c tu a l b e i n g a s o p p o s e d to n o tio n a l m e d ia tio n , a n d th e a s s e r­
t io n o f p u r e r e p e titio n w h ic h c a n n o t b e c o n t a i n e d in th e id e a lis t m o v e m e n t o f
A ufhebung. A lth o u g h t lie firs t a s p e c t w as m u c h m o r e in t h e f o r e g r o u n d , it is th e
s e c o n d a s p e c t w h ic h b e a r s w itn e s s to a t r u e p h ilo s o p h ic a l r e v o lu tio n . T h e r e is
n o c o m p le m e n ta r ity b e tw e e n th e s e tw o a s p e c ts , th e y a r e m u tu a lly ex clu siv e:
repetition relies o n the blockage o f direct positive affirm a tio n , w e r e p e a t b e c a u s e it is
im p o s s ib le to d ir e c tly a f f ir m . A n o t h e r a x is o f th e o p p o s itio n b e tw e e n th e s e tw o
a s p e c ts is th e o n e b e tw e e n f in itu d e a n d in fin ity : t h e g r e a t m o t i f o f th e p o st-
H e g e lia n a s s e r tio n o f p o s itiv e b e in g is th e a c c e n t o n m a te r ia l, a c tu a l, f in itu d e ,
w h ile th e c o m p u ls io n - to - r e p e a t in tr o d u c e s a n o b s c e n e in f in it y /“im m o rta lity ,”
n o t th e s p ir itu a l im m o rta lity , b u t th e im m o r t a lit y o f “s p ir its ,” o f liv in g d e a d .
If, h o w ev e r, d e a th - d r iv e /c o m p u ls io n - to - r e p e a t is th e h e a r t o f n e g a tiv ity , how
a r e w e to r e a d F r e u d ’s f a m o u s c la im t h a t t h e u n c o n s c io u s (as e x e m p lif ie d by
t h e u n iv e r s e o f d r e a m s ) k n o w s n o n e g a tio n ? It is a ll to o e a s y to e m p iric a lly
r e f u te th is c la im b y w ay o f n o tic in g t h a t , n o t s o m a n y p a g e s a f te r m a k in g th is
c la im . F re u d p r o v id e s a s e r ie s o f w ays o f h o w d r e a m s c a n r e n d e r n e g a tio n o f
a c e r t a i n s ta te o f th in g s . F r e u d ’s e x a m p le o f V erneinung (w h e n a p a tie n t says,
“I d o n ’t k n o w w h o is t h e w o m a n w h o a p p e a r s in m y d r e a m , b u t o n e th in g is
s u r e — s h e is n o t m y m o th e r ! ,” o n e s h o u ld i n t e r p r e t th is a s s e r tio n a s a n u n a m ­
b ig u o u s c o n f ir m a tio n th a t th e w o m a n in th e d r e a m is t h e p a t ie n t’s m o th e r )
r e m a in s p e r t i n e n t h e re : n e g a tio n b e lo n g s h e r e to th e lev el o f c o n s c io u s /
p r e c o n s c io u s , it is a w ay f o r th e c o n s c io u s s u b je c t to a d m it th e u n c o n s c io u s
in c e s tu o u s f ix a tio n . T h e H e g e lia n n e g a tio n a s u n iv e r s a liz in g a b o lis h m e n t o f
p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t (say, n e g a tio n o f th e e m p ir ic a l w e a lth o f a n o b je c t in its
n a m e ) , th is v io le n c e in h e r e n t to id e a liz a tio n , is w h a t is m is s in g in th e F re u d ia n
u n c o n s c io u s . H o w ev er, t h e r e is a w e ir d n e g a tiv ity w h ic h a ls o p e r v a d e s th e
 T h e P olitics o f N e g a tivity XI

e n t i r e s p h e r e o f t h e u n c o n s c io u s , f r o m b r u t a l a g g re ssiv ity a n d s e lf-s a b o ta g in g

to h y s te ria w ith its b a s ic e x p e r ie n c e , a p r o p o s e v e ry o b je c t, o f ce n'est p a s ca, so
t h a t it is a s if (in a c c o r d a n c e w ith F r e u d ’s in s ig h t th a t th e m u ltip lic ity o f p h a l-
lu s e s is a s ig n o f c a s tr a tio n ) th e s u s p e n s io n o f n e g a tio n is p a i d b y its m u ltip lic a ­
tio n . W h a t is th e f o u n d a ti o n a n d s ta tu s o f th is a ll-p e rv a siv e “n e g a tiv ity " w h ic h
e lu d e s th e lo g ic a l f o r m o f n e g a tio n ? P e r h a p s , o n e o f t h e w ays to re so lv e th is
p r o b le m is to r e a d n e g a tio n its e lf a s p o s itiv e f a c t (in th e s a m e w a y in w h ic h , in
a d if f e r e n tia l sy stem , th e a b s e n c e its e lf c a n b e a p o s itiv e f e a tu r e , o r. to r e f e r
to th e b e s t-k n o w n l in e f r o m S h e r lo c k H o lm e s s to r ie s , t h e f a c t th a t t h e d o g
d i d n ’t b a r k is in its e lf a c u r io u s a c c id e n t) . T h e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e sy stem
o f c o n s c io u s /p r e c o n s c io u s a n d th e u n c o n s c io u s is t h u s n o t sim p ly th a t, in c o n -
s c io u s /p r c c o n s c io u s , t h e r e is n e g a tio n , w h ile th e u n c o n s c io u s is to o p r im itiv e
to k n o w t h e f u n c tio n o f n e g a tio n ; it is r a t h e r th a t th e sy ste m o f c o n s c io u s / p r e ­
c o n s c io u s p e rc e iv e s o n ly th e n e g a tiv e a s p e c t o f t h e n e g a tio n , i.e., th a t it se es
n e g a tio n o n ly in its n e g a tiv e d im e n s io n ( s o m e th in g is m is sin g , e tc .), ig n o r in g
t h e p o s itiv e s p a c e o p e n e d u p b y th is n e g a tio n .
F r e u d d e p lo y s a w h o le s e rie s , sy ste m e v e n , o f n e g a tio n s in t h e u n c o n s c io u s :
th r o w in g - o u t o f th e E g o (A usstossung), r e je c tio n ( Verwerfung), r e p re s s io n
( Verdraengung, its e lf d iv id e d in to p r im o r d ia l r e p r e s s io n — Ur-Verdraengung—
a n d “n o r m a l ” r e p r e s s io n ) , d isa v o w al (V erleugnung), d e n i a l (V erneinung), u p to
t h e c o m p le x m o d e o f h o w a c c e p ta n c e its e lf c a n f u n c tio n a s a m o d e o f d e n ia l,
a s is th e c a s e in s o - c a lle d is o la tio n ( Isolierung), w h e r e a t r a u m a tic f a c t is r a ti o n ­
ally a c c e p te d , b u t is o la te d f r o m its lib id in a l-s y m b o lic c o n te x t. W h a t f u r t h e r
c o m p lic a te s th e s c h e m e a r e o b je c ts a n d s ig n ifie r s w h ic h s o m e h o w o v e rla p s
w ith t h e i r o w n lack : fo r I .a c a n , p h a llu s is its e lf t h e s ig n if ie r o f c a s tr a t io n (th is
i n tr o d u c e s a ll th e p a r a d o x e s o f t h e s ig n ifie r o f t h e la c k o f s ig n ifie r, i.e., o f how
t h e la ck o f a s ig n if ie r is its e lf “r e m a r k e d ” in a s ig n if ie r o f t h is lack ), n o t to m e n ­
t io n l'objet p e tit a, th e o b je c t- c a u s e o f d e s ir e w h ic h is n o t h i n g b u t th e e m b o d i­
m e n t o f la c k , its p la c e -h o ld e r . T h e r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n o b je c t a n d la c k is h e re
t u r n e d a r o u n d : f a r f r o m la c k b e i n g r e d u c ib le to t h e la ck o f a n o b je c t, th e
o b je c t its e lf is a s p e c tr a l p o s itiv iz a tio n o f a la ck . A n d o n e h a s to e x t r a p o la t e
t h is m e c h a n is m in to th e v e ry ( p rc ) o n to lo g ic a l f o u n d a ti o n o f a ll b e in g : th e
p r im o r d ia l g e s tu r e o f c r e a tio n is n o t th a t o f a n ex c essiv e g iv in g , o f a s s e r tio n ,
b u t a n e g a tiv e g e s tu r e o f w ith d ra w a l, o f s u b tr a c tin g , w h ic h o n ly o p e n s u p th e
s p a c e fo r c r e a tio n o f p o s itiv e e n titie s . T h is is h o w “t h e r e is s o m e th in g r a t h e r
t h a n n o t h i n g ”: in o r d e r to a r r iv e a t s o m e th in g , o n e h a s to subtract from nothing
its nothing(ness) itself i.e.. o n e h a s to p o s it t h e p r im o r d ia l p r c - o n to lo g ic a l A byss
“a s s u c h ,” A S N O T H I N G , s o t h a t , in c o n t r a s t to (o r a g a in s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f)
n o t h i n g , s o m e th in g c a n a p p e a r .
T h e u n d e r ly in g p r o b le m is h e r e w h ic h o f th e s e n e g a tio n s is th e p r im o r ­
d ia l o n e , i.e., w h ic h o n e o p e n s u p t h e s p a c e f o r a ll o th e r s . F ro m th e L a c a n ia n
p e r s p e c tiv e , t h e m o s t o b v io u s c a n d id a te m a y a p p e a r to b e th e n o to r io u s
“s y m b o lic c a s tr a tio n ,” th e lo ss w h ic h o p e n s u p a n d s u s ta in s t h e s p a c e o f
Xll T h e P olitics o f N e g a tivity

s y m b o liz a tio n — r e c a ll, in s o f a r a s th e N a m c - o f- th e - F a th e r is th e b e a r e r o f sy m ­

b o lic c a s tr a tio n , h o w L a c a n p la y s o n th e F r e n c h h o m o p h o n y b e tw e e n le N om -
du-Pere ( th e n a m e o f t h e f a th e r ) a n d le Non-du-Pere ( th e n o o f th e f a th e r ) . B u t it
se e m s m o r e p r o d u c tiv e to fo llo w a m o r e r a d ic a l p a t h o f th in k i n g b e y o n d f a th e r
(pere) to w h a t is e v e n w o rs e {pire). A g a in , t h e m o s t o b v io u s c a n d i d a t e f o r th is
“w o rs e ” is ( d e a th -) d r iv e , a k in d o f F r e u d ia n c o r r e la te to w h a t S c h e llin g c a lle d
t h e p r im o r d ia l “c o n tr a c tio n ,” th e o b s ti n a te r e p e titiv e f ix a tio n o n a c o n t in g e n t
o b je c t w h ic h s u b tr a c ts th e s u b je c t f r o m d ir e c t im m e r s io n in to re a lity .
D riv e a s s u c h is d e a th - d r iv e — n o t in th e s e n s e o f lo n g in g f o r u n iv e rs a l n e g a ­
tio n / d is s o lu t io n o f all p a r tic u la r ity , b u t, o n th e c o n tr a r y , in t h e s e n s e o f th e
“s p o n ta n e o u s ” lifc-flo w o f g e n e r a tio n a n d c o r r u p t i o n g e t tin g “s tu c k " o n to
s o m e a c c id e n ta l p a r ti c u la r i ty a n d c i r c u la t in g e n d le s s ly a r o u n d it. II L ife is a
s o n g p la y e d o n a n o ld L P (w h ich it d e f in ite ly is n o t), d r iv e a r is e s w h e n , d u e
t o a s c r a tc h o n t h e L P s u r f a c e , t h e n e e d le g e ts s tu c k a n d th e s a m e f r a g m e n t
is r e p e a te d . T h e d e e p e s t s p e c u la tiv e in s ig h t is t h a t a u n iv e rs a lity c a n o n ly
e m e r g e w h e n a flow o f p a r ti c u la r i ty g e t s tu c k o n to a s in g u l a r m o m e n t. A n d
t h is F r e u d ia n n o tio n of d r iv e b r in g s u s to th e r a d ic a l a m b ig u ity o f H e g e l's d ia ­
le ctics: d o e s it follow t h e lo g ic o f d r iv e o r n o t? H e g e l’s lo g ic is a lo g ic o f p u r if i­
c a tio n , o f “u n s tu c k in g ”: e v e n w h e n a s u b je c t p u ts a ll o f h is lib id in a l in v e s tm e n t
in to a c o n t in g e n t f r a g m e n t o f b e i n g (“I a m r e a d y to r is k e v e r y th in g f o r th a t! ”),
t h is c o n t in g e n t f r a g m e n t— t h e L a c a n ia n objet petit a— is, in its in d if f e r e n t ac ci­
d e n t a l l y , a n o p e r a t o r o f p u r if ic a tio n , o f “u n s tu c k in g ” f r o m a ll ( o th e r ) p a r ­
t ic u la r c o n te n t— in L a c a n e s e , th is o b je c t is a m e to n y m y o f la c k . T h e s u b je c t’s
d e s ir e is h e r e th e tr a n s c e n d e n ta l v o id , a n d th e o b je c t is a c o n t in g e n t o n tic
fille r o f t h is v o id . In d riv e , in c o n t r a s t, objet a is n o t o n ly th e m e to n y m y o f lack,
b u t a k in d o f tr a n s c e n d e n ta l s ta in , ir r e d u c i b le a n d ir r e p la c e a b le in its v ery
c o n t in g e n t s in g u la r ity , n o t j u s t a c o n t in g e n t o n tic f ille r o f a la c k . W h ile d r iv e is
a m o d e o f b e i n g s tu c k o n to a c o n t in g e n t s ta in - o b je c t, d ia le c t ic a l n e g a tiv ity is a
c o n t in u in g p r o c e s s o f u n - s tu c k in g fro m a ll p a r t i c u l a r c o n te n t: jo u issa n ce “le a n s
o n ” s o m e th in g , h a n g i n g o n to its p a r tic u la r ity — th is is w h a t is m is s in g in H eg e l,
b u t o p e r a tiv e in F re u d .
T h e r e a r e g o o d r e a s o n s to lin k th e F r e u d ia n u n c o n s c io u s to t h e self-
c o n s c io u s n e s s a s se lf-rcflex iv ity : “s e lf-c o n s c io u s n e s s is a n o b je c t,” i.e., in a n
o b je c t-s y m p to m , I re fle x iv e ly r e g is t e r a t r u t h a b o u t m y s e lf in a c c e s s ib le to m y
c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is , how ev er, is n o t q u ite th e s a m e a s th e H e g e lia n u n c o n ­
sc io u s: it is a p a r t i c u l a r ( s in g u la r) u n c o n s c io u s , a k in d o f c o n tin g e n t t r a n ­
s c e n d e n ta l, a c o n t in g e n t knot-sm /A öw h o ld in g to g e th e r th e s u b je c t’s u n iv e rs e .
In c l e a r c o n tr a s t to th is F r e u d ia n u n c o n s c io u s , th e H e g e lia n u n c o n s c io u s is
f o rm a l: it is th e f o r m o f e n u n c ia tio n in v is ib le in t h e e n u n c ia te d c o n te n t; it is
sy s te m ic , n o t a c o n t in g e n t bricolage o f lateral links (w hat L a ca n calls lalangue),
i.e., it r e s id e s in th e u n iv e rs a l s y m b o lic f o rm o n w h ic h t h e s u b je c t u n k n o w ­
in g ly re lie s , n o t in th e c o n t in g e n t “p a t h o lo g ic a l” d e s ir e w h ic h tr a n s p i r e s in th e
slip s o f to n g u e . H e g e l’s u n c o n s c io u s is th e u n c o n s c io u s o f se lf-c o n s c io u s n e s s
 T h e P olitics o f N e g a tivity Xlll

itse lf, its o w n n e c e s s a r y n o n tr a n s p a r e n c y , th e n e c e s s a r y o v e r lo o k in g o f its ow n

F O R M (“das Formelle") in t h e c o n t e n t it c o n f r o n ts . U n c o n s c io u s is th e u n iv e rs a l
f o r m o f p a r t i c u l a r c o n te n t: w h e n H e g e l says th a t th e t r u t h is in w h a t I say, n o t
i n w h a t I m e a n (to say), h e m e a n s t h e u n iv e rs a lity o f t h e m e a n in g o f w o rd s as
o p p o s e d to t h e p a r t i c u l a r in te n tio n .
T h e r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n I l e g e l ’s n e g a tiv ity a n d F r e u d ’s d e a th - d r i v e (o r
c o m p u ls io n to r e p e a t) is th u s a v e ry sp e c ific o n e , w ell b e y o n d th e ir ( h id d e n )
o u t r i g h t id e n tity : w h a t F r e u d a im e d a t w ith h is n o tio n o f d e a th - d r iv e — m o re
p rec isely , th e k ey d im e n s io n o f th is n o tio n f o r w h ic h F r e u d h im s e lf w a s b lin d ,
u n a w a r e o f w h a t h e d is c o v e re d , is t h e “n o n - d ia le c tic a l" c o r e o f t h e H e g e lia n
n e g a tiv ity , th e p u r e d riv e to r e p e a t w ith o u t a n y m o v e m e n t o f s u b la tio n /id e a li-
z a tio n . T h e p a r a d o x h e r e is t h a t p u r e r e p e titio n (in c o n t r a s t to r e p e titio n as
id e a liz in g s u b la tio n ) is s u s ta in e d p re c is e ly by its im purity, b y th e p e r s is te n c e
o f a c o n t in g e n t “p a t h o lo g ic a l” e le m e n t to w h ic h t h e m o v e m e n t o f r e p e titio n
r e m a in s stu c k .
In t h e K ie r k e g a a r d - F r e u d ia n p u r e r e p e titio n , th e d ia le c tic a l m o v e m e n t o f
s u b lim a tio n th u s e n c o u n te r s itself, its o w n c o r e , o u ts id e itself, in th e g u is e o f
a “b l i n d ” c o m p u ls io n - to - r e p e a t. A n d it is h e r e t h a t o n e s h o u ld a p p ly t h e g r e a t
H e g e lia n m o tto a b o u t t h e in te r n a liz in g o f t h e e x t e r n a l o b s ta c le : in lig h tin g its
e x t e r n a l o p p o s ite , th e b lin d n o n s u b la ta b le r e p e titio n , t h e d ia le c tic a l m o v e m e n t
is f ig h tin g its o w n ab y ssa l g r o u n d , its o w n c o re ; in o t h e r w o rd s , t h e u ltim a te
g e s tu r e o f r e c o n c ilia tio n is to r e c o g n iz e in th is t h r e a t e n i n g e x c e s s o f n e g a tiv ­
ity t h e c o r e o f t h e s u b je c t itse lf. T h is e x c e s s h a s d if f e r e n t n a m e s in H e g e l: th e
“n ig h t o f t h e w o rld ,” th e n e c e s sity o f w ar, o f m a d n e s s , e tc . A n d , p e r h a p s , th e
s a m e h o ld s fo r t h e b a s ic o p p o s itio n b e tw e e n th e H e g e lia n a n d th e F r e u d ia n
n e g a tiv ity : p re c is e ly in s o f a r a s t h e r e is a u n b r id g e a b le g a p b e tw e e n th e m (th e
H e g e lia n n e g a tiv ity is id e a liz in g , m e d i a t i z i n g / “s u b la tin g ” a ll p a r t i c u l a r c o n ­
t e n t in t h e abyss o f its u n iv e rs a lity , w h ile t h e n e g a tiv ity o f t h e F r e u d ia n d riv e is
e x p r e s s e d a s b e in g - s tu c k o n to a c o n t in g e n t p a r t i c u l a r c o n te n t) , t h e F r e u d ia n
n e g a tiv ity p r o v id e s ( q u ite lite ra lly ) th e “m a te r ia l b a s e ” fo r th e id e a liz in g n e g a ­
tiv ity — to p u t it in s o m e w h a t s im p lif ie d te r m s , e v e ry id e a liz in g /u n iv e r s a liz in g
n e g a tiv ity h a s to b e a t t a c h e d to a s in g u l a r c o n t in g e n t “p a t h o lo g ic a l” c o n te n t
w h ic h se rv e s a s its “s in th o m ” in th e L a c a n ia n s e n s e ( if th is s in th o m is u n r a v ­
e l le d / d is in te g r a te d , u n iv e rs a lity d is a p p e a r s ) . T h e e x e m p la ry m o d e l o f th is
l in k is, o f c o u r s e , H e g e l’s d e d u c tio n o f th e n e c e s s ity o f h e r e d ita r y m o n a rc h y :
t h e r a ti o n a l s ta te a s u n iv e r s a l to ta lity m e d ia tiz in g a ll p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t h a s to
b e e m b o d ie d in th e c o n t in g e n t “i r r a t i o n a l ” f ig u r e o f th e m o n a r c h .
It is a t th is p o in t t h a t R u d a ’s b o o k e n t e r s th e s ta g e : h e d is c e r n s th e s a m e
m a tr ix o n H e g e l’s tr e a tm e n t o f r a b b le — H e g e l fa ils to ta k e n o te h o w t h e r a b ­
b le , in its v e ry s ta tu s o f t h e d e s tr u c tiv e e x c e ss o f s o c ia l to ta lity is th e “re fle x ­
ive d e t e r m in a tio n ” o f th e to ta lity a s s u c h , th e im m e d ia te e m b o d im e n t o f its
u n iv e rs a lity , th e p a r t i c u l a r e le m e n t in t h e g u is e o f w h ic h th e s o c ia l to ta lity
e n c o u n te r s its e lf a m o n g its e le m e n ts , a n d . a s s u c h , t h e k ey c o n s titu e n t o f its
X IV T h e P olitics o f N e g a tivity

id e n tity . ( N o te th e d ia le c tic a l fin e s s e o f th is la st f e a tu r e : w h a t “s u tu r e s ” th e

id e n tity o f a s o c ia l to ta lity a s s u c h is th e v e ry “f re e - f lo a tin g " e le m e n t w h ic h
d isso lv e s a l l fix e d id e n tity o f a n y in tr a s o c ia l e le m e n t.) O n e c a n e v e n e s ta b lis h
a lin k b e tw e e n H e g e l’s r e s id u a l a n ti- S e m itis m a n d h is in a b ility to t h i n k p u r e
r e p e titio n : w h e n h e g iv e s w ay to h is d is p le a s u r e w ith th e J e w s w h o s tu b b o r n ly
stic k to th e ir id e n tity , in s te a d o f “m o v in g f o r w a r d ” a n d , lik e o t h e r n a tio n s ,
a llo w in g t h e i r id e n tity to b e s u b la te d /a u fg e h o b en / in h is to r ic a l p r o g re s s , is
h is d is p le a s u r e n o t c a u s e d b y th e p e r c e p tio n th a t J e w s r e m a in c a u g h t in th e
r e p e titio n o f th e sa m e ?
T h is is w h y R u d a is f u lly j u s t if i e d in r e a d in g H e g e l’s s h o r t p a s s a g e s o n th e
r a b b le a s a s y m p to m a tic p o in t o f h is e n t ir e p h ilo s o p h y o f r ig h t, if n o t o f h is
e n t i r e sy ste m . W h a t m a k e s t h e n o tio n o f r a b b le s y m p to m a tic is th a t it d e s c r ib e s
a n e c e s s a r ily p r o d u c e d “ i r r a t i o n a l ” e x c e ss o f m o d e r n r a ti o n a l s ta te , a g r o u p o f
p e o p l e fo r w h ic h t h e r e is n o p la c e w ith in t h e o r g a n iz e d to ta lity o f th e m o d ­
e r n s ta te , a lth o u g h th e y f o rm a lly b e lo n g to it— a s s u c h , th e y p e r f e c tly e x e m ­
p lify t h e c a te g o r y o f s in g u l a r u n iv e rs a lity (a s in g u l a r w h ic h d ir e c tly g iv e s b o d y
t o a u n iv e rs a lity , b y p a s s in g th e m e d ia tio n th r o u g h th e p a r ti c u la r ) , o f w h at
R a n c iè r e c a lle d th e “p a r t o f n o - p a r t” o f t h e so c ia l b o d y . W e c a n e a s ily p e rc e iv e
h e r e th e lin k b e tw e e n th e e m in e n tly p o litic a l to p ic o f t h e s ta tu s o f t h e r a b b le
a n d H e g e l's b a s ic o n to lo g ic a l to p ic o f th e r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n u n iv e rs a lity
a n d p a r tic u la r ity , i.e., t h e p r o b le m o f h o w to u n d e r s t a n d t h e H e g e lia n " c o n ­
c r e te u n iv e rsa lity .” I f w e u n d e r s t a n d “c o n c r e te u n iv e rs a lity ” in th e u s u a l s e n s e
o f th e o r g a n ic s u b d iv is io n o f t h e u n iv e rs a l in to its p a r ti c u la r m o m e n ts , s o th a t
u n iv e rs a lity is n o t a n a b s tr a c t f e a tu r e in w h ic h in d iv id u a ls d ir e c tly p a r tic ip a te ,
a n d t h e p a r ti c ip a tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l in th e u n iv e rs a l is alw ay s m e d ia te d
t h r o u g h th e p a r t i c u l a r n e tw o r k o f d e t e r m in a tio n s , th e n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
n o tio n o f s o c ie ty is a c o r p o r a t e o n e : s o c ie ty a s a n o r g a n ic W h o le in w h ic h e a c h
in d iv id u a l h a s to f in d its p a r t i c u l a r p la c e , i.e., in w h ic h 1 p a r ti c ip a te in th e
S ta te by f u lf illin g m y p a r t i c u l a r d u ty o r o b lig a tio n . T h e r e a r e n o c itiz e n s as
s u c h , o n e h a s to b e a m e m b e r o f a p a r t i c u l a r e s ta t e (a f a r m e r , a s ta te o ffic ia l,
m o t h e r in a fa m ily , te a c h e r , a r t i s a n . . . ) in o r d e r to c o n t r i b u te to th e h a r m o n y
o f i h e W h o le . T h is is th e B ra d le y ia n p ro to -F a s c is t H e g e l w h o o p p o s e s a to m ­
istic lib e r a lis m (in w h ic h s o c ie ty is a m e c h a n ic u n ity o f a b s tr a c t in d iv id u a ls )
o n b e h a l f o f th e S ta te a s a liv in g o r g a n is m in w h ic h e a c h p a r t h a s its f u n c tio n ,
a n d w ith in th is s p a c e , t h e r a b b le h a s to a p p e a r a s th e ir r a tio n a l e x c e ss, a s th e
t h r e a t to s o c ia l o r d e r a n d s ta b ility , a s o u tc a s ts e x c lu d e d a n d e x c lu d in g th e m ­
selv es f r o m t h e “r a t i o n a l ” s o c ia l to ta lity .
B u t is th is tr u ly w h a t H e g e l a im s a t w ith h is “c o n c r e te u n iv e rs a lity ”? Is th e
c o r e o f t h e d ia le c tic a l n e g a tiv ity n o t t h e s h o r t c ir c u it b e tw e e n t h e g e n u s a n d
(o n e o f ) its s p e c ie s , s o t h a t g e n u s a p p e a r s a s o n e o f its o w n s p e c ie s o p p o s e d
t o o th e r s , e n t e r i n g a n e g a tiv e r e la tio n s h i p w ith th e m ? I n th is s e n s e , c o n c r e te
u n iv e rs a lity is p re c is e ly a u n iv e r s a lity w h ic h in c lu d e s its e lf a m o n g its sp e c ie s,
i n th e g u is e o f a s in g u l a r m o m e n t la c k in g p a r t i c u l a r c o n te n t— in s h o r t , it is
 T h e P olitics o f N e g a tivity XV

p re c is e ly th o s e w h o a r e w ith o u t t h e i r p r o p e r p la c e w ith in t h e s o c ia l W h o le
(lik e t h e r a b b le ) t h a t s t a n d f o r th e u n iv e rs a l d im e n s io n of th e s o c ie ty w h ic h
g e n e r a te s th e m . T h is is w hy t h e r a b b le c a n n o t b e a b o lis h e d w ith o u t ra d ic a lly
tr a n s f o r m in g t h e e n t i r e s o c ia l e d if ic e — a n d I le g e l is fu lly a w a re o f th is . W h ile
h e e n u m e r a te s a s e r ie s o f m e a s u r e s to re so lv e t h e p r o b le m (p o lic e c o n tr o l a n d
r e p r e s s io n , c h a rily , e x p o r t o f r a b b le to c o lo n ie s . . .), h e h im s e lf a d m its th a t
t h e s e a r e o n ly s e c o n d a r y p a llia tiv e s w h ic h c a n n o t r e a lly re s o lv e t h e p r o b le m —
n o t b e c a u s e th e p r o b le m is to o h a r d (i.e., b e c a u s e th e r e is n o t e n o u g h w e a lth
in s o c ie ty to ta k e c a r e o f th e p o o r ) , b u t b e c a u s e th e r e is to o m u c h ex c essiv e
w e a lth — t h e m o r e s o c ie ty is w e a lth y , m o r e p o v e rty it p r o d u c e s .
I le g e l is o f c o u r s e a w a re t h a t o b je c tiv e p o v e r ty is n o t e n o u g h to g e n e r a te th e
r a b b le : t h is o b je c tiv e p o v e r ty m u s t b e s u b je c tiv iz e d , c h a n g e d in to a “d is p o s i­
t io n o f m in d ," e x p e r ie n c e d a s r a d ic a l in ju s tic e o n a c c o u n t o f w h ic h t h e s u b je c t
fe e ls n o d u ty a n d o b lig a tio n to w a r d so c iety . H e g e l leav es n o d o u b t th a t th is
in ju s tic e is a r e a l o n e : s o c ie ty h a s a d u ty to g u a r a n t e e t h e c o n d itio n s lo r a d ig ­
n if ie d f r e e a u to n o m o u s lif e to all its m e m b e r s — th is is t h e i r r ig h t, a n d if it is
d e n i e d , th e y a ls o h a v e n o d u tie s to w a r d so c iety . T h e r e a r e , h o w ev e r, p r o f o u n d
a m b ig u ity a n d o s c illa tio n in H e g e l's lin e of a r g u m e n t a t i o n h e r e , l i e first
s e e m s to b la m e th e p o o r th e m s e lv e s fo r s u b je c tiv iz in g t h e i r p o s itio n a s th a t
o f t h e ra b b le , i.e., fo r a b a n d o n in g th e p r in c ip le o f a u to n o m y w h ic h o b lig e s
s u b je c ts to s e c u r e th e ir s u b s is te n c e by t h e i r o w n la b o r, a n d fo r c la im in g as
t h e i r r ig h t to re c e iv e m e a n s fo r s u rv iv a l f r o m so c iety . T h e n h e s u b tly c h a n g e s
t h e to n e , e m p h a s iz in g t h a t , in c o n t r a s t to n a t u r e , m a n c a n c la im r ig h ts a g a in s t
so c iety , w h ic h is w hy p o v e r ty is n o t j u s t a fa c t b u t a w ro n g d o n e to o n e c la ss by
a n o t h e r . F u r th e r m o r e , t h e r e is a s u b tle n o n se q v itu r in h is a r g u m e n ta t io n : h e
p a s s e s d ir e c tly f r o m in d ig n a tio n a g a in s t th e r ic h / s o c ie ty /g o v e r n m e n t to th e
la c k o f s e lf- r e s p e c t ( im p lie d b y th e d e m a n d to re c e iv e f r o m s o c ie ty s u b s is te n c e
w ith o u t w o r k in g fo r it)— t h e r a b b le is i r r a t i o n a l b e c a u s e th e y d e m a n d d e c e n t
life w ith o u t w o r k in g fo r it, th u s d e n y in g th e b a s ic m o d e r n a x io m t h a t f r e e d o m
a n d a u to n o m y a r e b a s e d o n th e w o rk o f s e lf- m e d ia tio n . C o n s e q u e n tly , to q u o te
R u d a , th e r ig h t to s u b s is t w ith o u t la b o r

c a n o n ly a p p e a r a s ir r a tio n a l b e c a u s e H e g e l lin k s th e n o tio n o f r ig h t to th e

n o tio n o f t h e f r e e w ill th a t c a n o n ly b e f r e e i f it b e c o m e s a n o b je c t fo r its e lf
th r o u g h o b je c tiv e activ ity . T o c la im a r ig h t to su b sist w ith o u t a c tiv ity a n d to
c la im th is r ig h t a t t h e s a m e tim e o n ly f o r o n e s e lf , a c c o r d in g to H e g e l, t h e r e ­
f o r e m e a n s to c la im a r ig h t t h a t h a s n e i t h e r th e u n iv e rs a lity n o r t h e o b je c tiv ­
ity o f a r ig h t. T h e r ig h t th a t th e r a b b le c la im s f o r H e g e l is th e r e f o r e a right
w ithout right a n d . . . h e c o n s e q u e n tly d e f in e s th e r a b b le a s th e p a r ti c u la r i ty
t h a t u n b in d s its e lf a ls o f r o m th e e s s e n tia l in te r r e la t io n o f r ig h t a n d d u ty .

B u t in d ig n a tio n is n o t th e s a m e a s th e la c k o f s e lf-re s p e c t: it d o e s n o t a u to m a ti­

c a lly g e n e r a te th e d e m a n d to b e p r o v id e d f o r w ith o u t w o rk in g . I n d ig n a t io n
xvi T h e P olitics o f N e g a tivity

c a n a ls o b e a d ir e c t e x p r e s s io n o f se lf-re s p e c t: s in c e t h e r a b b le is p r o d u c e d
n e c e s s a rily , a s p a r t o f th e s o c ia l p ro c e s s o f th e ( r e ) p r o d u c tio n o f w e a lth , it is
s o c ie ty its e lf w h ic h d e n ie s th e m th e r ig h t to p a r ti c ip a te in th e s o c ia l u n iv e rs e
o f f r e e d o m s a n d r ig h ts — th e y a r e d e n i e d t h e r ig h t to h a v e r ig h ts , i.e., th e ir
" r ig h t w ith o u t r ig h t” is e ffe c tiv e ly a m e ta - r ig h t o r re fle x iv e r ig h t, a u n iv e rsa l
r ig h t to h a v e r ig h ts , to b e in a p o s itio n to a c t a s a f r e e a u t o n o m o u s s u b je c t. T h e
d e m a n d to b e p r o v id e d fo r life w ith o u t w o rk in g is th u s a (p o ss ib le s u p e rfic ia l)
f o rm o f a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e m o r e b a s ic a n d in n o w ay “i r r a t i o n a l ” d e m a n d to
b e g iv e n a c h a n c e to a c t a s a n a u t o n o m o u s f r e e s u b je c t, to b e in c lu d e d in th e
u n iv e r s e o f f r e e d o m s a n d o b lig a tio n s . In o t h e r w o rd s , s in c e m e m b e r s o f th e
r a b b le w e re e x c lu d e d f r o m th e u n iv e rs a l s p h e r e o f f r e e a u to n o m o u s life , th e ir
d e m a n d is its e lf u n iv e r s a l— th e ir

c la im e d right w ithout right c o n ta in s a la te n t u n iv e rs a l d im e n s io n a n d is its e lf

n o t a t a ll a m e r e p a r t i c u l a r r ig h t. A s a p a r tic u la r ly a r ti c u la te d r ig h t it is a
r ig h t th a t la te n tly a ffe c ts a n y o n e a n d o f fe rs th e in s ig h t in to a d e m a n d fo r
e q u a lity b e y o n d t h e e x is tin g o b je c tiv e s ta tis t c irc u m s ta n c e s .

T h e r e is a f u r t h e r k ey d is tin c tio n to b e in tr o d u c e d h e r e , a d is tin c tio n o n ly

l a te n t in I Ie g e l (in th e g u is e of th e o p p o s itio n b e tw e e n th e tw o e x c e s se s of
p o v e rty a n d w e a lth ) e l a b o r a te d by R u d a : m e m b e r s o f t h e r a b b le (i.e., th o s e
e x c lu d e d f r o m th e s p h e r e o f r ig h ts a n d f re e d o m s ) “c a n b e s tr u c t u r a lly d if fe r ­
e n t ia t e d in to tw o ty p e s : t h e r e a r e t h e p o o r a n d t h e r e a r e t h e g a m b le r s . A n y o n e
c a n n o n a r b it r a r il y b e c o m e p o o r , b u t o n ly th e o n e th a t a r b it r a r il y d e c id e s n o t
t o sa tisfy h is e g o is t n e e d s a n d d e s ire s b y w o r k in g c a n b e c o m e a g a m b le r. H e
r e lie s f u lly o n th e c o n t in g e n t m o v e m e n t o f b o u r g e o is e c o n o m y a n d h o p e s to
s e c u r e h is o w n s u b s is te n c e in a n e q u a lly c o n t in g e n t m a n n e r — fo r e x a m p le by
c o n tin g e n tly g a i n in g m o n e y o n t h e s to c k -m a rk e t.” T h e ex cessiv ely w e a lth y a r e
t h u s a ls o a s p e c ie s o f t h e r a b b le in th e s e n s e t h a t th e y v io la te t h e r u le s o f (o r
e x c lu d e th e m s e lv e s f ro m ) t h e s p h e r e o f d u tie s a n d f re e d o m s : t h e y n o t o n ly
d e m a n d f r o m s o c ie ty to p r o v id e fo r t h e i r s u b s is te n c e w ith o u t w o rk , th e y a r e de
fa cto p r o v id e d f o r s u c h a life . C o n s e q u e n tly , w h ile H e g e l c r itic iz e s t h e p o s itio n
o f th e r a b b le a s b e i n g th e p o s itio n o f a n ir r a tio n a l p a r t i c u l a r i t y t h a t e g o isti-
ca lly o p p o s e s its m e r e p a r t i c u l a r in te r e s ts a g a in s t t h e e x is tin g a n d r a tio n a lly
o r g a n iz e d u n iv e rsa lity , t h is d if f e r e n tia tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o d is tin c t ra b b le s
d e m o n s tr a te s t h a t o n ly th e r ic h r a b b le falls u n d e r H e g e l's v e rd ic t: “W h ile th e
r ic h ra b b le is, a s H e g e l ju d g e s c o r r e c tly , a m e r e p a r t i c u l a r r a b b le , th e p o o r r a b ­
b le c o n ta in s , a g a in s t H e g e l's ju d g m e n t, a la te n t u n iv e rs a l d im e n s io n th a t is n o t
e v e n in f e r io r to t h e u n iv e rs a lity o f th e H e g e lia n c o n c e p t io n o f e th ic a lity .”
O n e c a n th u s d e m o n s tr a te th a t, in th e c a s e o f th e r a b b le , H e g e l w as in c o n ­
s is te n t w ith r e g a r d to h is o w n m a tr ix o f t h e d ia le c tic a l p r o c e s s , d e facto r e g r e s s ­
in g f r o m th e p r o p e r ly d ia le c tic a l n o tio n o f to ta lity to a c o r p o r a te m o d e l o f th e
so c ia l W h o le . B u t d o e s th is m e a n th a t a ll w e h a v e to d o h e r e is to e n a c t th e
 T h e P olitics o f N e g a tivity X V II

p a s s a g e f r o m H e g e l to M a rx ? Is t h e in c o n s is te n c y re s o lv e d w h e n w e r e p la c e
t h e r a b b le w ith t h e p r o le t a r ia t a s th e “u n iv e rs a l c la ss”? O n e c a n a r g u e th a t,
o n t h e c o n tr a r y , t h e p o s itio n o f th e “u n iv e rs a l r a b b le ” p e r f e c tly r e n d e r s th e
p lig h t o f to d a y ’s n e w p r o le ta r ia n s . I n t h e c la s s ic a l M a rx is t d is p o s itif o f class
e x p lo ita tio n , c a p ita lis t a n d w o rk e r m e e t a s f o r m a lly f r e e in d iv id u a ls o n th e
m a r k e t, e q u a l s u b je c ts o f th e s a m e le g a l o r d e r , c itiz e n s o f th e s a m e s ta te , w ith
t h e s a m e civil a n d p o litic a l r ig h ts . T o d a y , th is le g a l f r a m e o f e q u a lity , th is
s h a r e d p a r ti c ip a tio n in th e s a m e c iv il a n d p o litic a l s p a c e s , is g r a d u a lly d is ­
s o lv in g w ith th e r is e o f th e n e w f o r m s o f so c ia l a n d p o litic a l e x c lu s io n : ille g a l
im m ig r a n ts , s lu m -d w e lle rs, r e f u g e e s , e tc . It is a s if, in p a r a lle l to th e r e g re s s io n
f r o m p r o f it to r e n t, in o r d e r to c o n t in u e to f u n c tio n , t h e e x is tin g s y ste m h a s
t o r e s u s c ita te p r e m o d c r n f o rm s o f d i r e c t e x c lu s io n — it c a n n o lo n g e r a f f o r d
e x p lo ita tio n a n d d o m in a tio n in t h e f o r m of le g a l a n d civil a u th o rity . In o th e r
w o rd s , w h ile th e classic w o rk in g c la s s is e x p lo ite d th r o u g h t h e i r v e ry p a r ti c ip a ­
t io n in t h e s p h e r e o f r ig h ts a n d f r e e d o m s , i.e., w h ile t h e i r d e fa c to e n s la v e m e n t
is r e a liz e d th r o u g h t h e v e r y f o r m o f t h e i r a u to n o m y a n d f r e e d o m , th r o u g h
w o r k in g in o r d e r to p ro v id e fo r t h e i r s u b s is te n c e , to d a y ’s r a b b le is d e n i e d ev en
t h e r ig h t to b e e x p lo ite d th r o u g h w o rk , its s ta tu s o s c illa tin g b e tw e e n th a t o f a
v ic tim p r o v id e d f o r b y c h a r ita b le h u m a n i t a r i a n h e l p a n d t h a t o f a te r r o r is t to
b e c o n t a in e d o r c r u s h e d ; a n d , e x a c tly a s d e s c r ib e d by H e g e l, th e y s o m e tim e s
f o r m u l a te t h e i r d e m a n d a s t h e d e m a n d fo r s u b s is te n c e w ith o u t w o rk ( lik e th e
S o m a lia p ira te s).
O n e s h o u ld b r in g to g e th e r h e r e H e g e l’s tw o f a ilu re s (by h is o w n s ta n d a r d s ) ,
r a b b le a n d s e x , a s th e a s p e c ts o f th e s a m e lim ita tio n . F a r f r o m p r o v id in g th e
n a t u r a l f o u n d a ti o n o f h u m a n lives, s e x u a lity is th e v e ry t e r r a i n w h e r e h u m a n s
d e ta c h th e m s e lv e s fro m n a t u r e : t h e id e a o f s e x u a l p e r v e rs io n o r o f a d e a d ly
s e x u a l p a s s io n is to ta lly f o r e ig n to th e a n im a l u n iv e rs e . H e re , H e g e l h im s e lf
c o m m its a f a ilu r e w ith r e g a r d to h is o w n s ta n d a r d s : h e o n ly d e p lo y s how , in
t h e p r o c e s s o f c u l tu r e , th e n a t u r a l s u b s ta n c e o f s e x u a lity is c u ltiv a te d , su b -
l a te d , m e d ia t e d — w e, h u m a n s , n o lo n g e r ju st m a k e lo v e fo r p r o c r e a tio n , w e g e t
in v o lv e d in a c o m p le x p r o c e s s o f s e d u c t io n a n d m a r r i a g e b y m e a n s o f w h ic h
s e x u a lity b e c o m e s a n e x p r e s s io n o f th e s p ir itu a l b o n d b e tw e e n a m a n a n d a
w o m a n , e tc . H ow ever, w h a t H e g e l m is s e s is how , o n c e w e a r c w ith in th e h u m a n
c o n d itio n , s e x u a lity is n o t o n ly tr a n s f o r m e d /c iv iliz e d , b u t, m u c h m o r e r a d i­
cally , changed in its very substance: it is n o lo n g e r th e in s tin c tu a l d riv e to r e p r o ­
d u c e , b u t a d r iv e t h a t g e ts th w a r te d a s to its n a t u r a l g o a l ( r e p r o d u c tio n ) a n d
th e r e b y e x p lo d e s in to a n in f in ite , p r o p e r ly m e ta p h y s ic a l, p a s s io n . T h e b e c o m -
in g - c u ltu r a l o f s e x u a lity is th u s n o t th e b e c o m in g - c u ltu r a l o f n a t u r e , b u t th e
a t te m p t to d o m e s tic a te a p r o p e r ly u n - n a t u r a l e x c e s s o f th e m e ta p h y s ic a l s e x u a l
p a s s io n . T H I S is t h e p r o p e r ly d ia le c tic a l re v e rs a l o f s u b s ta n c e : t h e m o m e n t
w h e n th e im m e d ia te s u b s ta n tia l ( " n a t u r a r ’) s t a r t i n g p o in t is n o t o n ly a c te d -
u p o n , tr a n s - f o r m e d , m e d ia t e d /c u ltiv a te d , b u t c h a n g e d in its v e ry s u b s ta n c e .
W e n o t o n ly w o rk u p o n a n d th u s tr a n s f o r m n a t u r e — in a g e s tu r e o f r e tr o a c tiv e
xviii T h e P olitics o f N e g a tivity

r e v e rs a l, n a t u r e its e lf r a d ic a lly c h a n g e s its “n a t u r e .” ( I n a h o m o lo g o u s way,

o n c e w e e n t e r th e d o m a in o f le g a l civil so c iety , th e p r e v io u s tr ib a l o r d e r o f
h o n o r a n d r e v e n g e is d e p r iv e d o f its n o b ility a n d a ll o f a s u d d e n a p p e a r s as
c o m m o n c r im in a lity .) T h is is w hy t h e C a th o lic s w h o in s is t t h a t o n ly s e x fo r
p r o c r e a tio n is h u m a n , w h ile c o u p lin g f o r lu s t is a n i m a l , to ta lly m iss t h e p o in t,
a n d e n d u p c e le b r a tin g t h e a n im a lity o f m e n .
O u r a d v ic e to a r e a d e r o f R u d a 's b o o k is th u s : y o u a r e h o ld in g in y o u r h a n d s
a c la ssic , s o a llo w y o u r s e lf to b e s w a llo w e d b y t h e v o r te x b e h i n d t h e “m a r ­
g i n a l ” to p ic o f th e Poebel— in th is w ay, y o u e n t e r th e r is k y d o m a in o f a u t h e n ti c
th in k i n g .
 Introduction: From the Rabble
to the Proletariat

I th in k w h a t w e fu n d a m e n ta lly owe to Hegel is a pow erful reflection on the negative.

(A la in B a d io u f

It is not the worst reader who provides the book with disrespectful notes in the margin.
(Theodor W. A d o rn o f

T h e p r e s e n t b o o k s ta r t s w ith a fic tio n . S u c h a b e g i n n in g m ig h t s e e m u n u s u a l

o r e v e n ille g itim a te . B u t th e f ic tio n w ith w h ic h th e p r e s e n t b o o k b e g in s is n e i­
t h e r m e re ly u n r e a l n o r sim p ly f e ig n e d . R a th e r it is a n a t te m p t to d e a l w ith a
p r o b le m t h a t A d o r n o h a d a lre a d y d ia g n o s e d , a lb e it in a d if f e r e n t c o n te x t. H is
s e m in a r o n K a n t’s C ritique o f P ure R eason o n th e tw e lfth o f M ay 1959 b e g i n s w ith
th e fo llo w in g r e m a r k : “L e t m e b e g in w ith th e f ic tio n th a t y o u d o n o t y e t k n o w
a n y t h in g a b o u t th e Critique o f P u re Reason." H e c o n t in u e s h is in v e s tig a tio n s by
c la im in g t h a t s u c h a fic tio n is “s im u lta n e o u s ly le g itim a te a n d ille g itim a te ." I t is
ille g itim a te b e c a u s e e v e ry o n e p r e s e n t h a s

u n d o u b te d ly . . . h e a r d t h a t K a n t’s s o - c a lle d C o p e r n i c a n R e v o lu tio n c o n ­

s is te d in th e id e a th a t th e e le m e n ts o f c o g n itio n t h a t h a d p re v io u sly b e e n
s o u g h t in th e o b je c ts , in th in g s -in -th e m s e lv e s , w e re n o w to b e tr a n s f e r r e d to
th e s u b je c ts . . .

S u c h a f ic tio n is a t th e s a m e tim e , A d o r n o c o n tin u e s , le g itim a te b e c a u s e th e

“f o r m u la e to w h ic h p h ilo s o p h ie s a r e c o m m o n ly r e d u c e d t e n d to re ify t h e a c tu a l
w r itin g s . . . a n d to m a k e a g e n u i n e in te r a c t io n w ith th e m a ll th e h a r d e r .”3 T h e
f ic tio n o f th e p r e s e n t b o o k s h a r e s A d o r n o 's d ia g n o s is t h a t th e o r d in a r y f o r m u ­
la e t e n d to m a k e it m o r e d if f ic u lt to a c c e ss s o m e p h ilo s o p h ic a l w o rk s a n d m a k e
it im p o s s ib le to g r a s p w h a t is a t s ta k e . A s p e c if ic p e r s p e c tiv e is in tr o d u c e d w h en
th is d ia g n o s is is r e la te d b a c k to w h a t is u s u a lly c a lle d “p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ."
H o w a r e w e to d ra w n e a r e r to th e w o rk s o f th o s e th in k e r s — s u c h a s H e g e l o r
M a rx — w h o f ir s t d e v e lo p e d th e th e o r y o f r e if ic a tio n i f o u r in te r a c t io n w ith
t h e i r w o rk s is its e lf o ssifie d by r e if ic a tio n ? T h e in itia l f ic tio n o f th e p r e s e n t
b o o k se rv e s to o p e n u p t h e r e if ic a tio n a n d f u n c ti o n s a s a n im p le m e n t w ith
 Hegel's R abble

w h ic h to f ig h t a g a in s t it. T h e c o n c r e te p o in t o f e n tr y o f th e p r e s e n t b o o k is th e
r e la tio n b e tw e e n I I e g e l a n d M a rx . It b e g i n s w ith t h e fic tio n t h a t ‘w e’ d o n o t
k n o w a n y t h in g a b o u t th e tr a n s i tio n f r o m t h e o n e to t h e o th e r .
T h i s f ic titio u s a s s u m p tio n is a ls o b o t h l e g itim a te a n d ille g itim a te . T h a t
it is i ll e g it im a te s e e m s o b v io u s in s o f a r a s th is tr a n s i t i o n is o n e o f th e m o s t
f r e q u e n tl y d is c u s s e d m o m e n ts in t h e e n t i r e h is to r y o f m o d e r n p h ilo s o p h y .4
T h e r e a r e c o u n tle s s w o rk s w h ic h h a v e t h o u g h t th r o u g h th is tr a n s i tio n , a n d to
a n y o n e w o r k in g in ‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ,’ t h e v a r io u s v e r s io n s o f t h e in f a m o u s
f o r m u l a e o f tr a n s i tio n a r e w ell k n o w n : w ith H e g e l d ia le c tic s is s till s t a n d i n g
o n its h e a d , w ith M a r x it is s e t o n its r e v o lu t io n a r y f e e t; it is a tr a n s i tio n fro m
id e a lis m to m a te r ia lis m , f r o m a n id e a lis t t h e o r y o f th e s ta te to t h e c r it iq u e
o f p o litic a l e c o n o m y . M y p r e l i m i n a r y h y p o th e s is is t h a t a ll o f t h e s e f o r m u l a e
t e n d to fa ll in to th e v e ry g e s tu r e th a t A d o r n o c ritic iz e s . T h e y a ll t e n d to m a k e
it m o r e d if f ic u lt to i n t e r a c t w ith t h e w o rk s in q u e s tio n b y o b s t r u c t i n g t h e i r
p r o p e r p h ilo s o p h ic a l s ta k e s .5 I n th e s a m e w ay, “t h e M a rx is t t r a d i t i o n d id
n o t k n o w h o w to sa y m u c h m o r e c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e la tio n o f H e g e l a n d M a rx
t h a n M a rx d i d . . . t u r n t h e H e g e lia n d ia le c tic u p s id e d o w n .’’6 T h e r e f o r e , th e
p r e s e n t b o o k a s s u m e s t h a t th e s e f o r m u l a e o f tr a n s i tio n h a v e b e c o m e p a r t
o f a p h ilo s o p h ic a l do xa t h a t o b s t r u c t s a n d r e if ie s t h a t w h ic h is a t s ta k e in
t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m H e g e l to M a r x . O n e e f f e c t o f th is r e if ic a tio n is m a n if e s t
i n th e fa c t t h a t th is t r a n s i t i o n is o f te n t r e a t e d a s a p u r e ly p hilosophical p r o b ­
le m . T h e t r a n s i t i o n in t h i s v e rs io n b e c o m e s a q u e s tio n w h ic h is t h e e x c lu ­
sive p r e s e r v e o f ‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ’ a s th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r o f its o w n h isto ry .
T h e r e w it h o n e b e g i n s f r o m a p r e s u p p o s i tio n t h a t c o n s id e r s “p o litic s — o r
r a t h e r , t h e p o litic a l— a s a n o b je c tiv e d a t u m , o r e v e n a n in v a r i a n t, o f u n iv e r ­
sa l e x p e r ie n c e ”7 a n d t h a t t h e ta s k o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r r e s id e s in a r t i c u l a t i n g
its e s s e n c e in th e r e g is t e r o f p h ilo s o p h y . T h e r e b y th e r e la tio n o f H e g e l a n d
M a r x b e c o m e s a r e la tio n b e tw e e n tw o p h ilo s o p h ic a l p o s it io n s th a t r e m a in
c o m m e n s u r a b le b e c a u s e th e y e n c o u n t e r a n d c o n f r o n t o n e a n o t h e r w ith in
t h e s a m e r e g is te r , t h e r e g i s t e r o f p h ilo s o p h y . H e g e l a n d M a rx b e c o m e p h i­
lo s o p h e r s o f t h e p o litic a l a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n b e c o m e s a q u e s tio n o f p h ilo s o ­
p h y a n d its c a te g o r ie s .
In th is w ay it is a ls o p r e s u p p o s e d th a t p o litic s p r e s e n ts its e lf a s a n o b je c ­
tiv e in v a r ia n t g iv e n s o t h a t th e — id e a lis t o r m a te r ia lis t— p h ilo s o p h e r c a n tu r n
to w a r d it w ith a g e s tu r e o f s o v e re ig n ty a n d u n c o v e r its alw ay s s ta b le e s se n c e .
T h e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n H e g e l a n d M a rx is s e e n f r o m th e p e r s p e c tiv e o f
‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ’ a s a d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n tw o p h ilo s o p h ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e s ,
b e tw e e n tw o d if f e r e n t th e o r ie s . P o litic s o r ////’ p o litic a l is a c a te g o r y o f p h ilo s o ­
p h y a n d th e tr a n s i tio n fro m H e g e l to M a rx is n o t h i n g b u t a tr a n s i tio n fro m
o n e p h ilo s o p h ic a l p o s itio n to a n o t h e r : a tr a n s i tio n f r o m ( p o litic a l) p h ilo s o p h y
t o ( p o litic a l) p h ilo s o p h y w ith in p h ilo s o p h y . H o w to g r a s p th e tr a n s itio n f r o m
H e g e l to M a rx th u s b e c o m e s a q u e s tio n th a t p h ilo s o p h y so le ly a d d r e s s e s to
its e lf a n d p h ilo s o p h y a lo n e a n s w e rs .
 In tro d u ctio n 3

It is f r o m th is d ia g n o s is t h a t th e in itia l fic tio n o f th e p r e s e n t b o o k g a in s its

le g itim a c y . B e c a u s e to a g a in r a is e t h e o ld q u e s tio n of th i n k i n g th e tr a n s itio n
f r o m H e g e l to M a rx it is n e c e s s a r y to d is p la c e it a n d e x tr a c t it f r o m a ll p re fig ­
u r e d p h ilo s o p h ic a l k n o w le d g e . T h is d is p la c e m e n t I u n d e r s t a n d in a w ay th a t
fo llo w s “t h e incessant displacem ent o f a n o b je c t o f th o u g h t f r o m w h ic h v e ry s o o n
e m e r g e s th e in s ig h t th a t it c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to t h e th e s e s in w h ic h it fo rm e rly
a p p e a r e d .”8 T h is m e a n s th a t th e fic tio n o f n o t k n o w in g a n y t h in g a b o u t th e
tr a n s itio n f r o m H e g e l to M a rx d is tin g u is h e s its e lf f r o m th e a lre a d y m e n tio n e d
a n d p u r e ly p h ilo s o p h ic a l f o r m u l a e o f tr a n s i tio n . T h is is d u e to th e fa c t th a t
t h is fic tio n is a s u p p o s itio n t h a t is p r e c is e ly p u t t i n g in to q u e s tio n t h e relation of
p h ilo s o p h y to p o litic s in a n e w way. B u t i f p o litic s is n o t to b e m a d e in to a p h ilo ­
s o p h ic a l c a te g o r y w h o s e sta b ility , o b je c tiv ity a n d in v a r ia n c e o n e p r e s u p p o s e s ,
th e n h e r e o n e e n c o u n te r s a p o s s ib le p e r s p e c tiv e o n w h a t a n o n p h ilo s o p h ic a l
p o litic s c o u ld b e . P o litic s a s a n o n p h ilo s o p h ic a l d o m a in w o u ld th e n b e t h e site
o f a s u b je c t a n d t h e p la c e o f a tr a n s f o r m a t io n w h ic h c o u ld n o t e a sily b e fitte d
in to p h ilo s o p h ic a l c a te g o r ie s o f sta b ility , p o ssib ility , c h a n g e , a n d s o o n . P o litics
w o u ld r a t h e r b e s o m e th in g th a t w as a b le to tr o u b le p h ilo s o p h y a n d to c o n f r o n t
it w ith e x ig e n c ie s w h ic h w o u ld d e m a n d a tr a n s f o r m a t io n o f p h ilo s o p h y its e lf.
P o litic s w o u ld t h e n b e a c o n d itio n of p h ilo s o p h y . T h e p r e s e n t b o o k w ish e s to
fo llo w s u c h a n ir r i ta t io n o f p h ilo s o p h y b y p o litic s a s it la k e s p la c e in t h e tr a n s i­
tio n fro m H e g e l to M a rx . M y th e s is w ill b e th a t th is tr a n s itio n r e la te s to t h e s in ­
g u la r ity a n d p e c u lia r i ty o f o n e f o rm o f p o litic s . In t h e fo llo w in g I d o n o t b e g in
w ith r e f le c tio n s o n a n a lre a d y e s ta b lis h e d p h ilo s o p h ic a l k n o w le d g e — w h ic h
w ill a ls o b o r n e in m in d — b u t w ith a s u s p e n s io n o f t h a t w h ic h o n e is te m p te d
to b e lie v e th a t o n e k n o w s a b o u t th is tr a n s i tio n . T h e h y p o th e s is o f th e b o o k is
th u s th a t it is p re c is e ly th e r e la tio n b e tw e e n p h ilo s o p h y a n d p o litic s — p o litic s
b e i n g a n i r r i t a t i o n o f p h ilo s o p h y — w h ic h h e lp s u s to g r a s p t h e tr a n s itio n f r o m
H e g e l to M a rx .
M a y b e it is n o t s u r p r i s in g th a t t h is i r r i t a t i o n o f p h ilo s o p h y is in d ic a t e d in
t h e fo rm o f a p r o b le m . S h lo m o A v in e ri h a s r e m a r k e d t h a t H e g e l leav es o n e
p r o b le m p e c u lia r ly u n s o lv e d in h is Philosophy o f R ight— in th is w o rk w h ic h o n e
a s s ig n s to h is ‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ’:

T h o u g h h is th e o r y o f th e s ta te is a i m e d a t i n t e g r a t i n g t h e c o n t e n d in g in te r ­
e s ts o f civil s o c ie ty u n d e r a c o m m o n b o n d , o n t h e p r o b le m o f p o v e rty h e
u ltim a te ly h a s n o t h i n g m o r e to sa y t h a n t h a t it is o n e o f “t h e m o s t d is t u r b ­
in g p r o b le m s w h ic h a g ita te m o d e r n s o c ie tie s ”. O n n o o t h e r o c c a s io n H e g e l
le a v e s a p r o b le m a t t h a t . (A H T , 154)

In H e g e l’s th e o r y o f t h e s ta te , w h ic h p r o p o s e s to e x p o u n d th e n e c e s s a ry
d e p lo y m e n t a n d th e r a t io n a l s t r u c t u r e o f a n e th ic a l p o lity , H e g e l is, a c c o r d in g
t o A v in e ri, c o n f r o n te d w ith a p r o b le m t h a t f u n d a m e n ta lly r u n s c o n t r a r y to h is
o w n c la im . I n w h a t fo llo w s I w a n t to ta k e u p A v in e r i's r e m a r k b u t a ls o to a lte r
4 Hegel's R abble

it. I n t h e firs t p la c e , w h ile I a ls o s t a r t f r o m t h e id e a t h a t H e g e l in h is Philosophy

o f R ig h t is c o n f r o n te d w ith a p r o b le m th a t h e is u n a b le to re s o lv e a n d th a t is
clo sely r e la te d to t h e p r o b le m o f p o v e rty , I d if f e r f r o m A v in c ri in t h a t I in te n d
to sh o w h o w p o v e r ty is o n ly t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i tio n o f a m o r e f u n d a m e n ta l
p r o b le m t h a t I le g e l a d d r e s s e s u n d e r th e n a m e , ‘r a b b le .’ T h e s u b je c t o f th is
b o o k th e r e f o r e fin d s its p la c e w ith in p h ilo s o p h y , th e ‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ’ o f
H e g e l, b u t it is n o t th e re b y a s u b je c t o f p h ilo s o p h y stricto sensu. It w ill h a v e to
b e s h o w n th a t th e ‘a p p e a r a n c e ’ o f th e r a b b le in H e g e l’s p h ilo s o p h y is a p r o b ­
le m o f p h ilo s o p h y a n d w ith in p h ilo s o p h y b u t a p r o b le m w ith s o m e th in g o th e r
th a n p h ilo s o p h y : a p r o b le m w ith p o litic s . T h e p e c u l i a r lo g ic o f p o litic s , as I
w ill sh o w , b r e a k s in to t h e I I e g e lia n Philosophy o f R ight in a w ay th a t th e l a t t e r is
in d e e d a b le to p e r c e iv e a s a p r o b le m b u t w h ic h it is u n a b l e to c o m e to te r m s
w ith . T h e p r e s e n t b o o k a im s to sh o w th a t o n e c a n o b s e r v e in 11egel’s Philosophy
o f R ight t h a t th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e c o n s titu t io n o f p o litic s —
u n d e r th e a e g is o f th e s ta te — fa ils, a n d in s u c h a w ay th a t its f a ilu r e o f fe rs a
p e r s p e c tiv e o n th e peculiarly sin g u la r logic o f politics. T h e n a m e o f th is p r o b le m
is ‘ra b b le .’ F in a lly I w ill sh o w t h a t , w ith th e f a ilu r e lin k e d to th e ra b b le , a d if ­
f e r e n t tr a n s itio n f r o m H e g e l to M a rx b e c o m e s th in k a b le .
B u t h o w s h o u ld a b o o k o n a s p e c ific p r o b le m of H e g e lia n p h ilo s o p h y a ls o
b e a c o n t r i b u tio n to th e d e b a te s u r r o u n d i n g I le g e l a n d M a rx ? W h e n M a rx
r e m a r k s th a t “I le g e l is n o t to b e b la m e d f o r d e p i c ti n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e m o d ­
e r n s ta te a s it is, b u t r a t h e r fo r p r e s e n tin g w h a t is a s th e essence o f t h e s ta te ”
(M C H , 6 4 ). h is c la im a lr e a d y e n ta ils th e d ia le c tic a l e m p h a s is w ith w h ic h th e
p r e s e n t b o o k b e g in s .
If H e g e l e v e n in h is f a ilu r e a c c u r a te ly d e p ic ts w h a t is, a n d i f t h e p la c e o f h is
f a ilu r e is a th e o r y o f t h e m o d e r n s ta te , t h e n o n e c a n c la im t h a t h is d e s c r ip tio n
is e v e n a b le t o p r e s e n t th e p la c e o f h is o w n f a ilu r e . In h is s h o r t r e m a r k s o n th e
r a b b le , H e g e l o f fe rs a ll th e r e s o u r c e s th a t w e n e e d in o r d e r to tr a c e t h e f a ilu re
o f h is o w n ‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ’ a n d its c o n c e p tio n o f t h e s ta te . In a c e r ta in
s e n s e H e g e l's a d e q u a t e d e s c r ip tio n o f t h e logic o f politics t u r n s a g a in s t th e logic
o f philosophy. B ut M a rx 's r e m a r k a b o u t H e g e l c a n a ls o b e in s tru c tiv e f o r t h e fol­
lo w in g in v e s tig a tio n : I f H e g e l a d e q u a te ly d e p ic ts w h a t is, t h e n o n e c a n c la im
t h a t M a rx — th e t h i n k e r o f “r e a l c o n d itio n s '" 1— s ta r t s f r o m p re c is e ly t h e p o in t
w h e r e H e g e l fails. G iv e n t h a t M a rx w a s d r iv e n b y H e g e l's f a ilu r e to p r o n o u n c e
t h e n e c e s s ity o f tr a n s f o r m in g p h ilo s o p h y a n d its c a te g o r ie s , th is m e a n s th a t
t h e r a b b le — th e p r o b le m in r e s p e c t o f w h ic h H e g e l’s ‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ’
fails— c a n b e c o n c e iv e d o f a s th e s t a r t i n g p o in t o f M a r x ’s e n te r p r is e . I f o n th e
o n e h a n d th e tr a n s i tio n f r o m H e g e l to M a rx is d u e to a p r o b le m th a t c a n b e
u n d e r s t o o d a s a f u n d a m e n ta l ir r i ta t io n o f p h ilo s o p h y b y p o litic s , a n d i f o n th e
o t h e r h a n d t h is ir r i ta t io n m a k e s it n e c e s s a r y to tr a n s f o r m p h ilo s o p h y , t h e n it
b e c o m e s c le a r t h a t t h is tr a n s f o r m a t io n h a s to s t a r t f ro m th e p o i n t a t w h ic h
H e g e l’s ‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ’ fails.
 In tro d u ctio n 5

T h e a s s u m p tio n o f th e p r e s e n t b o o k is th u s t h a t th e tr a n s f o r m a t io n o f
p h ilo s o p h y i n t r o d u c e d b y M a rx s ta r t s f r o m t h e ra b b le . T h e w ay o f th e f u n ­
d a m e n ta l r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f p h ilo s o p h y b e g in s w ith th e r a b b le , b u t it d o e s n o t
e n d w ith it. R a th e r , t h e tr a n s i tio n f r o m H e g e l to M a r x is, I w a n t to c la im , is
t h e tr a n s i tio n f r o m th e r a b b le to th e p r o le t a r ia t .1" I f H e g e l’s th e o r y is, a s M a rx
h a d it, a th e o r y o f th e modern s ta te , it is b e c a u s e w ith in it H e g e l a t te m p ts to
lin k tw o th in g s : 1. th e f r e e s e lf-re a liz a tio n o f r a t i o n a l s u b je c ts w h o se h is to ric a l
a d v e n t h e r e la te s to t h e R e f o r m a tio n a n d 2 . th e c o n d itio n o f a le g a lly r e g u ­
la te d e q u a lity a n d j u s t ic e th a t e m e r g e s w ith th e F re n c h R e v o lu tio n . I f H e g e l
fa ils b e c a u s e o f th e r a b b le , th is f a ilu r e ta k e s p la c e u n d e r s p e c ific a lly m o d e r n
c o n d itio n s . T h e M a r x ia n tr a n s f o r m a t io n o f p h ilo s o p h y th e r e f o r e h a s to b e
g r a s p e d a s a tr a n s f o r m a t io n th a t a tte m p ts to b e a p p r o p r i a t e to th e h is to ric a l
c o n d itio n s o f m o d e rn ity . If H e g e l’s Philosophy o f R ight is m a r k e d b y its c la im to
t h i n k a r e la tio n b e tw e e n a c o n c e p tio n o f s u b je c tiv ity in w h ic h t h e a c tiv e r e a li­
z a tio n o f f r e e d o m is in s c r ib e d a n d a n o tio n o f j u s t ic e — u n d e r t h e c o n d itio n o f
a s ta te - s e c u r e d sy stem o f r ig h ts — o n e a lre a d y a t ta i n s th e e s s e n tia l c o o r d in a te s
a c c o r d in g to w h ic h t h e M a r x ia n tr a n s f o r m a t io n o f p h ilo s o p h y o r ie n t s itself:
su b je c t, ju s t ic e , e q u a lity .
T h e f o r m u la o f th e tr a n s itio n f r o m H e g e l to M a rx — f r o m t h e r a b b le to th e
p r o le t a r ia t— is th e r e f o r e a f o r m u la t h a t n o lo n g e r h in g e s u p o n a n in v a ria n t
g iv e n n e s s of t h e p o litic a l w h ic h p h ilo s o p h y o n ly h a s to i n t e r p r e t in d if f e r e n t
w ays, b u t a f o r m u la t h a t u n d e r s t a n d s p o litic s , th a t b r e a k s in to p h ilo s o p h y
u n d e r t h e n a m e o f ‘r a b b le ’ a s a n i r r i t a t i o n a n d a d is t u r b a n c e t h a t in tr o d u c e s
t h e n e c e s sity o f a tr a n s f o r m a t io n o f p h ilo s o p h y , a s a n e s s e n tia lly s u b je c tiv e
e v e n t in w h ic h issu e s o f ju s t ic e , e q u a lity a n d f r e e d o m a r e a d d r e s s e d . B u t to
d o j u s t i c e to t h is tr a n s f o r m a t io n o f p h ilo s o p h y o n e n e e d s a sy s te m a tic u n d e r ­
s ta n d in g o f H e g e l’s f a ilu r e t h a t H e g e l h im s e lf m a r k s u n d e r t h e n a m e o f th e
‘ra b b le .’
 C h a p te r 1

L u th er and the T ransfiguration o f Poverty

A s a t the tim e it w as a m onk, so now it is the philosopher in whose brain the revolution

(K arl M a rx)1

L u t h e r p r o f a n e s p o v e rty . T h u s m ig h t o n e e n c a p s u la te t h e r e s u lt o f “th e a ll­

e n l ig h te n e d S u n ” ( H P H , 412) o f t h e r e f o r m a tio n . T h e r e f o r m a tio n o u s ts p o v ­
e r ty f r o m its h o ly t h r o n e a n d d e s tro y s in th is w ay t h e p r iv ile g e o f a c la ss th a t
im a g in e s its e lf to h e th e s o le p o s s e s s o r o f t r u t h . L u th e r th e r e b y s h a tte r s th e
m e d ie v a l e c o n o m y o f s a lv a tio n th a t h a d b e c o m e d ila p id a te d a n d t h a t h a d p r e ­
v io u sly b e e n a b le to a s s ig n a s e e m in g ly fix e d p la c e to p o v e rty . B e fo re L u th e r ,
v o lu n ta r y r e je c tio n o f p r o p e r t y a n d r e f u s a l o f w o rld ly p o s s e s s io n s is in te g r a te d
i n to a n e c o n o m y o f s a lv a tio n by th e fa c t th a t th e b e g g a r is “p r o m is e d s p ir itu a l
s u p p o r t”2 in r e t u r n . T h e a lm s th e r e f o r e a m o u n ts to a m ic ro -(s a lv a tio n a l-)e c o -
n o m ic le tte r o f in d u lg e n c e w h o se e ffe c tiv e n e s s is a s s u r e d b y th e a u t h o r i ty o f
t h e c h u r c h th a t in t u r n in itia lly a llo w s fo r t h e c o n t r a c tu a l f o r m o n a m a c ro -
( s a lv a tio n a l-)e c o n o m ic level. B u t a lr e a d y in m e d ie v a l tim e s — th e “d a w n ”
( H P H . 412) b e f o r e L u th e r — th e f r o n ti e r b e tw e e n th e pauperes cum Petro ( th e
v o lu n ta r y c le ric a l p o o r ) a n d th e pauperes cum Lazaro (th e in v o lu n ta r y p o o r)
b e c o m e s q u e s tio n a b le . B e c a u s e w h a t c o m e s w ith th e p r o fe s s io n o f t h e b e g g a r
is a n in e s c a p a b le s u s p ic io n o f f r a u d .1 T h e a lm s g e t c a u g h t in a f u n c tio n a l-
e c o n o m ic a m b ig u ity : e i t h e r it is th e v a n is h in g m e d ia t o r th a t is a b le to e n s u r e
t h e s a lv a tio n o f t h e s o u l o r it is a f o r m o f u ltim a te f r a u d . T h e r e s u lt o f a w ro n g ly
g iv e n a lm s is n o t o n ly m a te r ia l d a m a g e , b u t r a t h e r it p r o d u c e s — a n d th is is th e
m a r k o f its d a n g e r — th e u n c e r ta in t y a n d d e c e p tio n c o n c e r n in g th e p u r p o r t ­
e d ly s e c u r e d life . In th is s e n s e it is in t h e la st in s ta n c e alw ay s u n c e r ta in i f th e
p a u p er is a p a uper sacer; a p auper cum Petro o r n o t. I t is u n c e r t a i n w h e th e r th e
tr a n s a c t io n w h ic h is s u p p o s e d to r e d e e m th e s in s r e a c h e s th e d iv in e a d d r e s s e e
o r silts u p in w o rld ly c h a n n e ls , b r e a d o r o t h e r th in g s . T h is d a n g e r o u s a m b i­
g u ity o f t h e a lm s 4 u ltim a te ly s te m s f r o m th e c o n t r a d ic t o r y c o n s titu t io n o f th e
c le ric a l a u t h o r i ty itse lf. T h e p o s s ib ility o f b u y in g e t e r n a l s a lv a tio n th r o u g h
 L u t h e r a n d th e T ra n sfig u ra tio n o f P overty 7

t h e d o n a t i o n o f a lm s is c o n f r o n te d w ith th e f u n d a m e n t a l in d is tin g u is h a b ility

b e tw e e n v o lu n ta r y a n d n o n v o lu n ta r y p o o r.
" T h e fo llo w e rs o f v o lu n ta r y p o v e rty a n d th e in v o lu n ta r y p o o r h a d r e g a r d in g
t h e i r v a lu e s n o t h i n g in c o m m o n . B u t s o m e tim e s b y v ir tu e o f e x t e r n a l s im ila r i­
tie s o f d r e s s , a p p e a r a n c e s a n d w ay o f lif e th e a u r a o f s a n c tity w as e x t e n d e d to
t h e l a t t e r g r o u p .”5 B e c a u s e o f th is , th e le g itim a c y th a t t h e c h u r c h ly a u th o r ity
a l lo tte d to th e c le ric a l p o o r r e b o u n d s o n to th e w o rld ly p o o r a n d p e r v e r ts its
o w n p r in c ip le in tw o w ays. F irs t, e v e r y p a u p e r is n o w s u s p e c te d o f b e i n g a
f r a u d , a n d s e c o n d ly , t h is m e a n s th a t t h e a u t h o r i ty th a t a lig n s p o v e r ty w ith
s a n c tity its e lf b e c o m e s d u b io u s b e c a u s e it c a n n o t o f f e r r e lia b le m e a n s w ith
w h ic h to d if f e r e n tia te b e tw e e n th e c o m p e ti n g f o r m s o f p o v e rty . T h e a u th o r ity
o f th e c h u r c h in r e la tio n to p o v e rty is r e v e a le d in all its c o n t r a d ic t o r y n a tu r e :
1. th e m ic r o e c o n o m ic p r o b le m m a k e s th e le tte r o f in d u lg e n c e a ls o m a c r o e c o -
n o m ic a lly d u b io u s ; 2. t h e a s s ig n e d s a n c tity o f p o v e rty s u s p e n d s t h e p o ssib ility
o f d is t in c t io n a n d th e r e f o r e o f r a tio n a l in s ig h t b y le a d in g in to a p r o b le m o f
in d is tin g u is h a b ility .
T h e w h o le e c o n o m y o f s a lv a tio n , s e c u r e d b y t h e c h u r c h , th u s b e c o m e s
u n h i n g e d . In a n d a g a in s t t h e c h u r c h t h e r e is fo r t h e firs t tim e a lo g ic o f su s­
p ic io n w h ic h fo r I Ie g e l p la y s a ro le in a n y r e v o lu tio n ( o f s p irit).6 T h e e x te r io r
in d is tin g u is h a b ility o f t h e p o o r w ith P e te r a n d th e p o o r w ith L a z a r u s t h a t in a u ­
g u r a te s th e lo g ic o f s u s p ic io n w ill n o w b e o v e rc o m e in L u th e r by r e n d e r i n g all
t h e p o o r — w h e t h e r v o lu n ta r y o r n o t— p o o r in t h e w ay o f L a z a r u s , L a z z a ro n i.
L u th e r f r e e s t h e b e lie v e rs f r o m t h e i r e x t e r io r a m b ig u ity a n d th e r e b y p u rifie s
t h e b e lie v e r o f t h e f o r m e r b a r r i e r s o f c h u r c h ly a u th o rity . L u th e r ’s m e d ia tio n
b e tw e e n t h e b e lie v e r a n d g o d — a m e d ia tio n w ith o u t b a r r ie r s a n d th r o u g h
f a ith a lo n e — s ig n ifie s f o r H e g e l t h a t t h e s u b je c t is f u n d a m e n ta lly p u r if i e d o f its
e x t e r io r b o n d to a u t h o r i ty a n d t h e in s e r t io n o f a p la c e in th e “i n n e r s a n c tu m
o f h u m a n ity ” (H L H P , 5 5 ) th a t m a k e s it s u c h “t h a t a ll e x t e r n a li ty d is a p p e a r s at
th e p o in t o f t h e a b s o lu te r e la tio n s h ip to G o d " ( H L H P 3 , 7 7 ). “T h e p r in c ip le
b e c a m e a m o m e n t o f r e lig io n i t s e l f . . ( Ib id ., 7 7 ). L u th e r p r o d u c e s a new , h is­
to r ic a lly p o w e r fu l c r it e r io n o f t r u t h t h a t a m o u n ts to a d e c isiv e d e t e r m in a tio n
o f H e g e lia n m o d e r n i ty : B e c a u s e f r o m n o w o n , th e t r u e is w h a t “a u th e n tic a te s
a n d e v id e n c e s its e lf in m y h e a r t ” ( Ib id ., 79). W ith it th e d is t in c t io n o f la ity a n d
c le r ic a ls o d is a p p e a r s , w ith r e g a r d to th e M ass. T h e R e fo r m a tio n th a t ta k e s
p la c e b y w ay o f a b o o k o f th e p e o p le — th e B ible— e n a b le s a n y s u b je c t w h a t­
s o e v e r to e x a m in e h is c o n s c ie n c e b y m e a n s o f h is o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , g u id e d
b y r e a s o n , a n d th e r e b y to p o s it h im s e lf a s a le g itim a te a n d g e n e r a l a u th o r ity
d u e to h is r a ti o n a l c a p a c itie s a n d so le ly b y h is o w n e f f o rts . T h e P r o te s ta n t
p r in c ip le is m a r k e d b y a r e f u s a l “to r e c o g n iz e in o n e 's d is p o s itio n o f m in d
a n y t h in g n o t ju s tifie d by th o u g h t” (H O P R , 15). In th is s t r u c t u r e o n e c a n a ls o
r e c o g n iz e a n e s s e n tia l t u r n in th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f p o v e rty . I f L u th e r s m e a rs
t h e d is h o n e s t h u m b le n e s s o f th e C a th o lic s a n d th e e x t e r io r p o v e r ty a f f ilia te d
8 Hegel's R abble

w ith it, f o r H e g e l, h e a t th e s a m e t im e in tr o d u c e s a n e w p r in c ip le w h ic h tr a n s ­
f ig u re s w o rld h is to ry : t h e p r in c i p le o f a c tiv ity o r a c tio n [Tätigkeit]. I n th is way
t h e L u t h e r a n I le g e l7 c a n i n t e r p r e t th e R e fo rm a tiv e p r o f a n a ti o n o f p o v e r ty as
a p r in c ip a l t u r n in th e p r o g r e s s io n o f h is to ry . N o w m a n is n o t w h a t h e is by
n a t u r e , b u t o n ly c o m e s to h im s e lf a n d to t r u t h a f t e r a n a c tiv e p r o c e s s o f (re-)
f o r m a tio n o r e d u c a tio n [B ildung]. T h r o u g h th e R e f o r m a tio n th e r a ti o n a l a n d
a c tiv e s u b je c t b e c o m e s f o r I le g e l t h e e s s e n tia l d e t e r m in a tio n o f m o d e rn ity .
W h a t is v a lid f o r th e s u b je c t is v a lid fo r its f o u n d a ti o n , t h e f r e e w ill: w h a t ii is ii
c a n o n ly b e c o m e th r o u g h la b o r.8

T h e r e p u d i a t i o n o f w o rk n o l o n g e r e a r n e d th e r e p u t a t i o n o f sa n c tity ; it
w a s a c k n o w le d g e d to b e m o r e c o m m e n d a b le f o r m e n to r is e f r o m a s ta te
o f d e p e n d e n c y b y activity, in te llig e n c e a n d in d u s try , a n d m a k e th e m s e lv e s
in d e p e n d e n t . It is m o r e c o n s o n a n t w ith j u s t i c e th a t h e w h o h a s m o n e y
s h o u ld s p e n d it e v e n in lu x u r ie s , t h a n th a t h e s h o u ld g iv e it aw ay to id le r s
a n d b eg g a rs . . . (H P H , 423)

T o m a k e o n e s e lf i n d e p e n d e n t b y o n e ’s o w n a c tiv ity n a m e s t h e c e n t r a l fo r ­
m u la o f t h e s u b je c tiv ity t h a t is f r e e in i t s e l f a n d t h a t a r r iv e s in t h e w o rld
w ith t h e R e f o r m a tio n a n d w h ic h b e c o m e s th e s u b je c tiv ity ο ί “a ll m a n k in d "
( I b id ., 4 1 6 ). T h e s u b je c t b e c o m e s t h e t r u t h o f i t s e l f b y a b a n d o n i n g its p a r ­
t i c u l a r i t y a n d b y t a k i n g p o s s e s s io n o f t h e s u b s t a n tia l a n d r a t i o n a l t r u t h . It
is o n ly in t h is w ay t h a t “a ll m e n c a n in t h e i r s u b je c tiv ity b e c o m e a s f r e e m e n
s u b je c ts o f a p o litic a l, le g a l a n d s o c ia l o r d e r .”9 B u t th is p r o c e s s o f ta k in g
i n t o p o s s e s s io n is f u n d a m e n t a l l y b o u n d to t h e m o m e n t o f a c tiv ity t h a t first
h a d its e lf to ta k e p o s s e s s io n o f t h e t r u t h o f h is to r y in a ( r e f o r m a t i o n o f h is ­
to r y . “T im e , s in c e t h a t e p o c h , h a s h a d n o o t h e r w o rk to d o t h a n t h e f o rm a l
i m b u i n g o f t h e w o rld w ith t h i s p r i n c i p l e . . . Law , P r o p e r ty , S o c ia l M o ra lity ,
G o v e r n m e n t, C o n s titu ti o n s , e tc ., m u s t b e c o n f o r m e d to a g e n e r a l p r in c i p le ,
i n o r d e r t h a t th e y m a y a c c o r d w ith t h e id e a o f F r e e W ill a n d b e R a tio n a l."
( H P H , 417)
It is a lr e a d y p o s s ib le to p r e d i c t a t th is s ta g e w h y w ith th e R e f o r m a tio n “th e
e n t i r e r e v o lu tio n in o u r m e n ta l a t t i t u d e h a s c o m e a b o u t ” ( H L H P 3 , 139).
B e c a u s e n o w all n o tio n s h a v e to b e c o n c e iv e d o f u n d e r th e a e g is o f fre e ,
r a ti o n a l a c tiv ity w h ic h h a s b e c o m e t h e conditio sin e q u a noji f o r a n y s u b je c tiv ­
ity. A lso , “in d u s tr y , a r t , a n d th e lik e u p h o ld th e p r in c i p le o f m y o w n a c tiv ity
to o , in s o f a r a s m y a c tiv ity a c c o r d s w ith w h a t is r ig h t" ( I b id ., 76). F ro m th is
b a c k g r o u n d t h e n o tio n o f p o v e r ty is g iv e n a m o m e n to u s d e s tin y in th e 'p o liti­
c a l p h ilo s o p h y ' o f H e g e l. B e c a u s e b e f o r e L u th e r “p o v e r ty w as c o n s id e r e d to
s ta n d h i g h e r t h a n liv in g f r o m o n e ’s o w n h a n d s la b o u r ; b u t n o w it is k n o w n
t h a t p o v e rty is a n a im n o t m o r e e t h ic a l. R a th e r it is m o r e e th ic a l to live fro m
la b o u r a n d to b e h a p p y a b o u t w h a t o n e b r in g s b e f o r e o n s e lf " (H V O R L 3,
4 9 ). T h e p r o f a n a ti o n o f p o v e r ty tr a n s f o r m s a ll p a u p e r s in to L a z z a r o n i w h o
 L u t h e r a n d th e T ra n sfig u ra tio n o f P overty 9

n o lo n g e r h a v e a n y p la c e in t h e r e f e r e n ti a l sy ste m o f t h e s a lv a tio n a l e c o n o m y
th a t is d e t a c h e d f r o m th e c h u r c h ’s a u th o r ity , s in c e a “h u m a n b e i n g h a s to
a c q u ir e f o r h im s e lf t h e p o s itio n w h ic h h e o u g h t to a t ta i n ; h e is n o t a lr e a d y in
p o s s e s s io n o f it th r o u g h i n s t i n c t ” ( I I O P R , 173). T h e b a r r i n g o f t h e s a lv a tio n
o f s a lv a tio n a l e c o n o m y le a v e s t h e p o o r in t h e p r e c a r io u s s ta te o f b e i n g a m a ss
w h o s e o n ly p la c e f r o m n o w o n w ill b e th e w o rld ly e c o n o m y , c iv il s o c ie ty a n d
p h ilo s o p h y , i f it w a n ts to d e p ic t th e s ta te in its r a tio n a lity , it h a s to c o n f r o n t
th e s e p o o r.
 C h a p te r 2

Pauper-Rabble: T h e Q uestion o f Poverty

W h a t disorganizes the u n ity o f logical reason equally disorganizes actuality.

(G. W. F. Hegel)1

I f H e g e l’s E lem ents o f the Philosophy o f R ight a tte m p ts “to r e n d e r to th e s ta te its

lo st c o n s e c r a tio n , s a n c tity ” o n t h e g r o u n d o f th e “a u t o n o m o u s th o u g h t’’2 p r e ­
p a r e d b y L u th e r, t h e n w h a t is a t s ta k e in th is p r o je c t c a n h a r d ly b e u n d e r e s ti­
m a te d . H e g e l a t te m p ts to a c c o m p lis h in t h e r a ti o n a l e x p o s itio n o f th e n o tio n
w h a t L u th e r b e g a n in th e s e n tim e n t o f f a ith : t h e d iv in e w ill a s s p ir it e x p r e s s in g
its e lf in r e a lity s h o u ld b e th o u g h t a n d d e v e lo p e d in its u n f o ld e d re a lity , th is is
i n its p r e s e n t s ta tis t o r g a n iz a tio n . A lr e a d y j u s t a y e a r a n d a h a l f a f te r H e g e l’s
d e a th , E d u a r d G a n s h a d r e m a r k e d — o n t h e o c c a s io n o f a f a m o u s e d i tio n o f
H e g e l’s w o rk s— in a “p r o p h e tic ”1 p r e f a c e t h a t t h e Philosophy o f Right— a w o rk
“w r o u g h t f r o m th e m e ta l o f f r e e d o m ”— w ill, as a p a r t o f H e g e l’s p h ilo s o p h i­
c a l sy ste m , s ta n d o r f a ll w ith it.' W h a t is a t s ta k e w ith th e fo llo w in g a n a ly sis
is a re v e rs a l o f G a n s ’ p r o p h e c y : n o t o n ly d o e s t h e Philosophy o f R ig h t s ta n d o r
fa ll w ith th e H e g e lia n sy ste m ; th e H e g e lia n sy stem s ta n d s o r fa lls w ith th e
Philosophy o f R ight. A t th is j u n c t u r e it w ill n o t b e m y p r im a r y a im to r e c o n s tr u c t
th e Philosophy o f R ight in its e n t i r e s tr u c t u r e . R a th e r , t h e e x a m in a tio n w ill fo l­
lo w t h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e p o s t- L u th e r a n , w h ic h is to sa y p r o f a n e , p o v e r ty a n d
its p la c e to firs t tr a c e th e h is to ric a lly p o w e r fu l e f f e c t t h a t fo r I le g e l b e g in s
w ith t h e R e f o r m a tio n a n d w h o s e h is to r ic a l m a r k is still p r e s e n t in h is ‘p o liti­
c a l p h ilo s o p h y ’ a n d , s e c o n d ly , to b e a r in m in d th a t t h e H e g e lia n ‘p o litic a l
p h ilo s o p h y ’ is a p h ilo s o p h y o f t h e s ta te t h a t h a s to c o p e w ith p o v e rty fro m th e
s ta te ’s p e r s p e c tiv e .
“T h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s tio n o f h o w p o v e r ty c a n b e r e m e d ie d is o n e w h ic h
a g i ta t e s a n d t o r m e n t s m o d e r n s o c ie tie s e s p e c ia lly ,” a s H e g e l w r ite s in h is
a d d i tio n to p a r a g r a p h 2 4 4 o f t h e Philosophy o f R ight. B u t w h a t is t h e a g ita t­
in g a n d w h a t is th e t o r m e n t i n g a s p e c t t h a t civil s o c ie ty is c o n f r o n t e d w ith
in p o v e rty ? I le g e l d e f in e s p o v e r ty a s th e s ta te in w h ic h a ll t h e a d v a n ta g e s o f
civil s o c ie ty ,5 in c lu d in g t h e g u a r a n t e e o f o n e ’s s u b s is te n c e , a r e lo s t, th o u g h
 P auper-R abble: T h e Q u estio n o f P overty 11

a ll n e e d s a r e p r e s e r v e d . T h e p o o r is th e o n e w h o e i t h e r d u e to a n a r b itr a r y -
i r r a t i o n a l c o m m e r c e w ith t h e m e a n s th a t a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e a s s u r a n c e o f
o n e ’s o w n e x is te n c e o r d u e to “c o n tin g e n c ie s , p h y s ic a l c o n d i t i o n s a n d f a c to rs
g r o u n d e d in e x t e r n a l c i r c u m s ta n c e s " ( II O P R , 219) h a s lo st a ll p o s s e s s io n s .
O r h e is t h e o n e w h o c o n s titu tiv e ly la c k s “h is o w n im m e d i a t e a s s e ts ( h is c a p i­
t a l) ” ( I b id ., 192), s in c e it is alw a y s p u r e ly c o n t i n g e n t “w h a t a n d h o w m u c h I
p o s s e s s . . ( I b id ., 6 3 ). W h o is o r b e c o m e s p o o r d e p e n d s o n t h e i r p a r ti c u la r ,
i n d iv i d u a l f a te s , b u t t h a t t h e r e is p o v e r ty is a n e c e s s a r y r e s u lt o f t h e s ta b iliz ­
i n g a n d d r iv in g d y n a m ic s o f c iv il s o c ie ty . F irs t o f a ll, it is im p e r a tiv e to u n f o ld
s o m e o f t h e c e n t r a l e le m e n ts o f t h e s e ttin g t h a t c iv il s o c ie ty a n d its m o v e m e n t
p r o v id e fo r t h e q u e s tio n o f p o v e r ty : o n e c e n tr a l e f f e c t is th a t b e s id e s th e ir
p r o p e r t y t h e p o o r a ls o lo s e t h e p o s s ib ility o f a c q u i r i n g t h e i r o w n s u b s is te n c e
w h ic h “le a v e s th e m m o r e o r le ss d e p r iv e d o f a ll th e a d v a n ta g e s o f s o c i e t y . . . ”
(Ib id .. 2 2 0 ). T h e r e f o r e t h e e f f e c ts o f i n t e g r a t i o n a r c n o t w o r k in g f o r t h e p o o r
a n y m o r e . I n itia lly t h e civil s o c ie ty p r e s e n ts a lo g ic a lly h ig h e r '“lev el w ith in th e
e t h ic a l s y s te m . F a m ily is t h e e t h ic a l s u b s t a n c e in its im m e d ia te a n d n a t u r a l
f o r m t h a t a f t e r th e lo ss o f its u n ity 7 r e le a s e s th e e d u c a t e d p e r s o n in to th e ir
a u to n o m y in to civil so c ie ty . It r e le a s e s its m e m b e r s fro m t h e p r e c a u tio n s a n d
t h e b o n d o f felt u n ity w ith t h e o t h e r , in to t h e f o r m a l g e n e r a lity o f e q u a l
n e e d s a n d t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f r ig h ts . B o th le a d to th e f a c t t h a t p e r s o n s
e n c o u n t e r o n e a n o t h e r in a n e x t e r i o r w ay o n t h e “s ta g e o f difference" ( Ib id .,
1 8 0 )8— civ il s o c ie ty — u n d e r t h e lo o s e “b o n d o f c o n n e c t i o n ” ( I b id ., 5 2 ) a n d
o f r ig h t.
H e re b y t h e tw o f u n d a m e n t a l p r in c ip le s o f c iv il s o c ie ty a r e in d ic a t e d : 1.
t h e c o n c r e t e p e r s o n a s to ta lit y o f its n e e d s a n d 2 . t h e p e r s o n in its r e la tio n
t o th e o t h e r p e r s o n : i n t e r p e r s o n a l i t y o r in te r s u b je c tiv ity . C iv il s o c ie ty is t h u s
t h e u n ity c o n s t i t u t e d b y s im ila r it ie s o f d i f f e r e n t p e r s o n s . I f e a c h p e r s o n is
o n ly in te r e s te d in t h e s a tis f a c tio n o f its o w n n e e d s t h e u n a v o id a b le r e la tio n
t o o t h e r s — th a t s e e m to b e m e r e m e a n s o f s a tis f a c tio n — g e n e r a t e s a fo rm
o f g e n e r a lity , u n iv e rs a lity . “I f u r t h e r m y e n d s , I f u r t h e r th e e n d s o f th e u n i ­
v e r s a l, a n d th is in t u r n f u r t h e r s m y e n d ” ( I b id ., 182). T h i s is a “sy ste m o f
n e e d s ”( I b id ., 215) w h e r e in t h e w e ll-b e in g a n d t h e r i g h t o f e a c h p a r t i c u l a r
i n d iv i d u a l a r e f o r m a lly in r e l a t i o n to a ll o f th e o t h e r s . T h i s is w h y H e g e l c a n
c a ll c iv il s o c ie ty in its to ta lity t h e “t e r r i t o r y o f m e d ia tio n " o n w h ic h “t h e r e is
f r e e p la y f o r a l l id io s y n c ra s y , e v e r y ta l e n t , e v e r y a c c i d e n t o f b i r t h a n d f o r t u n e
a n d w h e r e w av es o f e v e r y p a s s io n g u s h f o r th . . .” ( I b id ., 181). T h a t th is o n ly
d e l in e a te s a f o r m a l u n iv e rs a lity — a u n iv e r s a lity w ith o u t u n iv e r s a l c o n t e n t—
is c le a rly a r t i c u l a t e d in H e g e l. T h is is w h y h e c a n c la im : " I n th e s e c o n f lic ts
a n d c o m p le x itie s t h e c iv ic s o c ie ty a f f o r d s a s p e c ta c le o f e x c e s s , m is e ry , a n d
p h y s ic a l a n d s o c ia l c o r r u p t i o n " ( I b id ., 224). T h i s s p e c ta c le , t h a t r e s e m b le s
a “m e d le y o f a r b i t r a r i n e s s ” ( I b id ., 187) is its e lf m a i n t a i n e d b y a in te r n a l,
u n c o n s c io u s n e c e s s ity w h o s e c e n t r a l e le m e n ts a r e t h e p a r t i c u l a r i z e d n e e d s
a n d th e l a b o r n e e d e d to s a tis fy th e m .
12 Hegel's R abble

T h e c a p a c ity t h a t e m e r g e s h e r e , a n d o n e t h a t is s p e c ific a lly h u m a n , is th e

p o s s ib ility o f r e f le c tin g th e c ir c le o f c o n c r e te n e e d s t h a t is p r e d e t e r m i n e d
b y i n s t i n c t a n d to a c h ie v e a m u lt ip lic a t io n of n e e d s b y w ay o f a n a ly s is a n d
d i f f e r e n tia tio n . C iv il s o c ie ty is th e r e f o r e a ls o a n a l l- e m b r a c in g d if f e r e n tia ­
t io n o f n e e d s t h a t r e s u lts f r o m th o s e h u m a n c a p a c itie s t h a t a r e m a r k e d by
a n a f f ilia te d d if f e r e n t i a t i o n o f c o n d i tio n s o f l a b o r a n d p r o d u c t i o n . W ith th e
d if f e r e n t i a t i o n o f n e e d s , th e m e a n s o f s a tis f y in g th o s e n e e d s a r e th e m s e lv e s
d if f e r e n tia te d , a n d t h e s e e m in g ly c o n t in g e n t d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e p r o d u c ts
o f th o s e o t h e r s w h o s a tis f y m y n e e d s b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y a n d u n iv e rs a l.
“ [ E v e r y t h i n g p a r t i c u l a r b e c o m e s s o m e t h i n g s o c ia l” ( Ib id ., 189) i n s o f a r as
t h e s a tis f a c tio n o f m y p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s n e c e s s ita te s t h a t I w o rk a n d in th is
w ay c o n t r i b u t e to th e s a tis f a c tio n o f t h e n e e d s o f e v e r y o n e . E v e ry o n e e n jo y s ,
p r o d u c e s a n d a c q u ir e s f o r h i m s e l f a n d p r o d u c e s th e r e w ith a t th e s a m e tim e
t h e s a tis f a c tio n o f t h e n e e d s of th e o t h e r s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h is d if f e r e n tia tio n
lo g ic a lly im p lie s a d is s e c tio n o f th e p r o c e s s e s o f l a b o r th a t c a u s e s l a b o r to
b e c o m e s im p le r a n d u lti m a t e ly m o r e m e c h a n ic a l, “u n t i l fin a lly t h e h u m a n
b e i n g is a b le to s t e p a s id e a n d le t a m a c h in e ta k e h is p la c e ” ( I b id ., 191).
T h e d e c is iv e th e s is is a s fo llow s: f r o m a c e r t a i n h is to r ic a l- lo g ic a l m o m e n t
in t h e n e c e s s a r y e c o n o m ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t o n w a r d s , c iv il s o c ie ty c a n n o t g r a n t
e v e r y o n e th e a c c e s s to l a b o r a n d t h e r e w ith th e a u t o n o m o u s a s s u r a n c e o f
s u b s is te n c e . T h i s h is to r ic a l m o m e n t is t h e b e c o m in g - in d u s t r ia l o f l a b o r in
t h e f a c to r y in w h ic h t h e m a c h in e ta k e s t h e p la c e o f t h e h u m a n b e in g . I f th e
d y n a m ic s o f civ il s o c ie ty is u n t r a m m e l e d in its e f f e c ts it p r o d u c e s a c o n s ta n tly
e n l a r g e d p o p u l a t i o n a n d a t t h e s a m e tim e a c o n s ta n t ly d i m i n i s h e d p o s s ib il­
ity o f m a i n t a i n i n g s u b s is te n c e s . A c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is is “d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e
w e a lth ” ( I b id ., 221) in t h e h a n d s o f a few, a n d r e c ip r o c a lly a n a u g m e n ta tio n
o f " d e p e n d e n c e a n d d is tr e s s ” in “t h e c la s s tie d t o w o rk o f t h a t s o r t ” (Ib id .).
W h a t b e c o m e s c l e a r h e r e is t h a t o u t o f th e i n t e r n a l d y n a m ic o f civil so c ie ty
t h e r e is a n u n a v o id a b le p r o d u c t i o n o f p o o r o r im p o v e r is h e d m a s s e s . W ith o u t
l im itin g its o w n e ffe c tiv e n e s s , c iv il s o c ie ty is alw ay s c o n f r o n t e d w ith t h e p r o b ­
le m o f its o w n d e v e lo p m e n t, w ith p o v e rty . A s J o a c h im R i tte r r ig h tly r e m a r k s ,
f o r H e g e l it is a t th e s a m e tim e v a lid t h a t “a n y a d v ic e to r e t u r n to a f o r m e r
w o rld " is a “w ay to ta k e r e f u g e in im p o t e n c e . . . .”9 I n e s c a p a b ly , c iv il s o c ie ty
h a s th e r e f o r e to c o n f r o n t t h e p r o d u c t o f its o w n d y n a m ic . B u t it is p r e c is e ly
u n a b l e to g r a n t th is to e v e r y o n e to w h o m it m u s t i f it is to r e m a i n f a i t h f u l to
its o w n p r in c i p le : t h a t fo r e v e r y o n e , o n e c a n s e c u r e o n e ’s o w n s u b s is te n c e by
o n e ’s o w n la b o r.
A lso th e s ta te s e e m s to b e im p o t e n t h e r e : t h e p o o r a p p e a r s a f t e r th e d is ­
s o lu tio n o f t h e f a m ily a s a n a u t o n o m o u s p e r s o n f a c in g o t h e r p e r s o n s b u t,
a n d t h is is e s s e n tia l, d o e s n o t f in d a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in a n e s ta t e t h a t s tr u c ­
t u r e s c iv il so c ie ty . W h a t is a n e s ta te ? A n e s ta t e c o n s titu t e s its e lf th r o u g h th e
m e d ia t io n o f c o lle c tiv e l a b o r a n d n e e d a n d th e r e f o r e e m e r g e s a s a lo g ic a l
p r o d u c t o f t h e e c o n o m ic a l m o v e m e n t a n d its d if f e r e n tia tio n . T h e e s ta te
 Pauper-R abble: T h e Q u estio n o f P overty 13

a p p e a r s b e s id e s th e f a m ily a s t h e s e c o n d b a s is o f t h e s t a t e .10 I l e g e l d is t in ­
g u is h e s b e tw e e n t h r e e ty p e s o f e s ta te s : 1. th e im m e d ia te o r s u b s t a n tia l e s ta te
th a t is d e d i c a t e d to t h e f o r m a t i o n o f its o w n l a n d — its r e a l e s ta t e — a n d w h ic h
is d e p e n d e n t u p o n p r o d u c t s o f n a t u r e ; 2. t h e r e f le c tiv e o r t h e f o r m a l e s ta te
t h a t m e d ia t e s th e f o r m e d n a t u r a l m a te r ia l in to m e d i a t i o n th r o u g h t h e n e e d s
a n d w o rk s o f o t h e r s a n d t h e r e f o r e b e c o m e s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d / g e t s s p lit u p in to
t h e e s ta t e o f a r ti s a n s , m a n u f a c t u r e r s a n d c o m m e r c e ; 3 . t h e g e n e r a l e s ta te
t h a t is r e lie v e d o f d i r e c t la b o r by p r iv a t e p r o p e r t y o r b y s ta te s u p p ly a n d th a t
f u lfills p o lit ic a l- r e p r e s e n t a ti v e f u n c ti o n s . T h e e s ta t e to w h ic h a n in d iv id u a l
b e lo n g s is c o n t i n g e n t b u t th a t h e b e lo n g s to o n e is n e c e s s a r y . “W h e n w e say
th a t a h u m a n b e i n g m u s t b e ‘s o m e b o d y 1 [etwas], w e m e a n th a t h e s h o u ld
b e l o n g to a s p e c if ic e s ta t e , s in c e to b e s o m e b o d y m e a n s to h a v e a s u b s t a n tia l
b e i n g ” ( I I O P R , 197). S im p ly b y b e l o n g i n g to a n e s ta t e m a n m a k e s h im s e lf
i n t o a n e l e m e n t o f c iv il s o c ie ty th r o u g h h is o w n d e t e r m i n a t i o n ; th is is c a r ­
r ie d o u t by h is o w n la b o r, w h ic h f o r m s h i m , a n d h e s tr iv e s to c o n s e r v e so c ie ty
a n d , t h r o u g h th e m e d ia t io n o f t h e u n iv e r s a l, h e s tr iv e s to c o n s e r v e h im s e lf .
N o w , w h a t d o e s it m e a n not to b e l o n g to a n e s ta te ? I le g e l a n s w e rs : “A p e r s o n
w ith n o e s ta t e is a m e r e p r iv a t e p e r s o n a n d d o e s n o t e n jo y a c tu a l u n iv e r s a l­
ity ” ( I b id .) . O r to u s e a f o r m u l a ti o n of N e o c le o u s : “[ . . .] n o t b e i n g a m e m b e r
of a n e s ta t e m e a n s t h a t a p e r s o n is n o th in g , n o b o d y .”11 T h e p o o r w h o c a n n o t
d e v e lo p t h e n a t u r a l p r o d u c t o f t h e i r o w n p r o p e r t y a n d w h o is n o t a n a r ti s a n ,
m a n u f a c t u r e r o r t r a d e r a n d c a n n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in th e p o litic a l- r e p r e s e n ta tiv e
e s ta t e c o u n t s a s n o t h i n g a n d is a n o b o d y fo r t h e r a ti o n a l p o litic a l o r d e r o f
t h e s ta te . H e is m e re ly s o c io e c o n o m ic a lly p r e s e n t, t h a t is to say h e a p p e a r s
i n t h e s o c ia l s p a c e a n d in t h e s p a c e o f e c o n o m y . B u t a s a d e t a c h e d h u m a n
b e i n g w ith o u t a n e s ta t e h e d o e s n o t s t a n d w ith in t h e r a t i o n a l p o litic a l o r d e r
o f t h e s ta te . I f h e “lo s e s s t a n d i n g ” ( H O P R , 27 1 , tr a n s i , m o d .) w ith r e g a r d s
t o its s u b s is te n c e , H e g e l c a n d e n y e x is te n c e to th e p o o r a n d to t h e w h o le
u n-estate o f p o v e rty . “ [ S ]in c e in c iv il s o c ie ty t h a t w h ic h is c o m m o n to p a r t i c u ­
l a r p e r s o n s o n ly exists i f it is le g a lly c o n s t i t u t e d a n d r e c o g n i z e d ” ( Ib id ., 22(i).
P o v e rty h a s in a n d f o r H e g e l b e c o m e a n un-estate, it h a s b e c o m e t h a t w h ic h
d o e s n o t r e a lly e x is ts b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t e x ist a d e q u a te ly . T h e r e f o r e h e c a n
n o t e w ith a b s o lu te c e r ta in ty : “T h e c o n c r e t e s ta te is th e w iio lc , a r t i c u l a t e d
i n to its p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s . A m e m b e r o f a s ta te is a m e m b e r o f s u c h a g r o u p ,
i.e . o f a n e s ta t e , a n d o n ly a s d e t e r m i n e d in t h is o b je c tiv e w ay d o e s h e c o m e
i n to c o n s id e r a t io n in r e l a t i o n to t h e s ta te ” ( I b id ., 2 9 4 ). B e in g w ith o u t a n
e s ta t e m e a n s to f a ll o u t o f th e r e p r e s e n ta t iv e f r a m e o f t h e s ta te . A g a in s t th is
b a c k g r o u n d , th e p o o r o r im p o v e r is h e d m a s s e s in H e g e l’s Philosophy o f R ight
c a n e a sily b e id e n tif ie d w ith w h a t J a c q u e s R a n c iè r e c a lls t h e p a r t sans-part,
t h e p a r t w ith o u t a p a r t.
N o n e th e le s s I s h a ll d e m o n s tr a te t h a t H e g e l d o e s e x p lic itly a n d im p lic ­
itly o f f e r p r o p o s a ls a s to h o w w e m ig h t so lv e th e q u e s tio n o f p o v e rty , a n d by
r e c o n s tr u c tin g th e s e p r o p o s a ls I w ill d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t h e d o e s n o t le a v e th e
14 Hegel's R abble

p r o b le m of p o v e r ty u n t r e a t e d — a s , f o r e x a m p le , A v in e ri b e lie v e s. T h e p e c u ­
l ia r p r o b le m th a t H e g e l r e c o g n iz e s is r a t h e r t h a t h e s e e s t h a t s o m e th in g e ls e
e m e r g e s w ith p o v e rty , th a t is c o n n e c t e d to it. A lth o u g h , a s I w ill sh o w , a ll o f
H e g e l’s s o lu tio n s f a il f o r i n t e r n a l lo g ic a l r e a s o n s a n d it b e c o m e s c l e a r th a t
t h e p r o b le m o f p o v e r ty p o in ts to a m u c h g r e a t e r p r o b le m , o n e t h a t in itia lly
s e e m s to b e m e d i a t e d b y t h e p r o b le m o f p o v e rty : t h a t o f th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e
r a b b le .
 C h a p te r 3

T he Em ergence of the Rabble from

the Un-Estate of Poverty

W ith regards to poverty o ne ca n state th a t it w ill always exist w ith in society a n d ever
more so wealth increases.
(G. W. F Hegel) 1

C iv il s o c ie ty p r o d u c e s p o o r a n d im p o v e r is h e d m a sse s . T h i s j u d g m e n t is e x p lic it
in H e g e l’s d e d u c tio n o f its law s o f m o v e m e n t. B u t b e c a u s e civil s o c ie ty in th e
o r g a n ic f r a m in g o f th e s ta te h a s to p r e s e r v e t h e e x is te n c e o f its c itiz e n , it h a s
t o c o n f r o n t t h e in e s c a p a b le p r o d u c t o f its o w n m o v e m e n t. Its m o v e m e n t g e n ­
e r a te s t h e p o o r ; th e s tr u g g le n o w is 10 f in d s o lu tio n s f o r th is p r o b le m w ith o u t
a r r e s t in g its o w n d y n a m ic . T h e t r e a t m e n t o f th is s p e c ific a lly m o d e r n p r o b le m
is th u s d e p e n d e n t o n th e m e a n s th a t m o d e r n s o c ie ty p r o v id e s w h ic h d o n o t h a lt
its o w n m o v e m e n t. O n e c a n f in d s e v e n p r o p o s itio n s in H e g e l w h ic h a tte m p t
t o b r o a c h a s o lu tio n to th e p r o b le m o f p o v e rty . A ll o f th e m , I w is h to c la im , in
a firs t a p p r o a c h , a r e , f o r d if f e r e n t i n t e r n a l lo g ic a l r e a s o n s , in s u f f ic ie n t,2 a n d
i n th e ir f a il u r e m a k e it p o s s ib le to p r e c is e ly m a r k th e p la c e w h ic h th e ra b b le
n a m e s . T h e se v e n s o lu tio n s are*: 1. t h e tr e a tm e n t o f th e p o o r b y civil so c ie ty
itself; 2. p u b lic b e g g in g ; 3 . th e r ig h t o f d is tre s s ; 4 . c o lo n iz a tio n ; 5 . r e d is tr ib u ­
t io n o f la b o r ; 6. th e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d its e th ic s (o f r e s p o n s ib le c o n s u m p tio n ) ;
7. th e p o lic e , a n d in c o m b in a tio n w ith it, r e lig io n (in th e f o rm o f c h a r ita b le
in s titu tio n s ).
1. T h e “c iv il s o c ie ty m u s t" fo llo w in g its o w n e n t itle m e n t “p r o te c t its m e m ­
b e r s ” ( H O P R , 218) a n d is r e s p o n s ib le f o r “f e e d in g ” th e m ( Ib id ., 219) b e c a u s e
i t “ta k e s th e p la c e o f t h e fa m ily w h e r e th e p o o r a r e c o n c e r n e d . . ( Ib id ., 22 0 ).
T h u s th e s u p p o r t o f t h e p o o r is d e m a n d e d o f c iv il so c ie ty a n d its o w n r e s o u r c e s ,
c a p ita l. B u t th is s e e m s im p o s s ib le , a s H e g e l c la im s in a n in f a m o u s s e n te n c e ,
b e c a u s e civil s o c ie ty is “n o t rich enough" ( Ib id ., 22 2 ) to a s s u re th e s u b s is te n c e
o f th o s e w ith o u t la b o r, th e p o o r . B u t b e h i n d th is f o r m u la is m o s t n o ta b ly th e
in s ig h t b u r i e d t h a t a r e d is t r i b u tio n o f a c c u m u la t e d c a p ita l— th r o u g h d ir e c t
ta x a ti o n , fo r e x a m p le — w o u ld c o n t r a d ic t th e p r in c ip le o f civil so c iety . T h is
p r in c ip le is t h e a c c u m u la tio n o f th e n e c e s s a ry m e a n s o f s u b s is te n c e fo r o n e 's
16 Hegel's R abble

o w n lif e by o n e ’s o w n la b o r . C iv il s o c ie ty w o u ld c o m m it a w r o n g d o in g a g a in s t
its o w n p r in c ip le a n d w o u ld th e r e f o r e b e le d in to a s u s p e n s io n o f its c o n s titu ­
tiv e c o n t in u ity o f m e d ia t io n if it w as to ta k e f r o m th o s e w h o a s s u r e t h e i r o w n
s u b s is te n c e b y la b o r i n g a n d g iv e it to t h o s e w h o a r c n o t la b o r i n g , t h e p o o r . In
H e g e l’s o w n w o rd s: “I n e i t h e r c a se , h o w ev e r, th e n e e d y w o u ld r e c e iv e su b sis t­
e n c e d ire c tly , n o t b y m e a n s o f t h e i r w o rk , a n d th is w o u ld v io la te th e p r in c ip le
o f c iv il so c ie ty a n d th e f e e lin g o f in d iv id u a l in d e p e n d e n c e a n d h o n o u r in its
in d iv id u a l m e m b e r s ” ( Ib id ., 221).
I n th is s e n s e , w ith in p o v e rty t h e c o n t r a d ic t io n o f civil s o c ie ty w ith its e lf is
c ry s ta lliz e d : it s h o u ld a s s u r e th e liv e lih o o d o f its m e m b e r s , b u t it c a n o n ly
g r a n t it b y c o m m itt in g a m is d e e d a g a in s t its o w n p r in c ip le a n d w o u ld c o n s e ­
q u e n tly h a r m th e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n d itio n s o f its o w n e x is te n c e . T h e r e f o r e it
h a s to g iv e u p e i th e r its c la im to s u p p o r t its m e m b e r s o r its p r in c ip le . B u t th e
p r o b le m e n ta ils a f u r t h e r c o m p o n e n t: n o t o n ly w o u ld s u c h a c o n tr a d ic tio n
w ith its o w n p r in c i p le p r o d u c e o u tr a g e in th o s e w h o a r e a b le to s u p p o r t th e m ­
selv es by la b o r in g ; th e c o n t r a d ic t io n w o u ld m o r e o v e r g e n e r a te in th e p o o r
t h e fa ls e in s ig h t th a t th e y a r e o n th e level o f is o la tio n , t h a t is, o f civil so ciety ,
s till lin k e d to q u a s i- u n d iv id e d , fa m ilia l c a r in g r e la tio n s . T h e r e f o r e , it w o u ld
n o u r is h n o t o n ly t h e p o o r b u t a ls o t h e b e l ie f t h a t th e y c o u ld p a r ti c ip a te in a
c o m m o n p r o p e r ty w ith o u t th e n e c e s s ity to e n t e r in to t h e r e la tio n s o f m e d ia ­
t io n th a t a r e g e n e r a t e d b y la b o r. T h e p o o r w o u ld a s a c o n s e q u e n c e lo s e th e
in s ig h t in to a n d t h e d e s ire f o r th e n e c e s s ity o f a t r u e e x is te n c e , o f a le g a l life
a n d th e t h r e a t o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a w ork-shy, lazy, c a r e le s s m a s s w o u ld a ris e .
In s h o r t , t h e t h r e a t o f th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h a t w h ic h H e g e l c a lls th e ra b b le .
T h e r e w ith o n e o f its c e n t r a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s is a lre a d y n a m e d : th e s e c o n d a ry
lo ss o f t h e in s ig h t in to th e n e c e s s a r y a n d a c tiv e a s s u r a n c e o f s u b s is te n c e th a t
s u p p le m e n ts p o v e rty . I n th is w ay th e ex c essiv e s u r p lu s o f t h e m o v e m e n t o f civil
s o c ie ty th a t is e m b o d ie d in t h e p o o r le a d s , in th e a t te m p t to o v e rc o m e it, t o a n
e v e n b ig g e r e x c e ss, to th e r a b b le . “O n e in c r e a s e s t h e ev il th a t o n e w a n te d to
c u r e ” (H P R V , 224).
2. " [ T ] h e m o s t d ir e c t m e a s u r e a g a in s t p o v e rty ,” H e g e l c la im s , “h a s t u r n e d
o u t to b e to le av e th e p o o r to t h e i r fa te a n d in s t r u c t th e m to b e g fro m t h e p u b ­
lic” ( H O P R , 2 2 2 ). T h is f o r m u l a ti o n in d ic a te s t h a t b e g g in g is a b le to m a in ta in
a m in i m a l s t a n d a r d o f a t titu d e [G esinnung] , i.e . a t le a st t h e f o r m a l s ta b iliz a tio n
o f a w ill to w o rk a n d to b e ac tiv e . H e g e l s e e m in g ly w a n ts to d e t e r m i n e b e g g in g
in th is w ay a s a r e s id u a l a n d m in o r f o r m o f la b o r a n d to c o n c e iv e o f it in s u c h a
w ay t h a t it c a n h i n d e r t h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r a b b le . W ith b e g g in g t h e r e se e m s
to b e th e a s s u r a n c e o f a m in im a l m e a s u r e o f a c tiv ity o r a t titu d e . B u t H e g e l
a ls o c le a rly s e e s th e c o n c o m it a n t a n d d a n g e r o u s e f f e c t o f a te n d e n c y to r e s to r e
p r e - R e f o r m a tio n c ir c u m s ta n c e s . T h e a lm s w o u ld r e w a r d t h e p o s t- L u th e r a n
id le r w h o d o e s n o t ta k e h is p la c e in th e m e d ia t in g fie ld o f a c tiv ity a n d w o u ld
in th is w ay a ls o p r o d u c e th e c o n d itio n f o r th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e r a b b le . T h e
c o n s e q u e n c e o f h is fid e lity to L u th e r is a r t i c u l a t e d by H e g e l w h e n h e s p e a k s o f
 T h e E m ergen ce o f th e R ab b le 17

a d if fic u lty r e la te d to b e g g in g : “S o m e o n e w h o h a s b e g g e d o n c e s o o n lo se s th e
h a b i t o f w o rk in g a n d h e th in k s h e is e n t itle d to liv e w ith o u t w o rk in g " (IIPR V ,
2 2 0 ). B u t a s H e g e l c o n tin u e s , " in civ il so c ie ty e v e ry o n e is e n t itle d to e x ist
t h r o u g h h is w o rk ” (Ib id ., 2 2 2 ), w h ic h is to say t h a t , in it o n e c a n o n ly liv e a n
h o n o r a b le lif e b y la b o rin g . T h e r e f o r e , b e g g in g , c o n t r a r y to f ir s t im p re s s io n s ,
le a d s a g a in to th e e m e r g e n c e o f w h a t H e g e l c a lls " t h e m o s t h o r r i b l e r a b b le
t h a t e v e n f a n ta s y c a n n o t im a g in e ” ( Ib id ., 223). T h e lazy, w ork-shy, d is h o n o r ­
a b le m a s s , t h e r a b b le , e m e r g e s in e s c a p a b ly a ls o w ith b e g g in g .
3. T h e r ig h t o f d is tre s s o p e n s u p a c o m p le x p r o b le m . B e c a u s e o n th e o n e
s id e t h e r e is, a s I I c g e l c la im s , if it is n e c e s s a r y f o r th e p r e s e r v a tio n o f o n e ’s ow n
life , t h e “r ig h t to life ,” th a t c a n le g itim a te a n u n la w f u l a c tio n : fo r e x a m p le , “t h e
s te a lin g o f a l o a f o f b r e a d ” ( Ib id ., 240). T h i s m e a n s th a t t h e r e is a r ig h t a ls o
in c o n t r a d ic t io n w ith a n d o p p o s e d to th e p r o p e r t y o f o th e r s . W ith o u t it s o m e ­
o n e w h o s e life is e n d a n g e r e d w o u ld b e w ith o u t r ig h ts a n d th e g r e a te s t w ro n g
w o u ld a p p e a r , n a m e ly t h e n e g a tio n o f a p a r t i c u l a r e x is te n c e o f f re e d o m . W ith
t h is H e g e l w a n ts to a v o id th e p o s s ib ility t h a t t h e r e c a n b e p a r t i c u l a r v ic tim s
o f th e g e n e r a l p r e s e r v a tio n o f ( a b s tra c t) r i g h t a s a r e s u lt o f t h a t v e ry p r e s e r ­
v a tio n .1 T h e r ig h t o f d is tr e s s is a right to avoid the victim s o f right. It c a n o n ly b e
ju s t if i e d th r o u g h th e “n e c e s sity [Afoi] o f t h e im m e d ia te p r e s e n t” (I IO P R . 125),
b u t H e g e l r e m i n d s u s in th e s a m e c o n te x t t h a t h u m a n b e in g s a r e r a tio n a l
b e in g s a n d a r e th e r e f o r e n o t sim p ly g iv e n o v e r to th e in s t a n t, to th e im m e d i­
a t e p r e s e n t. In th e n e c e s s ity o f t h e in s ta n t th e p o o r c a n c a ll u p o n th e r ig h t o f
d is tre s s a s a la st r e s o r t to r e s c u e t h e i r m in im a l lif e -p r e s e rv in g w e ll-b e in g . B ut
w ith in th e s ta te a d e e d c o m m itt e d o u t o f d is tr e s s in itia lly s till a p p e a r s in th e
f o r m o f a c r im e .5 T h e r a t i o n a l h u m a n b e in g h a s to a c c e p t th e n e c e s s ity o f th e
e x is tin g law s a n d to tr a n s c e n d h is im m e d ia te in d ig e n c e b e c a u s e “m y c o n v ic ­
tio n d o e s n o t c h a n g e th e rig h t o f o b je c tiv ity ” (H P R V , 2 4 6 ); a n d o n e c a n a d d
t h a t it d o e s n o t c h a n g e th e o b je c tiv ity o f r ig h t. T h e r ig h t o f n e c e s s ity s e e m s to
e n t a il th e p o s s ib ility o f a d e m a n d fo r th e m in im a l s e c u r ity o f s u b s is te n c e . B ut
it le a d s i n t o th e n e c e s s ity o f th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n a d e e d c o m m itt e d o u t o f
n e c e s s ity a n d a s im p le c r im e . Im p lic itly , H e g e l in d ic a te s a m e a s u r e o f n e c e s ­
sity in h is Philosophy o f R ight. It is d e t e r m i n e d by th e m a g n itu d e o f th e la ck o f
d if f e r e n tia tio n o f n e e d s .1' I f th e n e e d is solely d i r e c t e d to w a r d o n e o b je c t th e n
it r e a c h e s its m o s t e x tr e m e f o r m : d e s ire . T h e r ig h t o f d is tre s s is in fa c t a rig h t
to b e e x e m p te d f r o m w o rld ly law s. B u t th e le g itim a c y o f th e e x c e p tio n is s till
d e c id e d b y (w orldly) r ig h t itse lf. T h is e n s u r e s th e p r im a c y o f r ig h t. O n ly a
t h i r d in s ta n c e c a n ju d g e t h e c r im e th a t is c o m m itt e d o u t o f n e c e s s ity a n d , if
ju s t if i e d , g r a n t “p a r d o n [G nade]”'7 ( H O P R , 129). B u t th e r e f o r e th e m e a s u r e o f
n e c e s s ity h a s to b e in s p e c te d in o r d e r to m a k e it p o s s ib le to d is t in g u is h it fro m
m e r e c rim in a lity .
S o t h e d e e d p e r f o r m e d o u t o f d is tre s s alw ays a p p e a r s a s a c r im e t h a t r e tr o ­
a c tiv e ly c a n b e ju d g e d a s j u s t if i e d o r n o t ju s tifie d b y a c o u r t o f law . T h e c o u r t
w ill in s p e c t it in o r d e r to d e t e r m i n e w h e th e r th e d e e d w as a m e r e " m o m e n ta r y
18 Hegel's R abble

b lin d n e s s " o r n o t (IIO P R , 129). I f t h e r ig h t o f n e c e s sity d o e s n o t a p p ly t h e n

t h e r e a s o n fo r th e j u d g m e n t c a n n o t r e f e r to m o m e n ta r y b lin d n e s s e s o r to th e
“s tr e n g t h o f s e n s u a l im p u ls e ” to n o t j u d g e th e c r im in a l “a s a b s tra c tly m o m e n ­
t a r y ” b u t a c c o r d in g to h is “h o n o u r d u e to h im a s a h u m a n b e i n g ” (Ib id .). H e
h a s th u s to b e j u d g e d in th e w ay t h a t h e is “a s s u b je c t to th is sin g le m o m e n t
a l o n e ” b u t a s “e s s e n tia lly s o m e th in g u n iv e rs a l” (Ib id .). Ii is c le a r t h a t t h e rig h t
o f d is tre s s o n ly a p p lie s to a c tio n s o f d e s ir e th a t im p ly th e m o s t in te n s iv e la ck
o f a d if f e r e n tia tio n o f n e e d s . T h is is t h e su b je c tiv e c o n d itio n w h ic h o b je ctiv ely
a p p e a r s a s a n e c e s s ity [Not]. I le g e l d e f in e s d e s ir e e x p lic itly a s “im m e d ia te s in ­
g u l a r [w ill] (d e sire )” (H G P R , 2 0 0 ), i.e . a s a w ill th a t is w ith o u t a n y d is ta n c e
a n d im m e d ia te ly d i r e c t e d to s o m e th in g t h a t is e x t e r io r to its e lf a n d w a n ts it
fo r its o w n . B u t th e im m e d ia te w ill is a m e re ly n a t u r a l w ill t h a t , in o r d e r to
b e tr a n s f o r m e d in to a tr u ly f r e e w ill, m u s t b e n e g a te d . In s u p p o r t o f m y r e a d ­
in g , o n e c a n fin d in I le g e l th e f o llo w in g p a s s a g e : "im m ediate w ill; n a t u r a l w ill,
f r e e d o m — to b e w ith oneself-— th r o u g h n e g a tio n o f th e n a tu ra l w ill" (Ib id .,
3 0 7 ). A n y w ill h a s to im m e d ia te ly r e la te to s o m e th in g th a t is e x t e r io r to it (at
le a s t in itia lly ) in o r d e r to g iv e its e lf e x is te n c e , o r, to p u t it d if fe r e n tly : e v e n to
p r e s e r v e itself a s a n in d iv id u a l w ill. W h a t th e w ill u n d e r c o n d i tio n s o f n e c e s sity
w ills a s u n iv e rs a l is o n th e o n e h a n d a s e lf- p r e s e rv a tio n a s (at le ast) r e s id u a l,
th a t is, th e m in im a l r e a liz a tio n o f ( th e p a r ti c u la r ) fre e d o m ; a n d , o n t h e o th e r
h a n d , it w ills th is u n iv e r s a l in a w ay t h a t a d d r e s s e s its s e lf-p re s e rv a tio n .
In in d ig e n c e , th e n e e d th a t f o u n d s a ll in te r a c t io n s o f civil s o c ie ty r e g re s s e s
t o m e r e a n d im m e d ia te d e s ir e , d riv e . In o t h e r w o rd s , in d e s ir e , f re e d o m
r e g r e s s e s to t h e s ta te o f th e d r iv e o f a n a t u r a l w ill. In d e s ir e , th e u n iv e rs a lity
a n d t h e d e m a n d fo r s e lf - p r e s e rv a tio n (o f t h e w ill) o c c u r s in a p a r t i c u l a r a n d
a t t h e s a m e tim e f u n d a m e n ta l f o rm . I f t h e p e c u l i a r r a tio n a lity o f th e ille g a l
a c tio n p e r f o r m e d o u t o f d e s ir e a n d n e c e s sity c a n o n ly b e j u d g e d a n d f o u n d
re tro a c tiv e ly , o n e c a n h e r e d ra w a f u r t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e f r o m H e g e l's c o n c e p ­
t io n o f th e r ig h t o f d is tre s s : to h im w h o lo o k s r a tio n a lly u p o n th e c r im e (d o n e
o u t o f d e s ire ) , t h e c r im e in t u r n p r e s e n ts a r a tio n a l a s p e c t. T h is r e la tio n is
m u tu a l. T h e d if fic u lty w h ic h 1 w a n t to r e m a r k h e r e is th e fo llo w in g : th a t d e s ire
a s u n d if f e r e n tia tio n o f a ll n e e d s a n d in c o n s e q u e n c e a s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f all
a c tio n s to o n e o b je c t in tr o d u c e s in to d e s ir e a p e c u l i a r p r im a c y o f th e n a t u r a l.
D e sire m e a n s th e c o n c e n t r a tio n o f a f r e e w ill o n th e m e r e p r e s e r v a tio n o f
life . T h is c o n c e n t r a tio n r e d u c e s th e o p tio n s o f a c tio n s a n d n e e d s a n d t h e r e ­
f o r e in d ic a te s a t th e s a m e tim e , a s t h e f o u n d a tio n o f th e r ig h t o f d is tre s s , th e
r a tio n a lity o f ille g a l a c tio n s a n d a m o m e n t o f ir r a tio n a lit y w ith in th e m . I f m a n
is n o t h i n g b u t a n a b s o lu te conservare s u i w h e n d e s ir e d e t e r m in e s h is a c tio n s ,
th e n th e r a tio n a lity o f h is a c tio n s , to w h ic h th e r ig h t o f d is tre s s h a s m e re ly to
r e f e r b e c o m e s in d is tin g u is h a b le f r o m th e ir r a tio n a lit y o f a n u n f r e e a n i m a l /
B e c a u s e a s H e g e l c la im s s o m e w h e r e a b o u t th e im m e d ia te w ill: " t h e im m e d ia te
w ill is p re c is e ly o n e th a t a c ts o n im m e d ia te f a n ta s ie s a n d c a p ric e s , r a t h e r t h a n
o n r e a s o n s a n d id e a s [Vorstellungen]" (H O P R , 173).
 T h e E m ergen ce o f th e R ab b le 19

O n ly w h e n t h e r a tio n a lity p r o p e r to m a n m a k e s it n e c e s s a r y (fo r h im ) to

c o n c e n t r a t e a ll h is a c tio n s a n d h is f r e e w ill o n m e r e s e lf- p r e s e r v a tio n , o n ly
w h e n m a n fo llo w s o n e o f h is m e r e d r iv e s to a s s u r e h is s u rv iv a l, d o e s th e rig h t
o f d is tr e s s a p p ly . I t th e r e f o r e f in d s its p la c e a t t h e p o i n t w h e r e m a n a n d a n i­
m a l n e a r ly h a v e b e c o m e in d is tin g u is h a b le . It a p p lie s to ille g a l a c tio n s th a t
s tr u c t u r a lly c o m e v e ry c lo s e to w h a t H e g e l w a n ts a n d h a s to k e e p o u t o f th e
j u d g i n g o f c r im in a ls : t h e in te n s ity o f s e n s u a l im p u ls e s .9 A n y j u d g m e n t th a t
p u r e ly r e la te s to d e s ir e a s th e in te n s ity o f s e n s u a l im p u ls e s a n d in th is s e n s e
d e c la r e s a n e c e s s a r y m o m e n ta r y b lin d n e s s j u d g e s m a n , c o n t r a r y to H e g e l’s
i n te n tio n , n o t a s m a n b u t a s c lo s e to w h a t h e c a lls a “b e a s t" ( H O P R , 145).
O n e c a n f in d in H e g e l a p a s s a g e w h ic h p o in ts in th e s a m e d ir e c tio n w h e n
h e a r g u e s th a t m o m e n ta r y b lin d n e s s s h o u ld n o t b e u s e d a s e x p l a n a tio n o f
a p u n is h m e n t. H e e n u m e r a t e s t h e r e a ll t h a t h a s to b e e x c lu d e d in o r d e r to
f in a lly a d d a n i m p o r t a n t h i n t w ith r e g a r d to t h e s o lu tio n o f t h e p r o b le m I h a v e
b e e n d is c u s s in g . W h a t c a n n o t b e ta k e n in to c o n s id e r a t io n f o r a j u d g m e n t is
“m o m e n ta r y b lin d n e s s , th e g o a d o f p a s s io n . . . o r, in a w o rd , w h a t is c a lle d
t h e s t r e n g t h o f s e n s u a l im p u ls e ( e x c lu d in g im p u ls e s w h ic h a r e o n t h e b a s is
o f th e r ig h t o f d is tre s s ) . . .” ( I b id ., 129). T h e a r g u m e n t is c le a r. T h e in te n s ity
o f s e n s o r y im p u ls e s c a n n o t b e r e f e r r e d to a s lo n g a s t h e j u d g e d o e s n o t d e a l
w ith a c r im e c o m m itt e d o u t o f d is tr e s s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r ig h t o f d is tr e s s d o e s
n o t j u d g e m a n a c c o r d in g to h is h o n o r a s a h u m a n b e i n g b u t a s in f a m o u s . A
h a n d w r itt e n n o te o i H e g e l is q u ite te llin g in t h i s c o n te x t: “I n d ig e n c e [.Vo/] is
a s a c r e d w o rd , i f tr u ly ----- ” ( H G P R , 240)
I n d ig e n c e is a s a c r e d w o rd b e c a u s e it n a m e s t h e r e s o r t t h a t p r o te c ts life
f r o m r ig h t itse lf. T h e r e f o r e th e h o lin e s s o f t h e w o r d in d ig e n c e is alw ay s
a l r e a d y r e la te d to t h e lif e a p p e a r i n g in r e la tio n to it. I n d ig e n c e is a h o ly w o rd
a n d life , b e i n g in in d ig e n c e , is a h o ly life . A n d th u s is s u p p o s e d to b e p r o ­
t e c t e d b y t h e r i g h t o f d is tr e s s . B u t in t h e s a m e b r e a t h it is s e n te n c e d to b e in
t h e s ta tu s o f a m a lic io u s f o r m o f life t h a t fu lly e x p r e s s e s th e w h o le a m b ig u ity
o f t h e w o rd sacer:10 B e c a u s e t h e ju d g m e n t o f th e r ig h t o f d is tr e s s t h a t fo l­
lo w s t h e H e g e lia n a x io m , “r ig h t— m u s t h a v e life " ( I b id ., 24 1 ), p a r a d o x ic a lly ,
b y n o t ju d g in g it a c c o r d in g to its h o n o r , d e n i e s it t h e r ig h t to life . B e c a u s e
“lif e — lif e w h ic h o n ly a p e r s o n h a s , is a r i g h t . . . ” ( I b id ., 2 4 2 ). T h is m e a n s a ls o
t h a t t h e j u d g m e n t o f t h e r ig h t o f d is tr e s s a t t h e s a m e tim e p r o te c ts th e life
i t j u d g e s a n d d e n i e s it t h e r ig h t to life . T h e r ig h t o f d is tr e s s alw a y s im p lic itly
j u d g e s h u m a n b e in g s a s v ic io u s , a s m a lic io u s , a n d a s a n i m a l s . It is o n ly v a lid
f o r t h e b e i n g o f a c tio n s t h a t s te m f r o m d e s ir e a n d th e r e f o r e it is o n ly v a lid fo r
m a n a s m a lic io u s , i r r a t i o n a l a n i m a l , a s b e a s t.
A ls o it n e e d s to b e s ta te d th a t th e e x c e p tio n f r o m o b je c tiv e r ig h t t h a t is th e
r ig h t o f d is tre s s c a n n o t b e a p e r m a n e n t o n e b e c a u s e r ig h t its e lf d e c id e s o v e r
its e x c e p tio n . T h is is a f u r t h e r p r o b le m a tic c o n s e q u e n c e o f H e g e l's c o n c e p ­
tio n . I f th e r ig h t w o u ld in s ta ll th e p e r m a n e n c e o f a c tio n s o u t o f d is tre s s it
w o u ld b e c o m e less e n t itle d to b e o b je c tiv e r ig h t a n d t h e r ig h t o f o b je ctiv ity .
20 Hegel's R abble

R e la te d to i b is is a p r o b le m o f th e re v e rs a l o f q u a n tity in to q u a lity o n tw o lev­

els. If. fo r t h e p a r t i c u l a r in d iv id u a l, t h e r ig h t o f d is tr e s s is v a lid in o n e c a s e th e
m o m e n to u s in d ig e n c e is o n ly o v e rc o m e fa r the m om ent. B e c a u s e , i f t h e r e w ill b e
a r e e m e r g e n c e o f in d ig e n c e , r ig h t c a n o n ly b e c le a r e d b y a n o t h e r tr ia l. T h e
r ig h t c a n d e c id e o n ly fo r th is c a se . O th e r w is e , c o n s ta n t in d ig e n c e w o u ld im p ly
t h e c o n s ta n t p o s s ib ility o f a n u n r e s t r a i n e d le g itim a te c la im f o r th e r i g h t o f d is ­
tress. E v e ry e x c e p tio n f r o m r ig h t h a s to r e m a in a s p e c if ic a n d s in g u l a r e x c e p ­
tio n a n d d o c s n o t a t a ll im p ly a p e r m a n e n t r e p e titio n : “B u t t h e o n ly th in g
t h a t is n e c e s s a r y is to liv e n o w ; th e f u t u r e is n o t a b s o lu te b u t e v e r e x p o s e d to
c o n tin g e n c y ” ( Ib id ., 125). In a d d i tio n , th e s a m e p r o b le m r e p e a ts its e lf o n a
s e c o n d a r y lev el b e c a u s e w ith in civil s o c ie ty a n alw ay s p a r t i c u l a r m is e ry is m u l­
tip lie d in th e s e n s e o f t h e p r o d u c tio n o f t h e im p o v e r is h e d m a s s e s . O n b o th
le v e ls th e d e c is io n fo r a p e r m a n e n t j u s t if i e d a p p lic a b ility o f th e r ig h t o f d is tre s s
w o u ld c o m e w ith a q u a lita tiv e tr a n s f o r m a t io n o f r ig h t its e lf. R ig h t w o u ld lo s e
(a t le a s t by tr e n d ) b o th th e “fo rc e o f re a lity ” a n d t h e s ta tu s o f “b e i n g in so m e
w ay k n o w n ” a s o b je c tiv e ly a c tu a l. T h e q u e s tio n o f p o v e rty r e m a in s u n r e s o lv e d
b y th e r ig h t o f d is tre s s .
4 . W ith th e id e a o f c o lo n iz a tio n H e g e l o f fe rs a h is to r ic a l a n d lo g ic a l o p tio n
t h a t n e c e s s a r ily a c c o m p a n ie s civil so c iety . A f te r h a v in g s ta te d th a t civil so c ie ty
is n e c e s s a r ily d r iv e n b e y o n d its o w n lim its ," h e g o e s o n to e x p la in t h e m e a n in g
o f t h is c la im . C iv il s o c ie ty h a s to f in d “m e a n s o f s u b s is te n c e , in o t h e r la n d s"
( Ib id ., 222). B u t a t th e s a m e tim e , th e c o lo n iz a tio n o f o t h e r p e o p le s , d u e to its
i n t e r n a l lo g ic , o f fe rs n o m o r e t h a n a te m p o r a l r e t a r d a t i o n o f t h e p r o b le m o f
p o v e rty . H e n c e it le a d s in to a lo g ic o f b a d in f in ity b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t
a s o lu tio n to p o v e rty a s s u c h b u t r a t h e r a te m p o r a r y p o s tp o n e m e n t. It g e n e r ­
a te s a n e t e r n a l r e t u r n o f th e s a m e p r o b le m in t h e f ra m e w o r k o f b a d in fin ity
t h a t c a n b e d e d u c e d f r o m t h e e x te n s io n o f civil s o c ie ty itse lf. It is n o t h i n g b u t
a p o s t p o n e m e n t o f t h e s a m e p r o b le m .
5 . H e g e l d is c u s s e s th e p o s s ib ility o f g iv in g t h o s e w h o a r e w ith o u t w o rk a n
e m p lo y m e n t a t v a r io u s tim e s a s a f u r t h e r o p tio n o f f ig h tin g a g a in s t p o v e rty .1’
B ut h e is a ls o q u ite e x p lic it t h a t th is id e a w o u ld le a d to d e s tru c tiv e c o n s é ­
q u e n c e s f o r th e w h o le o f th e e c o n o m y o f so c ie ty . O n t h e o n e h a n d , it w o u ld
r e s u lt in a d is p r o p o r tio n a l in c r e a s e o f p r o d u c ti o n th a t w o u ld le a d a t b e s t to
a m e r e r e d is t r i b u tio n o f th o s e w h o a r e p o o r . I f o n e g iv e s e m p lo y m e n t to th e
p o o r th e y p r o d u c e p r o d u c ts th a t a r e g e n e r a lly p r o d u c e d b y o th e r s w h o w o u ld
t h e n w o u ld d e s c e n d in to p o v e rty . H e g e l g iv e s th e fo llo w in g e x a m p le :

In a n a r e a o f th e m o u n ta in s live 1200 fa m ilie s o f w ea v ers, th e c o n s u m p tio n

is s u c h th a t in to ta l 2 0 0 a r e w ith o u t w o rk ; if o n e n o w g iv e s e m p lo y m e n t to
th e m th e y a ll p r o d u c e a s m u c h a s 1 2 0 0 c a n p r o d u c e , b u t th e y c o n s u m e w h at
a m e r e 1000 c a n a c c o m p lis h a n d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is 2 0 0 o t h e r fa m ilie s
lo s e t h e i r w o rk ; th e o n ly d if f e r e n c e is t h a t 2 0 0 a r e h e lp e d a n d in c o n tr a s t
2 0 0 o t h e r s b e c o m e b e g g a r s . (H V O R L 4, (512)
 i h e Em ergence o f th e R ab b le 21

T h e r e d is t r i b u tio n th u s s tr u c t u r a lly le a d s to a r e p e a te d in s titu tio n o f t h e s ta tu s

q u o a n d d o e s n o t o f f e r a q u a lif ie d s o lu tio n to th e p r o b le m o f p o v e rty . R a th e r it
c a n e v e n h a v e e ffe c ts th a t le a d to a d e b a s e m e n t o f th e w h o le s itu a tio n . By giv­
i n g a n e m p lo y m e n t to th e p o o r , “th e e n s e m b le o f p r o d u c ti o n is in c r e a s e d . T h e
ev il [o f th is s o lu tio n ] c o n s is te d in th e fa c t th a t to o m a n y p r o d u c ts e x ist; th e
w o rk e r d o c s n o t f in d a w ay to se ll h is c o m m o d itie s . O n e th u s m u ltip lie s t h e ev il
o n e w a n te d to c u r e . B e c a u s e in th is w ay e v e n th o s e w h o f o rm e r ly f o u n d b u y e rs
w ill b e r u i n e d ” (H P R V , 2 2 4 ). T h r o u g h th is d is p r o p o r tio n a te o v e r p r o d u c tio n
t h e r e w ill c o n s e q u e n tly b e a c risis t h a t r e la te s to th e v a lu e o f all g o o d s a n d to
th e p r o d u c ti o n o f a ll c o m m o d itie s . T h e r e f o r e it h a s a d a n g e r o u s e f fe c t fo r th e
to ta lity o f t h e e c o n o m ic m o v e m e n t o f civil so c ie ty . I le g e l r e f u s e s th is o p tio n
n o t j u s t b e c a u s e it d o c s n o t a b o lis h p o v e r ty b u t b e c a u s e it h a s a n in te n s if y in g
e f f e c t o f crisis.
6 . D u e to its lo g ic a l c o n s titu tio n , t h e c o r p o r a ti o n s e e m s to in d ic a te a p o ssi­
b ility o f s u b d u in g th e p r o b le m o f p o v e rty . T h e r e f le c tin g e s ta te t h a t is t h e m o st
e s s e n tia l e s ta te o f civil s o c ie ty g a t h e r s in h is b r a n c h e s ( th e a r ti s a n , m a n u f a c ­
t u r e r a n d m e r c h a n ts ’ e s ta te s ) th e m a jo r ity o f s o c ia l ac tiv ity .13 A rtis a n s , m a n u ­
f a c tu r e r s a n d m e r c h a n ts n o w b u ild o n th e s h a r e d f u n d a m e n ts o f t h e i r m o d e s
o f a c tiv ity a n d w o rk a s s o c ia tio n s . W ith in t h e c o r p o r a t i o n th a t a p p e a r s to its
m e m b e r s a s a “s e c o n d fa m ily ” ( H O P R , 2 2 5 ), t h e p a r t i c u l a r in d iv id u a l g a in s
its h o n o r th r o u g h a m u tu a l r e c o g n itio n o f th e r e s p e c tiv e a b ility a n d f u r t h e r ­
m o re th r o u g h t h e c o m m o n a lity o f w o rk t h e r e e m e r g e s t h e “ liv e lih o o d . . .
s ta b le r e s o u r c e s .” (Ib id .). In t h is w ay th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f s e c u r e r e s o u r c e s to
w h ic h a n y a c tiv e m e m b e r c o n t r i b u te s a s s u re s th e s u p p o r t o f all th o s e m e m b e r s
w h o s in k in to p o v e rty . F o r H e g e l, in th e c o r p o r a ti o n , p o v e r ty lo s e s " t h e u n ju s t
h u m il ia t io n a s s o c ia te d w ith it. T h e w e a lth y p e r f o r m t h e i r d u tie s to t h e i r fellow
a s s o c ia te s a n d th u s r ic h e s c e a s e to in s p ir e e i t h e r p r i d e o r e n v y . . .” (H O P R .
2 2 6 ). T h e c o r p o r a t i o n a p p e a r s a s a n in stitu tio n o f p ro visio n s m e d ia t e d b y c o m ­
m o n la b o r. B ut: th e s e p r o v is io n s a r e ex c lu siv e. B e c a u s e o n ly th e m e m b e r s o f
t h e c o r p o r a t i o n c o n s titu te th e b o n d s o f s u p p o r t t h a t o n ly th e y c a n d e m a n d
i n c a s e o f e m e rg e n c y . H e r e a s u b d u in g e f f e c t o f e c o n o m y a n d o f th e p r o b le m
o f p o v e r ty is r e a c h e d . B u t b e c a u s e it is c o n s titu t e d ex c lu siv e ly b y th e c o m m o n
q u a lity o f w o rk — th a t H e g e l fo r th is r e a s o n c a lls c a p a b ility 14 [Befähigung]— it
e x c lu d e s a ll th o s e w h o a r e n o t m e m b e r s o f th e c o r p o r a ti o n , i.e . w h o a r c in c a ­
p a c ita te d . T h e f u n d i n g in c o m m o n a c tiv ity d o e s m a k e t h e c a p a c ity in to a n
exclusive c o n d itio n f o r th e p o s s ib ility o f p a r ti c ip a tio n in th e c o r p o r a tio n .
A n e x te n s io n o f th is s t r u c t u r e m a y b e f o u n d in th e a tte m p t to r e a d th e
H e g e lia n c o n c e p t io n o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a s a t t h e s a m e tim e a g e n e s is o f
a n " e th ic o f r e s p o n s ib le c o n s u m p tio n .”15 O n e p r o p o n e n t o f th is id e a is J o e l
A n d e r s o n , a n d it is n e c e s s a r y to d is c u s s it h e r e b rie fly s in c e it p r e s e n ts a r a d i­
c a liz e d v e rs io n o f th e f u n c tio n o f s u b d u in g . A n d e r s o n s ta r t s f r o m th e a s s u m p ­
t io n t h a t t h e c o r p o r a t i o n p r o d u c e s a n e d u c a t io n a l e f f e c t t h a t a c c o m p a n ie s th e
c r e a tio n o f a n e c o n o m ic c o n s c io u s n e s s o n th e p a r t o f its m e m b e r s . I n s h o r t th is
22 Hegel's R abble

m e a n s : T h e p r o d u c e r c o m e s to r e a liz e th a t h e is a ls o a c o n s u m e r . I n th is way
a n e c o n o m ic a l a n d e th ic a l in v e s tm e n t in th e p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r ty th a t w o u ld b e
u n th in k a b le f o r u n c iv iliz e d p e o p le s , b e c o m e s th in k a b le , a s A n d e r s o n c la im s.
If th e y s till sh o w “a la c k o f c o n s c io u s n e s s o f th e w ay th e u s e o f m y p r o p e r ty is
d is a d v a n ta g e o u s fo r o th e r s ”16 in a n “e th ic o f r e s p o n s ib le c o n s u m p tio n ” civil
s o c ie ty w o u ld its e lf b e c o m e a n o v e rly e n l a r g e d c o r p o r a ti o n . O n ly , th is c o r p o ­
r a tiv e s o c ie ty w o u ld n o t b e m a r k e d b y th e e s s e n tia l f e a tu r e of c o n s titu t in g a
c o m m o n p r o p e r ty . R a th e r it w o u ld a p p e a r in th e f o r m o f a n e d u c a t io n a l e ffe c t
a n d th e e m e r g in g e th ic s o f e c o n o m ic a lly r e s p o n s ib le c o n s u m e r s w o u ld b e its
s u b s ta n tia l r e s u lt. In A n d e r s o n , th is c o n s e q u e n c e is d e s c r ib e d a s follow s: “T h e
g e n e r a l p r in c ip le , h o w ev e r, is th a t a s o c ie ty w ith s ta b le e m p lo y m e n t p a t te r n s
w ill b e a s o c ie ty in w h ic h c o n s u m e r s p u t t h e i r m o n e y w h e r e t h e j o b s a r e .”17T h e
a tte m p t of civil s o c ie ty to b e c o m e s ta te ,18 a s M a rx d e f in e d t h e c o r p o r a tio n ,
w o u ld th e n h a v e b e e n r e a liz e d . T h e r a tio n a l s ta te w o u ld b e tr a n s f o r m e d in to
a g e n e r a l s o c ie ty - c o r p o r a tio n a n d its c o r r e s p o n d i n g e c o n o m ic a l r e a s o n . B ut
t h e s o o th i n g a s s u r a n c e o f c e r ta in o f t h e s o c ia l d o m a in s th a t th e c o r p o r a ti o n is
a b le to i n t r o d u c e e v e n in th is tig h t e n e d d ia le c tic of p r o d u c e r s a n d c o n s u m e r s
h a s a sp e c ific , q u a lif ie d f o r m of p r o d u c ti o n — w h ic h is to say, a c a p a c ity — a s its
p r e c o n d itio n . T h e c o r p o r a ti o n is a b le to g r a n t th e s e c u r ity of its m e m b e r s . B ut
it k n o w s th e p o o r o n ly a s fo rm e r , c a p a b le p r o d u c e r s . O r to p u t it d if fe r e n tly :
it o n ly f e e d s a n d s u p p o r ts th e p o o r t h a t it k n o w s. H e g e l's c o n c e p t io n o f th e
c o r p o r a ti o n e x c lu d e s th o s e th a t a r e n o t c a p a b le m e m b e r s o f it; A n d e r s o n ’s
r e a d i n g of it e x c lu d e s th o s e w h o h a v e a n d h a v e h a d n o e m p lo y m e n t a n d w h o
t h e r e f o r e la c k “im m e d ia te a s s e ts (c a p ita l) ” ( H O P R , 192) a n d a d e v e lo p e d
c a p a c ity . T h e c o r p o r a t i o n alw ays k n o w s a r e m a in d e r a n d th is r e m a i n d e r is th e
p o v e r ty o f th o s e th a t it d o e s n o t know .
H e r e a f u r t h e r d if f e r e n tia tio n o f t h e c o r p o r a ti o n b e c o m e s n e c e s sa ry . T h is
c o m e s o u t o f t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e sp e c ific r ig h t o f t h e c o r p o r a ti o n . B e c a u s e
it h a s th e “r ig h t . . . to lo o k a f te r its o w n in te r e s ts w ith in its o w n s p h e r e , . . . to
a d m it m e m b e r s q u a lif ie d o b je c tiv e ly by th e r e q u is ite sk ill a n d r e c titu d e , in th e
n u m b e r s d e t e r m i n e d b y th e g e n e r a l c o n te x t . . .” (Ib id ., 2 2 4 - 2 5 ). D o m e n ic o
L o s u r d o h a s r e c o n s tr u c te d in g r e a t d e t a il th e g e n e s is o f th e lib e r a l th e o r i e s o f
t h e V o rm a e rz -p o litic s , a n d it is th a n k s to h is w o rk t h a t w e c a n n o w u n d e r s t a n d
m o r e c le a rly h o w th e c o n c e p tio n o f th e c o r p o r a ti o n in th e H e g e lia n Philosophy
o f R ight c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d as a n o r g a n iz a tio n a l m o d e l a n d p o litic a l in s t r u ­
m e n t o f a w o r k in g c la ss a t th e tim e o f its f o r m a t i o n . F o r th e w o r k in g c la ss, th e
c o r p o r a ti o n a d o p ts a f u n c ti o n th a t s h o u ld n o t b e u n d e r e s tim a te d . L o s u r d o
r e a d s t h e H e g e lia n e x p l a n a tio n s o f t h e c o r p o r a ti o n a s a p a r a d ig m a t ic sk e tc h
o f a p r o to - t r a d e u n i o n th a t w o u ld p u t th e w o rk e r e s ta te in a p o s itio n to g e n e r ­
a t e a f o r m o f o r g a n iz a tio n th a t, o n th e o n e h a n d , c o u ld d is ta n c e its e lf f r o m
t h e fo ssiliz e d s tr u c t u r e s o f th e m e d ie v a l sy ste m o f g u ild s a n d c r a f ts a n d w o u ld
th e r e f o r e b e a b le , o n th e o th e r , to in f lu e n c e e c o n o m ic a l f a c to rs a s la b o r in g
tim e r e g u la tio n s , w a g e s a n d f u r t h e r g e n e r a l d e t e r m in a tio n s th a t a r e lin k e d to
 T h e E m ergen ce o f th e R ab b le 23

t h e w o rk e rs ’ e s ta te . A s L o s u r d o h a s sh o w n , t h e v e h e m e n t d e fe n siv e r e a c tio n s
th a t a r e n o t o n ly d i r e c t e d a g a in s t w o rk e rs a s s o c ia tio n s in th e p e r i o d o f th e ir
f o r m a tio n b u t a ls o a g a in s t th e H e g e lia n Philosophy o f R ig h t c a n b e c o n v in c ­
in g ly r e a d a s s y m p to m s o f s u c h a p o ssib ility . L o s u r d o r ig h tly s ta te s th a t “w ith
t h e d ia g n o s is o f th e m e rc ile s s n e s s o f th e d ia le c tic s [ th a t le a d s to t h e in e s c a p -
a b ility o f p o v e rty in c iv il so c ie ty ] . . . n o t h i n g r e m a in s b u t t h e s o lid a r ity o f th e
m e m b e r s o f a c e r ta in c a te g o r y o f w o rk e r w h ic h d o e s n o t a b o lis h p o v e r ty b u t to
a lle v ia te it."20 B u t h e n e g le c ts to ta k e in to c o n s id e r a t io n o n e e s s e n tia l c a te g o r y
in th e c o n s titu tio n o f s o lid a rity . B e c a u s e s o lid a r ity c a n o n ly b e c o n c e iv e d o f
in H e g e lia n te r m s a s a sp e c ific f o rm o f s h a r e d p r o fe s s io n a l e th ic s [Standesehre]
w ith in th e c o r p o r a ti o n t h a t c a n o n ly r e s u lt o n c o n d itio n t h a t a n o t h e r q u a lity
b e p r e s e n t. H e r e t h e c a te g o r y o f r e c titu d e p la y s a c e n tr a l ro le . T h is c a n b e
c le a rly s h o w n b y r e f e r r i n g to t h e fa c t t h a t b e f o r e a n e w m e m b e r is a f f ilia te d
w ith t h e c o r p o r a ti o n h is r e c titu d e h a s to b e d e t e c te d b y a n in s p e c tio n . I f r e c ti­
t u d e is th e v ir tu e th a t “d is p la y s its e lf so le ly a s th e in d iv i d u a l’s c o n f o r m ity w ith
t h e d u tie s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s to w h ic h h e b e l o n g s . . ."2I (1ÏO P R ,
192, t r a n s . m o d .), th e n b y in v e s tig a tin g r e c titu d e , t h e e c o n o m ic a l e f f e c ts o f th e
d y n a m ic s o f civil s o c ie ty r e t u r n th r o u g h th e b a c k d o o r .
R e c titu d e is, a s a r e s u lt o f its s tr u c t u r e , o n e o f th e f o rm s o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e
o f t h e g o o d w h o s e b a s ic d e t e r m in a tio n H e g e l s ta te d in a h a n d w r itt e n n o te
t o p a r a g r a p h 18: “a .) g o o d , w h a t is in a d e q u a c y w ith m y e n d , f o r e x a m p le
m y s e n tim e n t— p a r a d ig m ; ß.) th e g o o d — a d e q u a c y o f th e w ill to its e lf . . .”
(H G P R , 6 9 ). A d e q u a c y th e r e f o r e c a n b e u n d e r s to o d a s th e c o n f o r m ity o f th e
p a r t i c u l a r w ill w ith o b je c tiv ity . R e c titu d e as th e f o r m o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e
g o o d m e a n s in th is c o n t e x t a ls o th e a d e q u a c y to th e d u tie s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e
c ir c u m s ta n c e s , w h ic h a ls o m e a n s c o n f o r m ity to th e m . T h is c o n f o r m ity is th e
o b je c t o f th e te s t th a t c o m e s b e f o r e a n y a f f ilia tio n w ith a n y c o r p o r a ti o n . T h e
te s tin g o f in d iv id u a l r e c t i t u d e o p e r a te s fo r H e g e l w ith th e d is tin c tio n o f d ay
l a b o r e r [Tage/öhnei] a n d m e r c h a n t o r c r a f ts m a n [G ewerbsmann], w h ic h is to say
w ith th o s e w h o “a r e o r w a n t to b e c o m e m a s te rs " a n d th o s e w h o a r e n o t o n e a n d
d o n o t w a n t to b e c o m e o n e . “T h e e le m e n ts n e e d to h a v e a c e r ta in s k illfu ln e s s
[Geschicklichkeit] . . . o n e th e r e f o r e e x a m in e s w h o w a n ts to b e in th a t p a r ti c u la r
t r a d e ” ( H V O R I .4 , 629) a n d te s ts th e ir c a p a c itie s . I f th e c o r p o r a ti o n e x a m in e s
its m e m b e r s it te s ts t h e i r f u n d a m e n ta l a d e q u a c y to th e d u tie s o f th e c ir c u m ­
sta n c e s . I n s h o r t: it e x a m in e s th a t w h ic h H e g e l c a lls a t titu d e o r c o n v ic tio n
[G esinnung]. I f r e c titu d e is t h a t “w h ic h m a y b e d e m a n d e d o f h im b y law o r c u s­
to m " (H C )P R , 157), th is m e a n s t h a t th e e x a m in a tio n o f w h e th e r o r n o t s o m e ­
o n e lives in a w ay t h a t is a d e q u a t e to th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s is a t th e s a m e tim e o n e
t h a t in v e s tig a te s w h e th e r th is s o m e o n e a ls o f u lfills th e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i tio n s to
d e v e lo p a f e e lin g o f s e lf [Selbstgefühl]. T h e f e e lin g o f s e lf w ith in t h e c o r p o r a ­
tio n m e a n s to b e id e n tic a l w ith t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e s a m e c o r p o r a ti o n
a n d to r e c o g n iz e t h e g e n e r a l r e s o u r c e s .22 H o w ev er, th e e x a m in a tio n o f th e
a d e q u a c y o f th e a t titu d e o f t h e in d iv id u a l n e c e s s a rily e x c lu d e s th o s e w h o a r e
24 Hegel's R abble

n o t m a s te r s a n d d o n o t w a n t to b e c o m e m a s te r s — t h e p o o r a n d u n e d u c a te d .
I n s h o r t: th e d a y la b o r e r o r t h e p o o r d o n o t a c t a c c o r d in g to th e d u tie s of th e
c ir c u m s ta n c e s a n d th e r e f o r e lo s e t h e p o s s ib ility o f b e c o m in g a m e m b e r o f th e
c o r p o r a ti o n . T h e a d e q u a c y o f th e in d iv id u a l to th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s in th is w ay
im p lie s a p a r ti c ip a tio n in a n e s ta te a n d th e a s s u r a n c e o f o n e ’s o w n su b sis t­
e n c e th r o u g h la b o r. B ut if, a s is th e c a s e f o r t h e p o o r , t h e a d e q u a c y is la c k in g ,
t h e w h o le p r o b le m c ry s ta lliz e s o n o n e c a te g o r ic a l s id e o f th e d is tin c tio n w ith
w h ic h th e e x a m in a tio n o p e r a te s — o n t h e s id e o f t h e d a y la b o r e r . l i e f ig u re s
a s a n in - c o r p o r a tio n 2' o f th e u n s k ille d , o f u n w illin g n e s s , o f in a d e q u a c y . T h e
p r o b le m o f e x c lu s io n f r o m th e c o r p o r a ti o n o c c u r s in t h e s a m e s e n s e a s th e
p r o b le m o f a t t i t u d e a p p e a r s a s a p r o b le m fo r civil so c iety .
A lso t h e a lle g e d o b je c tio n t h a t a d a y la b o r e r is o n ly a d a y l a b o r e r b e c a u s e
o f th e a lr e a d y f u n c ti o n in g re p re s s iv e c a p ita lis t p o litic s t h a t a t te m p ts to m a k e
a n y f o r m o f w o rk e rs o r g a n iz a ti o n im p o s s ib le 21 d o e s n o t le a d to a f u r t h e r s o lu ­
tio n . E ith e r t h e p o w e r o f c o n t in g e n t e c o n o m ic a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s a r e a g a in
i n t r o d u c e d a n d w ith it t h e d o m in a n c e o f o n e c la s s , th e c a p ita lis ts , a s H e g e l
o f te n s ta te s f r o m 1823 o n , a n d th is le a d s to a w e a k e n in g o f t h e f u n c ti o n o f th e
c o r p o r a ti o n . O r t h e d is c u s s io n s h if ts o n to a n o t h e r lev el, w h e r e it c o n c e r n s th e
p a r t i c u l a r in d iv id u a ls a n d ta k e s t h e m a s r e s p o n s ib le fo r t h e i r e x c lu s io n fro m
t h e r e s p o n s ib le a t t i t u d e — b u t t h e n o n e falls b e h i n d H e g e l’s o w n d ia g n o s is
a n d u n d e r s t a n d s p o v e r ty a s in d iv id u a lly g e n e r a te d . E ith e r o n e e x p l a in s th e
a r b i t r a r i n e s s o f e c o n o m ic a l m o v e m e n t w ith th e a r b i t r a r i n e s s o f t h e o b ta in in g
o f in d iv i d u a l in te r e s ts w h ic h h a v e e f f e c ts o n th e c o r p o r a t i o n — o n e e x p la in s
t h e a r b i t r a r i n e s s (w ith in th e c o r p o r a t i o n ) b y th e a r b i t r a r i n e s s ( o f b o u r g e o is
c ir c u m s ta n c e s ) — o r o n e e x p l a in s it by s t a r t i n g f r o m in d iv i d u a l e r r o r s ( a rb i­
tr a r in e s s ) t h a t a r e a b s tr a c tly s e p a r a t e d f r o m th e m o v e m e n t o f civil so ciety .
N e ith e r p o s itio n le a d s to a s o lu tio n o f t h e p o v e r ty q u e s tio n . A lth o u g h H e g e l
r e f u s e s b o th e x p l a n a tio n s , th e i n t e r n a l ( c o n c e p tu a l) c o n s titu t io n o f th e c o r ­
p o r a t i o n d o e s n o t o f f e r a s u f f ic ie n t s o lu tio n e i th e r . T h e c o r p o r a t i o n , d u e to its
s tr u c t u r e , r e t a i n s t h e f u n c ti o n o f a n a d m in is t r a tio n o f t h e g iv e n c o n d itio n s ,
a l th o u g h it is e n t i t l e d to r a is e th a t w h ic h t h e p a r t i c u l a r in te r e s ts h a v e in c o m ­
m o n to th e u n iv e r s a l lev el. B e c a u s e th o s e w h o c a n n o t a r t i c u l a t e a le g itim a te
p a r t i c u l a r in te r e s t w ith in c iv il so c ie ty , d u e to th e f a c t th a t th e y d o n o t p a r ti c i­
p a t e in a n e s ta te , n e c e s s a r ily a n d a p r i o r i fa ll o u t o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n .2* T h e
c o r p o r a t i o n is in H e g e l's c o n c e p t io n a r e g u l a t i n g in s titu tio n o f p ro v is io n s
w h o s e r e g u l a t i n g f u n c t i o n alw ays r e m a in s d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e g iv e n d y n a m ­
ic s o f civ il s o c ie ty ; its f u n d a m e n t a l illn e s s , p o v e rty , c a n b e a lle v ia te d b u t n e v e r
c u r e d by it.
6 . A p a r t f r o m th e c o r p o r a ti o n , t h e p o lic e a r e / t a d e c isiv e in s titu tio n o f e x te ­
r i o r p r o v is io n s .26 T h e y in te r v e n e to o p p o s e th e r e m a in in g c o n tin g e n c ie s in
t h e sy stem o f n e e d s a n d in th e a d m in is t r a tio n o f ju s t ic e , t h a t is th e le g a l s a fe ­
g u a r d i n g o f c iv il s o c ie ty in its p u r e ly f o rm a l u n iv e rs a lity . T h e s y ste m o f n e e d s
p r e s e n ts th e w e ll-b e in g a n d th e s u b s is te n c e o f th e s in g u l a r in d iv id u a l solely
 T h e E m ergen ce o f th e R ab b le 25

a s "a possibility w h o s e a c tu a l a t t a i n m e n t is . . . c o n d i tio n e d . . . by t h e o b je c tiv e

sy ste m o f n e e d s ” ( II O P R , 215). T h e a d m in is t r a tio n o f j u s t i c e ta k e s c a r e o f th e
ju r id ic a ll y a n c h o r e d s e c u r ity o f p r o p e r ty a n d th e r e f o r e o f th e a s s u r a n c e o f th e
e x t e r io r a p p e a r a n c e o f p e r s o n a lity a n d s u b la te s its in f r i n g e m e n ts a s p riv a te ly
le g a l a n d p e n o lo g ic a l j u r i s d i c t i o n . B ut a ll th is it d o e s o n ly in a lim ite d m a n ­
n e r, b e c a u s e it c a n o n ly a c t in “in d iv id u a l c a se s” ( II O P R . 2 1 5 ). I n th is way,
t h e r e is a n o p e n i n g o f th e f lo o d g a te s to th e o b s tr u c t io n o f th e u n iv e r s a l p o s ­
sib ility. T h e lim ita tio n o l th e a d m in is t r a tio n s o f j u d g m e n t a lre a d y m a rk s th e
p o lic e ’s h e ld o f o p e r a tio n . T h e p o lic e a c t p re c is e ly in th e d o m a in in w h ic h th e
p o s s ib ility o f g a i n in g o n e ’s o w n s u b s is te n c e is g u a r a n t e e d in its r e a liz a tio n . It
t h e r e f o r e a s s u re s th e p o s s ib ility «λ p o ssib ility . T h is is w hy it c a n b e u n d e r s to o d
a s a n a id to r e a liz a tio n b e c a u s e it a s s u r e s th e p o s s ib ility t h a t p r e c e d e s t h e re a li­
z a tio n o f a s in g u l a r w ill o n th e lev el o f f o rm a l g e n e r a lity . In it th e a s s u r a n c e
o f th e s i n g u l a r s u b s is te n c e b e c o m e s a le g a l c la im a n d th e r e f o r e t h e p o lic e
a c c o m p lis h th e m e d ia tio n b e tw e e n t h e in d iv id u a l a n d th e u n iv e rs a l p o s sib il­
ity. A s t h e “u n iv e rs a l a u t h o r i ty b y w h ic h s e c u r ity is e n s u r e d " (Ib id .), th e p o lic e ,
w h ile h a v in g m a n y o t h e r ta sk s, fo r e x a m p le d o p r e v e n t a n d p r o s e c u te c r im e s
a n d “p e n a l j u s t ic e ” ( Ib id ., 216). B u t b y s till o p e r a t i n g o n th e lev el o f t h e in f in ity
o f u n d e r s ta n d in g , i.e. civil so c iety , it d o e s n o t h a v e a n o b je c tiv e m e a s u r e , n o
i n h e r e n t lim it,27 th a t w o u ld m a r k w h a t is d a m a g in g , w h a t is to b e f o r b id d e n o r
w h a t is s u s p ic io u s o r d a n g e r o u s . B e c a u s e o f th is la c k o f o b je c tiv ity a n e s s e n tia l
c h a r a c te r is tic o f t h e o p e r a tio n a l d o m a in o f th e p o lic e is r e f le c te d b a c k in to it
a n d in tr o d u c e s in to its o p e r a tio n a c e r t a i n a r b it r a r in e s s , “a m e a s u r e o f o d iu m ”
(Ib id .. 216).
A lso, t h e r e is n o o b je c tiv e lim it f o r its c o u r s e o f a c tio n a n d it m a y th e r e f o r e
s o m e tim e s “s e t to w o rk v e ry p e d a n tic a lly a n d in c o n v e n ie n c e th e d ay -to -d ay
life o f p e o p le ” (Ib id .). In th e last in s ta n c e , its p r o c e e d in g s a r e j u s t if i e d by th e
u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d th e c h a r a c te r o f th e p o lic e m e n .-8 A s “a u th o r ity o f o r d e r
[O rdnungsm acht]" ( H V O R 1,3, 692) th a t w o rk in , o n a n d w ith c o n tin g e n c ie s it
is d ir e c te d a g a in s t th e a r b itr a r in e s s e s o f evil, a g a in s t a n y m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r will
t h a t o p p o s e s in th e fo rm o f a w ro n g th e g e n e r a l w ill a n d a b s tra c t rig h t. B ut
b e c a u s e th e r e la tio n s o f civil so c ie ty a r e e x te r io r o n e s , i.e . s u b je c t to c o n tin g e n c y ,
t h e r e c a n e v e n b e , in v o lu n ta rily , in th e c o u r s e o f a ju s t a c tio n , fo r in s ta n c e u s in g
m y b o d y o r m y p r o p e rty , a h a r m d o n e to o th e r s . T h is h a r m , a s H e g e l c la im s , w ill
c o n s e q u e n tly b e m o r e o r less im p u te d to m e " b e c a u s e th e th in g s th a t c a u s e it a re ,
in d e e d , m in e , a lth o u g h it is tr u e th a t th e y a r c su b je c t to m y c o n t r o l . . . ” (H O P R ,
116). U n la w fu l a c tio n s a r e th u s n o t o n ly c o n s titu te d b y th e a r b itr a r in e s s o f a
p a r ti c u la r w ill b u t a ls o b y th e c o n tin g e n c ie s o f s o c ia l life. T h e r e is a p e r p e tu a l
“p o ssib ility o f h a r m ” (Ib id ., 2 6 0 ) w ith r e g a r d to th e r ig h t o f o t h e r s in g u la r w ills
t h a t c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to a m e r e p a r ti c u la r p o s s ib ility w h ic h d e p e n d s so lely o n
a n is o la te d w ill. T h e p o ssib ility o f h in d e r in g th e re a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m is g iven
i n th e e x a c t s a m e m e a s u r e a s th e p o ssib ility o f its r e a liz a tio n .29 T h e p o lic e fin d
t h e i r p la c e in th e s tr u g g le b e tw e e n th e tw o p o ssib ilities.
26 Hegel's R abble

I m p o r t a n t h e r e is a h i n t t h a t c a n b e f o u n d in G riesh eim * * tr a n s c r ip tio n of

t h e le c tu r e s o n th e p h ilo s o p h y o f r ig h t f r o m 1 8 2 4 /2 5 . I n it I le g e l r e f e r s to th e
fa c t th a t t h e p o s s ib le h a r m th a t is p r o d u c e d b y th e u sa g e o f o n e 's p r o p e r ty is
t h e s a m e a s “th e p a u p e r ie s . . ( I I V O R L 4. 591). T h e te r m “p a u p e r ie s ” r e f e r s
e ty m o lo g ic a lly to p o v e rty , b u t a ls o to t h e a c tu a l f o r m o f c a se s in R o m a n Law
w h ic h n a m e a h a r m g e n e r a lly in d u c e d b y a n im a ls a n d th a t b y a s s o c ia tio n w as
b y a le g a l j u d g m e n t im p u t e d to t h e o w n e rs o f t h e a n im a ls . T h e d u ty to c o m ­
p e n s a te fo r th e d a m a g e s f o r w h ic h it w as p o s s ib le to file a s u it (actio depaitper-
ies) o n ly o r ig in a te d in c a s e s in w h ic h th e a n im a l a c te d in a w ay t h a t w a s c a lle d
contra n aluram s u i generis. T h is m e a n s th a t o n e o n ly h a d to c o v e r t h e d a m a g e s
in c a s e s w h e n th e ty p e a n d g e n u s o f t h e a n im a l a n d its o r d i n a r y b e h a v io r d id
n o t a llo w f o r a n a n tic ip a tio n o f t h e h a r m d o n e . T h is d u ty e x p ir e s i f t h e o w n e r
h a n d s o v e r th e a n im a l to t h e in ju r e d . T h is r e m a r k is i m p o r t a n t i f o n e is to
c o n c e iv e m o r e p re c is e ly o f t h e p o lic e o p e r a tio n ,10 b e c a u s e f r o m it o n e c a n
c o n c lu d e t h a t th e p o lic e p r o c e e d a g a in s t a n y a c tio n contra n a lu ra m s u i generis. I
w ill, a f te r a few m o r e g e n e r a l r e m a r k s , follow u p o n t h is le ad .
T h e g e n e r a l d e t e r m in a tio n s o f th e p o lic e c a n b e g r o u p e d a s follow s: T h e y
a ssist in th e r e a liz a tio n a s a ) a n o r g a n o f in s p e c tio n , s u r v e illa n c e a n d c o n tro l
(in r e la tio n to th e p a r t i c u l a r m e m b e r s o f c iv il so c ie ty ) a n d a s b ) a n in s t r u m e n t
o f r e g u la tio n a n d m o n it o r i n g (in r e la tio n to th e to ta lity b o u r g e o is ec o n o m y ).
O n e c a n c la im th a t p o lic e p ro v is io n s o n th e p a r t i c u l a r level in c lu d e in s p e c ­
tio n , s u r v e illa n c e a n d c o n tr o l a n d t h a t th e s e f u n c tio n s b e c o m e r e g u la tio n a n d
m o n it o r i n g o n th e m o r e g e n e r a l lev el. H e r e it b e c o m e s c l e a r e r to w h a t e x te n t
t h e p o lic e r e p r e s e n ts a n o t h e r p o s s ib le s o lu tio n fo r p o v e rty . B e c a u s e a s a) a n
o r g a n o f in s p e c tio n , s u r v e illa n c e a n d c o n tr o l it d o e s h a v e a b r o a d e r f u n c tio n o f
p ro v is io n s t h a n s im p ly t h a t o f p r e v e n tin g c r im e s . It a ls o e n s u r e s t h a t a n y in d i­
v id u a l m e m b e r o f a p a r t i c u l a r fa m ily e n t e r s in to t h e g e n e r a l o n e a n d b e c o m e s
“a so n o f civil society . . ." ( H O P R , 218). I f c o n s e q u e n tly th e fa m ily d o e s n o t
a s s u m e th e f u n c ti o n o f p r o v id in g th e a s s u r a n c e o f th e w e ll-b e in g o f its m e m ­
b e r s . th e p o lic e h a v e to in te r v e n e . B e c a u s e th e fa m ily a ls o a p p e a r s a s a p e r s o n ”
w ith in civil so c iety , th e p o lic e a r c a b le to a c t a g a in s t th e a r b i t r a r y a c tio n s o f
t h is f a m ilia l p e r s o n . A n d th e s e a r b it r a r y a c tio n s a r e firs t a n d f o r e m o s t a c tio n s
t h a t g o a g a in s t its o w n p u r p o s e a n d n a t u r e , a c tio n s t h a t a r e contra naluram
s u i generis. T h e p o lic e in te r v e n e , fo r e x a m p le , if th e c h ild d o c s n o t r e c e iv e a n
a p p r o p r ia t e e d u c a tio n — if s o th e r ig h t o f th e c h i ld r e n to b e e d u c a t e d a n d th e
d u ty o f th e p a r e n t s to p r o v id e th e m w ith it is u n n a t u r a l l y o r e v e n c o u n t e r n a tu -
ra lly s u s p e n d e d — o r if t h e fa m ily w a s te s its “e x t e r n a l r e a lity ” ( H O P R , 171), its
p r o p e r ty a n d in th is w ay “t h e e x is te n c e o f its s u b s ta n tia l p e r s o n a lity ” (Ib id .,
tr a n s . m o d .), th a t is c o n s titu te d by its " p e r m a n e n t a n d s e c u r e . . . r e s o u r c e s ”
(Ib id .); o r i f its o w n p r e s e r v a tio n a n d s u b s is te n c e is u n n a t u r a l l y e n d a n g e r e d .
T h e p o lic e a s o r g a n o f s u r v e illa n c e p r o te c t th e r ig h t o f th e c h i l d r e n to b e c o m e
m e m b e r s o f c iv il s o c ie ty a n d f u lfill in t h is r e g a r d a n e x p lic itly s o c io p o litic a l
f u n c ti o n . A lr e a d y th e e d u c a t io n o f th e c h i ld r e n in th e fa m ily is s u p e rv is e d
 T h e Em ergence o f th e R ab b le 27

b y th e p o lic e w h o c a n “c o m p e l p a r e n ts to s e n d t h e i r c h i ld r e n to s c h o o l, to
h a v e th e m v a c c in a te d a n d s o f o r t h ” ( II O P R , 219). A s o r g a n o f c o n tr o l it d ra w s
t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th e f a m ilia l n e g lig e n c e by d e p r iv in g th e p a r e n ts o f th e
c u s to d y o f t h e i r c h i ld r e n . T h e in te r r e la t io n o f s u r v e illa n c e a n d c o n tr o l h e r e
le a d s d ir e c tly to th e q u e s tio n o f “e x tr a v a g a n c e [ Verschwendung]” (Ib id .) a n d
c la r if ie s its r e la tio n to t h e p r o b le m o f p o v e r ty ( a n d its c o n s e q u e n c e s ). B e c a u s e
civil s o c ie ty h a s t h e d u ty to g u a r a n t e e s u b s is te n c e to its m e m b e r s , “it a ls o h a s
t h e r ig h t to p re s s th e m to p r o v id e fo r t h e i r o w n liv e lih o o d ” (Ib id .). I f a p e r s o n
a c ts a g a in s t h is d u ty a n d s ta r t s w a s tin g [ Verschwendung] r a t h e r t h a n g a in in g
its o w n s u b s is te n c e , civil s o c ie ty h a s t h e r ig h t to ta k e o v e r t h e i r g u a r d ia n s h ip .
T h is g o e s fo r all p e r s o n s . E v e ry o n e s ta n d s u n d e r t h e s u r v e illa n c e o f p o lic e a s it
p r e v e n ts h im f ro m d e s tr o y in g h im s e lf contra n a tu ra m s u i generis. T h e p o lic e as
o r g a n o f s u r v e illa n c e a n d c o n tr o l d o n o t o n ly in te r v e n e w h e n t h e r e is a sin k ­
in g in to p o v e rty m o tiv a te d b y a r b itr a r in e s s . It is n o t o n ly a b o u t “s ta r v a tio n ,”
a s I le g e l w rite s , “t h e f u r t h e r e n d is to p r e v e n t t h e f o r m a tio n o f a p a u p e r iz e d
r a b b le [Pöbel]" (Ib id .).
T h e p o lic e s u p e r v is e th e r ig h ts o f in d iv id u a ls in o r d e r to c o n tr o l t h e i r f u l­
fillm e n t o f t h e i r d u tie s a n d to in te r v e n e a g a in s t a c tio n s contra n a tu ra m et su i
generis. T h e r e f o r e th e y o p e r a t e to c o n s e r v e th e g e n e r a l p o s s ib ility of r e a liz ­
in g t h e alw ays p a r t i c u l a r w e ll-b e in g o f e a c h a g a in s t th e p o s s ib ility of h a r m . It
in te r v e n e s a g a in s t u n n a t u r a l a c tio n s b e c a u s e it s e c u r e s a n y p a r t i c u l a r p o s sib il­
ity e v e n a g a in s t t h e p a r ti c u la r i ty itself , t h a t is, it s e c u r e s t h e g e n e r a l p o ss ib ility
ev e n a g a in s t th e b e a r e r s o f th is p o ssib ility . T h e p o lic e c o m e to t h e d e f e n s e o f th e
w a stre l a g a in s t h im s e lf . I n t h is w ay, th e s tr u g g le o f p o s s ib ilitie s e v e n tr a v e rs e s
a n y ( s in g u la r) p a r tic u la r ity . B u t it is a ls o c le a r th a t H e g e l w a n ts to a v o id a f u r ­
t h e r p r o b le m h e r e . T h e p o lic e a s o r g a n o f s u r v e illa n c e a n d c o n tr o l p r e v e n t th e
e m e r g e n c e o f t h e ra b b le . B e c a u s e if t h e c h i ld la c k s e d u c a tio n o r “i f o n e allo w s
c h i ld r e n to d o a s th e y p le a s e . . th e y d e v e lo p “a d e p l o r a b le a b s o r p ti o n in
p a r t i c u l a r lik e s a n d d islik e s, in p e c u l i a r c le v e rn e s s , in s e lf - c e n tr e d in te r e s t—
th e r o o t o f a ll e v il” (H P M , 5 8 ). T h e p o lic e th u s w a n t to e r a d ic a te t h e r o o t o f all
evil** [ausreuteri], a s H e g e l w rite s e ls e w h e re , b e c a u s e it is t h a t w h ic h e n g e n d e r s
t h e r a b b le . It a tte m p ts to p r e v e n t th e r is e o f th e r a b b le b y p r e v e n tin g a c tio n s
contra n aturam et s u i generis w h ic h p r o d u c e th e c o n d itio n o f p o s s ib ility fo r its
g e n e sis. O n th e o n e s id e th e f u n c t i o n i n g o f th e fa m ily is s u p e r v is e d a n d if
n e c e s s a r y t h e r e is a n in te r v e n tio n to s e c u r e th e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f civil so ciety .
In t h is e d u c a tio n a l- p o litic a l r e la tio n , th e p o lic e s e e m to b e v ic to r io u s w h e n it
c o m e s to th e p r e v e n tio n o f t h e ra b b le . B u t o n th e o t h e r s id e , th e e m e r g e n c e o f
t h e r a b b le o c c u r s b e c a u s e o f th e p r o d u c ti o n o f p o o r m a s s e s in civil s o c ie ty a n d
n o t b e c a u s e o f in d iv id u a l o r p e r s o n a l f a ilu re s — i.e. a ls o n o t d u e to a f a ilu r e o f
t h e f a m ilia l p e r s o n . I f t h e p o s s ib ility o f s u r v e illa n c e a n d c o n tr o l o n th e p a r t
o f th e p o lic e is d e f in e d in s u c h a w ay a s to p o te n tia lly o b v ia te th e d e s c e n t in to
p o v e r ty a s t h e r e s u lt o f s in g u l a r a n d ir r a tio n a l a r b it r a r y a c tio n s , it is lim ite d
e v e n in th is f u n c ti o n . It c a n n o t e r a d ic a te t h e p r in c ip le o n w h ic h th e p o lic e
28 Hegel's R abble

o p e r a te s a n d w h ic h it a t te m p ts to p r o te c t. B e c a u s e fo r c iv il so c ie ty , p o v e rty is
n o t in a ll c a se s s u i generis a l th o u g h it is in a ll c a se s contra n a lu ra m , o r in s h o r t:
it is a c o n tr a d ic tio n . T h e p o lic e th e r e f o r e d o n o t o f f e r a f u n d a m e n t a l a b o litio n
o f t h e p r o b le m o f p o v e rty . It alw ays r e m a in s p a r ti a l a n d n e v e r b e c o m e s f u n d a ­
m e n ta l in its a c tio n s a g a in s t t h e f o r m a tio n o f th e ra b b le .
B u t th e s p e c tr u m o f th e p o lic e ta s k s in civil s o c ie ty is n o t lim ite d to s u p e r ­
v isio n a n d c o n tr o l. F o r t h e d is c u s s io n o f t h e q u e s tio n o f p o v e r ty th e s e c o n d
f u n c tio n o f th e p o lic e , b) a s a n in s t r u m e n t o f r e g u la tio n a n d m o n it o r i n g is
i m p o r ta n t. F o r H e g e l t h e p o lic e a ls o u n d e r t a k e t h e f a r - r e a c h in g ta s k o f g e n ­
e r a lly r e g u la tin g th e in te r e s ts o f t h e c o n s u m e r s o f “r e g u la tin g t h e m a r k e t”
(I IV O R I . 4. 5 9 5 ). F o r th is it h a s to c a r e fo r “s tr e e t- lig h tin g , b r id g e - b u ild in g ,
t h e p r ic i n g o f d a ily n e c e s s itie s , a n d t h e c a r e o f p u b lic h e a l t h ” ( II O P R , 218).
It c o n d u c ts p a s s p o r t c o n tr o ls ,” c a r e s fo r “c o u n t r y r o a d s , h a r b o r s , c o m m u n i­
c a tio n a c ro s s th e w a te r ” (H V O R 1.4 , 5 9 5 ), th e o p e n i n g h o u r s o f s h o p s ( Ib id .,
5 9 9 ) a n d u n d e r t a k e s t h e “p r o te c tio n o f c o n s u m e r in te r e s ts ” ( Ib id .) b y e x a m in ­
i n g t h e q u a lity o f g r o c e r ie s , m e d ic in e a n d o f th e “h e a lth o f t h e c a ttle " (Ib id .,
5 9 7 ); it a ls o c o n tr o ls t h e p r o d u c tio n o f g r o c e r ie s — by in tr o d u c in g fo r e x a m ­
p le c o m m o d ity - n o r m s . In th is r e g u la tin g a n d m o n ito r in g f u n c ti o n , th e p o lic e
a r e a ( b io -p o litic a lly o p e r a tin g ) in s titu tio n o f p ro v is io n s th a t d e v o te s its e lf to
“u n iv e rs a l a c tiv itie s a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f c o m m o n u tility ” (IIO P R , 2 1 7 ), to th e
“e s s e n tia l n e e d ” (H V O R L 4, 5 9 5 ) in w h ic h all p a r t i c u l a r e v e ry d a y a c tio n s h a v e
s o m e th in g in c o m m o n . T h is fie ld o f m a n y ta sk s a ls o in c lu d e s t h e s u p p le m e n t­
in g o f a lm s . T h e c o n t in g e n t h e lp a g a in s t p o v e rty is s u p p le m e n te d b y “p u b ­
lic p o o r -h o u s e s , h o s p ita ls , s tr e e t- lig h tin g , a n d s o f o r t h ” ( H O P R , 2 2 0 ) w h o se
a d m in is t r a tio n is u n d e r th e c o n t r o l o f th e p o lic e . It c a r r ie s o u t a r e g u la tio n
o f ( th e h a r m o f ) p o v e rty , t h a t is, a n a d m in is t r a tio n a n d a m in im a l a c c o m ­
m o d a tio n o f th e e x is tin g p o o r m a sse s . It s h o u ld b e m e n tio n e d h e r e t h a t th e
p o o r h o u s e s h a v e a d u a l p u r p o s e . O n th e o n e h a n d th e y o p e r a t e u n d e r th e
g o v e r n a n c e o f a s u b s is te n tia l m e a s u r in g d e v ic e ; in th e m o n e c a n r e a d o f f th e
s u b s is te n tia l m in i m u m o f a s o c ie ty : “O n e c a n g e t to k n o w th e m in i m u m o f s u b ­
s is te n c e in th e p o o r h o u s e s , h o s p ita ls , in th e m o n ly th e n e c e s s a r y is e n d o w e d ,
t h e r e i n it c a n b e s e e n w h a t is c o n s id e r e d to b e th e m o s t m a r g in a l m e a s u r e o f
n e e d s ” (H V O R I, 4, 6 0 8 ). O n th e o t h e r h a n d , t h e tr a n s itio n f r o m th e p u r e ly
c h a r ita b le welfare o f the streets to th e “a d m in is tr a tiv e ” ( Ib id ., 6 0 7 ) welfare o f the hos­
p ita ls ta k e s p la c e in th e s e in s titu tio n s . A s in s t itu ti o n s th e y r e p r e s e n t th e in te r ­
f a c e o f t h e p o lic e a n d th e r e lig io u s s e n tim e n t o f c h a r ity . B e c a u s e th e p u re ly
c h a r ita b le b e n e v o le n c e is c o n t in g e n t in its r e la tio n to in d ig e n c e a n d p o v e rty
a n d d e p e n d s o n th e a r b it r a r y m o r a l d e t e r m in a te n e s s o f e v e ry s in g u l a r w ill, in
its in s titu tio n a liz a tio n t h e r e is a n in c r e a s e a n d in te n s if ic a tio n o f its e ffe c ts . F or
H e g e l s u c h a n in c r e a s e is e s ta b lis h e d b y C h r is tia n r e lig io n in a tw o fo ld m a n ­
n e r : f ir s t it internally ‘in s titu tio n a liz e s ’ in a n y b e lie v e r th e f e e lin g o f c h a r ity a n d
t h e r e f o r e a c h ie v e s a n in c r e a s e in th e e ffe c tiv ity o f m e r e m o r a lity 41; it in c re a s e s
t h e welfare o f the streets. S e c o n d ly , it in s titu tio n a liz e s c h a r ity externally in th e
 T h e Em ergence o f th e R ab b le 29

p o o r h o u s e s a n d th e r e b y t h e welfare o f the hospitals g a in s a s ta b le e x is te n c e .

T h is is why, a s H e g e l c la im s , p o o r h o u s e s a n d h o s p ita ls c a n o f te n b e f o u n d in
“c a th o lic c o u n tr ie s ” (H V O R L 4. 6 0 7 ) b e c a u s e it is f ir s t a n d f o r e m o s t t h e re li­
g io u s f ra te r n ity , i.e . th e C h r is tia n o n e , w h ic h “m a in ta in s h o s p i t a l s . . . ” (IIPR V ,
2 2 1 ). T h a t a ls o t h e “e s s e n tia l re lig io s ity ” (H V O R L 4 , 6 0 7 ) o f C h r is tia n ity a n d
its d o u b le in te n s if ic a tio n o f c h a r ity c a n o n ly lim it h a r m , n o t e n d it a lto g e th e r ,
r e s u lts f r o m th e f a c t th a t it c a n o n ly p r o v id e m in im a l c a r e . I f t h e p o o r ev en
“lo se s th e c o n s o la tio n o f r e lig io n ” b e c a u s e h e c a n n o t e n t e r t h e c h u r c h “in
r u g s ” a n d i f “a ls o th e c le ric s p r e f e r to visit th e h o u s e s o f th e r ic h m o r e t h a n th e
b a r r a c k s o f th e p o o r ” ( Ib id ., 6 0 4 ),35 in th e p o o r h o u s e s — a s t h e i r f u n c ti o n as
m e a s u r in g d e v ic e of s u b s is te n c e sh o w s— h e is r e d u c e d to “m e r e s u rv iv a l.”5" In
t h e p o o r - h o u s e s th e p o o r is p r e s e r v e d « s p o o r . T h is t h e n m e a n s th a t a tw o fo ld
p r o b le m is r e p e a te d h e r e : 1. T h e p r e s e r v a tio n o f th e p o o r w h o d o n o t su b sist
b y t h e i r o w n la b o r a ls o n o u r is h e s th e ra b b le -lik e a t titu d e o f d e m a n d i n g s u b ­
s is te n c e w ith o u t w o rk 37 2. t h e a s s u r a n c e of m e r e s u rv iv a l p r e s e n ts a m e re ly
te m p o r a r y c e s s a tio n of th e p r o b le m o f p o v e rty b e c a u s e it c a n n o t a b o lis h th e
p r o b le m b u t o n ly p e r p e t u a t e th e s ta tu s q u o . T h e p o o r r e m a in p o o r a n d th e
r a b b le c a n a r is e a t a n y tim e .
O n e c a n a ls o f in d tw o th in g s t h a t a r e in t h e r e a lm of p o lic e ta s k s w h ic h a r e
c lo s e ly r e la te d to t h e p r o b le m of p o v e rty a n d th e p r e v e n tio n o f th e ra b b le .
A g a in , th e s e a r e ta s k s th a t p r e v e n t a c tio n s contra n a tu ra m s u i generis. T h e p o lic e
a r e in c h a r g e o f t h e r ig h t to s tr ik e a n d a ls o o f w h a t o n e c a n c a ll, in a m o r e
m o d e r n id io m , t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f p r o d u c ti o n . T h e q u e s tio n o f t h e r ig h t to
s tr ik e is p a r t o f t h e (m a rk e t-) r e g u la tin g f u n c ti o n o f th e p o lic e b e c a u s e in it th e
q u e s tio n o f s to p p in g th e u n h i n d e r e d e ffe c tiv ity o f t h e d y n a m ic s o f civil so c iety
a ris e s . In itia lly , all p r o d u c e r s in t h e c iv il so c ie ty h a v e t h e “in te r e s t o f s a tisfy in g
t h e i r n e e d s ” (H P R V , 217). B u t by th e fa c t t h a t t h e i r e g o is tic p r o d u c ti o n is p a r t
o f th e g e n e r a l sy ste m o f n e e d s w ith a n y s in g u l a r p r o c e s s o f p r o d u c t i o n t h e r e
a r is e s a g e n e r a l c la im fo r th e p r o d u c e r s t h a t is d ir e c te d to w a r d th e p r o d u c t
m a n u f a c t u r e d b y a n o t h e r p a r t i c u l a r p r o d u c e r . In a n y p r o d u c e r , b y a ls o n e c e s ­
s a rily b e in g a c o n s u m e r d e p e n d i n g o n th e p r o d u c ts o f o th e r s , a d e m a n d (fo r
t h e c o n t in u a t io n o f p r o d u c tio n ) f o rm a lly d e v e lo p s a n d th is c a n a ls o m e a n :
a c la im e v e n a g a in s t h im s e lf. T h e r ig h t to p r o d u c e in c iv il s o c ie ty fo llo w in g
se lfish in te r e s ts in t h is w ay t u r n s in to th e d u ty to p r o d u c e . T h is o b lig a tio n to
p r o d u c e u s u a lly o n ly “s u r f a c e s in s o m e c a s e s ” ( Ib id ., 218) a n d r e m a in s in v is­
ib le b e c a u s e it is n o “p r o p e r ly p h y sic a l n e c e s s ity . . . ” (H V O R L 4 . 5 9 8 ). R a th e r,
t h is o b lig a tio n a p p e a r s a t m o m e n ts in w h ic h th e in d iv id u a l m is u n d e r s ta n d s
h im s e lf a n d r e d u c e s h im s e lf to th e s o le ro le o f th e p r o d u c e r . In t h is w ay h e
m is a p p lie s th e (fo rm a lly ) u n iv e rs a l d e m a n d o f a n y o n e to p o s s e s s th e p r o d u c ts
o f h is o w n la b o r. H e f o rg e ts h is o w n c la im a s c o n s u m e r o n th e p r o d u c ts o f o th ­
e r s t h a t d e t e r m i n e h im . T h e f o r m a l u n iv e rs a lity a p p e a r s in a n y p a r t i c u l a r p r o ­
d u c e r a s a s p lit th a t d iv id e s h im in to p r o d u c e r a n d c o n s u m e r . T h e in te r lo c k in g
o f r ig h t a n d d u ty o n th e lev el o f civ il s o c ie ty c a n b e u n d e r s to o d a s a lo g ic a l
30 Hegel's R abble

i n te r tw in e m e n t w h ic h p r e s e n ts th e u n iv e r s a l in h e r e n t in a n y p a r t i c u l a r in d i­
v id u a l. A g a in s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f th is u n iv e rs a l c la im H e g e l c a n ju s t if y th e
n e c e s s ity o f p o lic e in te r v e n tio n in t h e c a s e o f s tr ik e s . I l e n o te s in t h is c o n te x t:
" T h e j o u r n e y m e n a g r e e u p o n t h e f a c t to n o t w o rk a n y m o r e f o r t h e i r p re v io u s
sa lary , th is c a n n o t b e a llo w e d by t h e p o lic e ” (H P R V , 21«8). B e c a u s e “th e b r a n c h
t h a t h a s b e e n c o v e r e d b y th e m m u s t b e sa tisfie d ; it is th e ir d u ty to p r o d u c e , th e
p u b lic h a s a c la im o n t h e i r w o rk a n d c a n a s s e r t it" (IIV O R L 4 . 59 8 ).
I f a n y o n e in civil s o c ie ty is a p r o d u c e r a n d a c o n s u m e r t h e n th e c la im o f
th e c o n s u m e r is s tr u c t u r a lly a c la im t h a t h e h im s e lf m a k e s a g a in s t h im s e lf
a s p r o d u c e r . O n e c a n r e m a r k h e r e t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f a n y p r o d u c e r is split
a n d th e r e b y t h e in te r v e n tio n o f th e p o lic e a g a in s t s tr ik e s is a g a in ju s tifie d as
a n a c tio n contra n a lu ra m s u i generis. I f t h e p r o d u c e r s tr ik e s h e d o c s n o t a c t in
a c c o r d a n c e w ith h is o w n in te r e s ts a s c o n s u m e r a n d th e re b y a c ts a g a in s t h is
o w n n a t u r e , h is o w n p u r p o s e a n d c la im s in civil so c iety . S tr i k in g th e r e f o r e
b e c o m e s a n a c tio n w h ic h r u n s c o u n t e r to o n e ’s o w n n a t u r e . T h e p o lic e h a v e to
in te r v e n e a g a in s t th e s e “d a n g e r s o f a r is in g u p h e a v a ls [gefährliche Zuckungen]''
( IIO P R , 217), o f s tr ik in g p a r ti c u la r i tie s t h a t d is r e g a r d th e u n iv e rs a l a n d by
s u s p e n d in g th e p r o d u c tio n a c t a g a in s t t h e i r o w n n a t u r e . In s h o r t: th e p o lic e
h a v e to in te r v e n e to le a d th e s e p a r ti c u la r i tie s b a c k to t h e u n iv e rs a l. B u t fo r
H e g e l th is m e a n s t h a t a n y le g a l ju s t if i c a tio n fo r a s tr ik e is im p o s s ib le . S tr ik in g
is n o t h i n g b u t th e se lfish p r o m o tio n o f p a r t i c u l a r in te r e s ts t h a t th e p o lic e h a v e
t o h i n d e r in t h e in te r e s ts o f t h e u n iv e rs a l, a n d th is m e a n s in th e in te r e s t o f
t h e c o n s u m in g p r o d u c e r a g a in s t th e p r o d u c in g p r o d u c e r. H e n c e , a n y fo rm
o f in n e r - e c o n o m ic a l b lo c k a g e o f t h e r e d u c tio n o f e a r n in g s o r th e p re v e n tio n
o f p o v e r ty o n th e s id e o f th e p r o d u c e r s b e c o m e s im p o s s ib le . T h e p r o b le m is
n o t o n ly in c lu d e d in th e s tr ik e b u t r a t h e r in th e im p o s s ib ility o f a n c h o r i n g a
s u s p e n s io n o f t h e u n iv e rs a l c la im w ith in t h e e ffe c tiv e sy ste m o f r ig h t.38 I f civil
s o c ie ty is “th e b a ttle fie ld w h e r e e v e r y o n e ’s in d iv id u a l p r iv a te in te r e s t m e e ts
e v e ry o n e e ls e ’s” ( H O P R , 2 7 8 ), t h e n it is c l e a r t h a t a n o t h e r t e r r a i n o f th is fie ld
o f c o n f lic t is th e i n n e r sp lit o f e a c h in d iv id u a l p r o d u c e r ( in to p r o d u c e r a n d
c o n s u m e r ) . O n th e lev el o f c iv il so c iety , it is u n t h i n k a b l e f o r H e g e l t h a t a p a r ­
tic u la rity , h e r e b e i n g th e p r o d u c e r , in c o r p o r a t e s th e c la im s o f th e u n iv e rs a l
b e c a u s e it h a s alw ay s b e h i n d h is b a c k c a u g h t u p w ith h im .
T h e la st r e g u la tin g f u n c ti o n o f t h e p o lic e t h a t is a g a in c lo sely r e la te d to
t h e q u e s tio n o f p o v e r ty is the? m a n a g e m e n t o f p r o d u c ti o n . T o c o o r d in a te th e
p r o d u c ti o n fa lls to th e p o lic e , b e c a u s e “p u b lic c a r e a n d d ir e c tio n ” (H O P R ,
2 1 7 ) is n e c e s s ita te d by th e f a c t th a t “ la rg e b r a n c h e s o f in d u s t r y d e p e n d o n
f o re ig n c ir c u m s ta n c e s a n d r e m o te c o m b in a tio n s " ( H V O R L 4 , 6 0 0 ) t h a t c a n ­
n o t b e o v e r s e e n by a n y s in g le in d iv id u a l. T h e m a n a g e m e n t o f p r o d u c ti o n th a t
t h e p o lic e a s “g o v e r n in g o ffic e " ( Ib id .) u n d e r ta k e s in itia lly m e a n s r e g u la tin g
t h e p r o d u c ti o n . Its m e a s u r e s a r e d e r iv e d f r o m th e tr a d e - r e l a te d c o n j u n c tu r e
i n r e la tio n w ith o t h e r s ta te s . T h is r e g u la tio n c o n s is ts in f in d in g “s ta n d a r d s ” to
“h e lp s u p p o s e d evils" a n d , i f n e c e s s a ry , “o p e n a n e w o u tle t" (Ib id .). T h e p o lic e
 T h e Em ergence o f th e R ab b le 31

i n t h is f u n c ti o n a r c a s o r t o f visible h a n d th a t in te r v e n e s in t h e f u n c ti o n in g o f
t h e m a r k e t if th e m o n it o r i n g o f t h e tr a d e - r e l a te d s itu a tio n le a d s to t h e d ia g n o ­
sis o f a t h r e a t to t h e in n e r - e c o n o m ic a l sta b ility . O n e c a n r e m a r k h e r e th a t th is
r e g u la tiv e ta s k o f th e p o lic e m a k e s it a p p e a r to b e a m o d e r n in s titu tio n o f p r o ­
v isio n s. It o b s e rv e s th e p r o d u c ti o n in its o w n a n d in o t h e r s ta te s a n d a tte m p ts
t o a v e rt a c r is is o f o v e r p r o d u c tio n a n d to c r e a te e c o n o m ic w ays o f re lie v in g
t h e m a r k e t o f s u r p lu s p r o d u c ts . W ith t h a t I le g e l h a s im p lic itly e x t e n d e d th e
e c o n o m ic m o d e l o f c iv il s o c ie ty in to a ll o t h e r s ta te s . It is n o l o n g e r lim ite d to
j u s t o n e s ta te , a n d th is m e a n s th a t th e e c o n o m ic c o n j u n c tu r e d e r iv e s n o t o n ly
f r o m in tr a s ta t is t b u t a ls o f r o m in te r s ta tis t in te r d e p e n d e n c e s th a t th e p o lic e
h a v e to m o n ito r.
B u t a t t h e s a m e tim e , H e g e l c o u ld n o t b e m o r e e x p lic it a s to t h e f a c t th a t
th e u n i m p e d e d c ffe c tiv ity o f civil s o c ie ty “th u s d r iv e s it . . . b e y o n d its ow n
lim its ” ( II O P R , 2 2 2 ). T h a t fa c t t h a t its o w n d ia le c tic a l d y n a m ic le a d s to th e
p e r m a n e n t s u r f a c in g o f in s ta b ility a n d im p o v e r is h e d m a s s e s d o e s n o t c h a n g e
w h e n t h i s d y n a m ic is e x t e n d e d a s a m o d e l to c o v e r o t h e r s ta te s a n d is u n d e r
t h e c o n tr o l o f a m o n it o r i n g in s t itu ti o n . T h e r e g u l a t i n g p o w e r o f th e p o lic e
h a s t h e p r in c ip le a n d th e law s o f t h e d y n a m ic o f civil s o c ie ty its e lf a s its in n e r
lim it. T h a t fo r H e g e l, th e p o lic e , d u e to t h e i r r ic h fie ld o f ta sk s is " t h e a n c ie n t
p o litic s w h ic h o n c e e x p r e s s e d th e p o litic a l c o n s titu t io n o f civil s o c ie ty a n d th e
a r t o f its g o v e r n m e n t”59 is c le a r. H o w ev er, t h e p o lic e c o n s ta n tly s tr u g g le s w ith
t h e te n d e n c ie s a n d t h e e ffe c tiv ity o f civil so c iety , u n d e r c o n d itio n s t h a t a p r io r i
m a k e it im p o s s ib le f o r it to w in . B e c a u s e it p e r m a n e n tl y a tte m p ts to s te m th e
d a n g e r s o f th e e c o n o m ic e x c e s s e s a n d o f e c o n o m ic d is i n te g r a t io n it b e c o m e s
c le a r t h a t a s a “m e d iu m o f a d m in is t r a tio n ” it is d ir e c te d a g a in s t th e “e x is te n c e
o f t h e ra b b le .” T h e r a b b le th e n n o lo n g e r r e p r e s e n ts , a s it d i d f o r t h e " p h ilo ­
s o p h ic a l tr a d i t i o n o f p o litic s ,” t h e “p o s itiv e lim it” w ith w h ic h s ta te ju s t if i e d
its e lf h isto ric a lly , b u t th e e le m e n t t h a t it a tte m p ts to “in te g r a te .”40 T h a t th is
a t te m p t p e r m a n e n tl y fails d u e to th e s t r u c t u r a l ir re s o lv a b ility o f th e p r o b le m
o f p o v e r ty is b e c a u s e th e p o s s ib ilitie s o f r e g u la tio n a r e alw ays p r e c o n d itio n e d
b y th e m o v e m e n t o f civil s o c ie ty t h a t c o n s ta n tly p r o d u c e s L a z z a ro n i.
 C h a p te r 4

Transition: From the Poor to the Rabble

'T h e v u lg a r' [P ö b e l] u s q u e r e c u r r e t.
(Friedrich N ietzschef

W h a t d o a ll th e s e s o lu tio n s sh o w ? N o n e o f th e m e lim in a te s t h e p r o b le m o f
p o v e rty b e c a u s e “t h e f r e e p la y o f fo rc e s in c a p ita lis t so c iety , w h o s e lib e r a l e c o ­
n o m ic th e o r y H e g e l h a d a c c e p te d , h a s n o a n t id o te fo r th e fa c t t h a t p o v e rty ”
e x ists (A T S , 2 9 ). T h e s u p p o r t by civil s o c ie ty is u n s u it a b le b e c a u s e it e i t h e r c o n ­
t r a d i c ts its o w n p r in c ip le ( a n d w o u ld b e a d e e d contra naturam ) o r p r o d u c e s a
w ro n g a t t i t u d e a n d c o n v ic tio n in th o s e w h o w o u ld re c e iv e it; b e g g in g a ls o fails
d u e to t h is p r o b le m o f a ttitu d e ; c o lo n iz a tio n is n o t h i n g b u t a r e t a r d a t i o n o f th e
p r o b le m a n d n o t a f u n d a m e n ta l s o lu tio n ; r e d i s t r i b u t e d la b o r p r o d u c e s a c ris is
o f o v e r p r o d u c tio n ; th e r ig h t o f d is tre s s is o n ly v a lid in s in g u l a r c a s e s a n d at th e
s a m e tim e r e d u c e s m a n to th e s ta tu s o f a n a n im a l f ig h tin g f o r its m e r e su rv iv al;
th e p a r ti c ip a tio n in th e c o r p o r a ti o n g e n e r a te s o n ly a n ex c lu siv e f o r m o f s u p ­
p ly in g th e p o o r t h a t e x c lu d e s th o s e w h o d o n o t h a v e th e n e c e s s a r y c a p a c ity ;
th e p o lic e r e m a i n alw ays b o u n d to th e p r in c ip le o f civil s o c ie ty th a t its e lf is
t h e r e a s o n fo r t h e p r o d u c ti o n o f p o o r m a sse s . P o v e rty “r e m a in s i n h e r e n t a n d
e n d e m ic to m o d e r n s o c ie ty ” (Ib id .. 153) a n d c o n s e q u e n tly t h e p o o r f a ll o u t
o f th e b in d in g m e c h a n is m o f civil s o c ie ty a n d th e s ta te b e c a u s e th e y d o n o t
fo llo w t h e c e n tr a l im p lic it im p e r a tiv e o f th e Philosophy o f R ight, n a m e ly to b e
so m e b o d y . “W h e n w e say t h a t a h u m a n b e in g m u s t b e ’s o m e b o d y ' [etwas], w e
m e a n t h a t h e s h o u ld b e lo n g to a s p e c if ic e s ta te , s in c e to b e s o m e b o d y m e a n s
t o h a v e s u b s t a n tia l b e in g ” ( H O P R , 197).
T h e p o o r , by b e in g d e p r iv e d o f p a r ti c ip a tio n in a n e s ta te , is n o lo n g e r s o m e ­
t h in g , b u t is r a t h e r a n o t h i n g t h a t s u r f a c e s w ith in civil so c iety . T h e un-estate o i
p o v e rty fa lls o u t o f a ll in s t itu ti o n a l a n d r e p r e s e n ta tiv e f o rm s o f in te g r a tio n a n d
s ta n d s a s a n u n n a t u r a l fa c t, lik e a n ir r e m o v a b le o b s ta c le in t h e s o c ia l e c o n o m y
a n d in th e e c o n o m ic a lly m e d ia te d s o c ia l s p h e r e o f th e s ta te . In th is r e g a r d o n e
is j u s t if i e d in c la im in g t h a t th e p o o r c a n b e c o n c e iv e d o f a s a p a r t w ith o u t a
p a r t in R a n c iè r e 's s e n s e o r a s in g u l a r ity in t h e te r m s o f A la in B a d io u 2 b e c a u s e
it is p r e s e n t s o c ia lly j u s t a s m u c h a s it is p r e s e n t e c o n o m ic a lly , b u t a t t h e s a m e
 T ran sitio n : F rom th e P oor to th e R abble 33

t im e it is e x c lu d e d f r o m th e m e c h a n is m s o f r e p r e s e n ta t io n — th a t a r c d e r iv e d
f r o m t h e p a r ti c ip a tio n in a n e s ta te . R a n c ic r c a n d B a d io u a r e b o th in a g r e e ­
m e n t th a t th is s t r u c t u r a l p la c e in w h ic h t h e p o o r a p p e a r c a n b e d e s c r ib e d as
a p la c e o f tr a n s f o r m a tio n ; a p la c e in w h ic h s o m e th in g c a n h a p p e n , p re c ise ly
d u e to its p e c u lia r la c k . W h a t b e c o m e s c le a r in t h e Philosophy o f R ig h t is t h a t a ll
o f th e s o lu tio n s p r o p o s e d b y I le g e l p e r p e t u a t e a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l p r o b le m :
t h a t th e u n r e c o v e r a b ility o f t h e q u e s tio n of p o v e r ty le a d s to th e p e r m a n e n t
a n d i r r e f u ta b le p o s s ib ility o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e r a b b le . O r to p u t it d if ­
fe re n tly : f r o m th e un-estate o f p o v e rty le a d s a c o n s ta n tly p o s s ib le w ay to th e
fo r m a tio n o f t h e r a b b le . T h a t a ll of H e g e l’s s o lu tio n s fail in d ic a te s t h a t h is
fa m o u s c la im th a t civil s o c ie ty is n e v e r r ic h e n o u g h a n d n e v e r h a s e n o u g h
o f its o w n p e c u lia r p r o p e r ty h a s to b e r e a d in tw o w ays: O n th e o n e h a n d , as
a lre a d y d is c u s s e d , o n e n e e d s to r e a d it in a w ay th a t civil s o c ie ty is n o t a b le to
liv e u p to its o w n e n t itle m e n t a n d a s s u r e t h e s u b s is te n c e o f e v e ry in d iv id u a l.
B u t o n th e o t h e r h a n d — a n d th is c a n b e s h o w n h e r e — th e H e g e lia n j u d g m e n t
h a s to b e r e a d a s c la im t h a t civil so c ie ty is in te r n a lly m a r k e d b y a la c k th a t it
c a n n o t o v e rc o m e . “W h e n t h e civil s o c ie ty is in a s ta te o f u n i m p e d e d a c tiv ity ”
(H O P R , 2 2 0 ), th e e ffe c tiv ity o f its in s c r ib e d la c k is p e r p e t u a t e d a n d th a t le a d s
to th e p r o d u c ti o n o f p o o r a n d im p o v e r is h e d m a s s e s in c o n s e q u e n c e o f w h ic h
t h e r a b b le c a n e m e r g e .
In th is w ay civil s o c ie ty is in c e s s a n tly c o m p e lle d to r e c o g n iz e t h e in e v ita b le
p r o d u c ti o n o f th a t w h ic h it c a n n o t r e c o g n iz e . If o n ly t h a t w h ic h is “c o m m o n
t o p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n s r e a lly exists [a n d ] is le g a lly c o n s titu t e d a n d r e c o g n iz e d ”
( Ib id ., 22(>), o n e c a n d is c e r n in th is c o n s te lla tio n , in v o k e d b y th e p o v e rty p r o b ­
le m , th e fa c t t h a t w ith in H e g e lia n p h ilo s o p h y s o m e th in g e ls e b e c o m e s t h in k a ­
b le , a ‘s o m e th in g ’ w h ic h d o e s n o t e x is t (as a le g ally c o n s titu t e d a n d r e c o g n iz e d
e n tity ) b u t t h a t is s till ‘th e r e .’5 T o u se a w o rd o f A d o r n o ’s: t h e r a b b le is e m e r g ­
i n g a n d “s p ir it k n o w s t h a t w ith o u t b e i n g p e r m i t t e d to k n o w it . . .” (A T S, 26).
In th is c o n te x t H e g e lia n r e m a r k t h a t t h e “m o v e m e n t o f r e c o g n itio n a n d o f
b e i n g r e c o g n iz e d ” is “a s s o c ia l f o r m o f m e d ia tio n e m b e d d e d in th e m o v e m e n t
o f th e e c o n o m ic p ro c e s s e s " ' a ls o g a in s a n e n l a r g e d m e a n in g . T h e s t r u c t u r a l
la c k in c iv il s o c ie ty is a c te d o u t in th e e x c e ssiv e p r o d u c ti o n o f its o w n o p p o s ite .
T h e i n t e r n a l r a tio n a lity o f its o w n n a t u r e a p p e a r s fo r its e lf in in c o r p o r a t io n s
o f its o w n ir r a tio n a lity . C iv il s o c ie ty a p p e a r s in th is p e r s p e c tiv e a s a n o v e rs iz e d
n e tw o r k o f a c tio n contra n a tu ra m su i generis, o r to p u t it d if fe r e n tly : t h e n a t u r e
a n d p u r p o s e o f civil s o c ie ty is o p p o s e d to its o w n n a t u r e ; its o w n n a t u r e is
c o u n t e r n a t u r a l . B e c a u s e i f p o v e rty is in civil s o c ie ty a s o r t o f c o u n t e r n a t u r e
t h a t is d e p r iv e d o f t h e m e d ia t in g r e la tio n s o f w o rk a n d e x c h a n g e , it is still
n e c e s s a r ily p r o d u c e d b y th e n a t u r e o f civil so c iety . S u i generis it e n c o u n te r s its
o t h e r in p o v e rty . S u i generis et contra n a tu ra m : th is is th e f o r m u la o f c iv il so c iety
itse lf. T h a t th e p u r p o s e o f civil s o c ie ty is to p r o d u c e w h a t c o n t r a d ic t s its o w n
n a t u r e in s c r ib e s in to H e g e l’s th o u g h t th e n e c e s sity th a t “t h e s ta te is a p p e a le d
to in d e s p e r a ti o n a s a s e a t o f a u t h o r i ty b e y o n d th is p la y o f fo rc e s ” (A T S , 29).
 Hegel's R abble

F o r, “a deus ex m achina is n e e d e d , w h ic h b in d s to g e th e r n e c e s sity a n d c o n tin ­

g e n c y in law. T h is law t h a t r e c o n c ile s th e s o c ia l a n t a g o n is m s a n d m e d ia te s
t h e m o v e m e n t o f th e w h o le a g a in w ith th e m o v e m e n t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r is, fo r
H e g e l, th e s ta te . .
T h e c e n t r a l in s t r u m e n ts o f t h e s ta te ’s in f lu e n c e a r e t h e in s t itu ti o n s — w ith
t h e e x c e p tio n o f t h e j u d i c a t u r e — t h a t a r c g iv e n in c iv il s o c ie ty f o r lig h tin g p o v ­
e rty : th e c o r p o r a ti o n a n d t h e p o lic e . A s sh o w n , n e i t h e r le a d s to a n a b o litio n
o f t h e la c k in civil s o c ie ty o r its p r o d u c tio n o f p o o r m a sse s . T h e p r in c i p a l la ck
w h ic h is in s c r i b e d in to th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e civ il-so cial d y n a m ic is e v e n
p e r p e t u a t e d in a r a d ic a liz e d ‘f o r m ’ in its e x c e ssiv e e ffe c ts a n d , th is w ill b e my
th e s is, it w ill b e in s c r ib e d in t h e s ta te . F o r t h e c o n t r a d ic t io n th a t d e t e r m in e s
civil s o c ie ty le a d s to t h e (lo g ic a l) c o e m e r g e n c c o f t h e s ta te a n d th e ra b b le .
T h e n a m e o f th is p e c u l i a r e x c e ss o f civil s o c ie ty is ‘r a b b le ’ w h o s e e m e r g e n c e
is u n a v o id a b le ; w h o s e p o s s ib ility o f s u r f a c in g c a n n o t b e e s c a p e d . B u t w h o o r
w h a t is t h e r a b b le ?
 C h a p te r 5

Pauper-Rabble

Poverty in its e lf does not t u rn people in to a rabble /. . .}.

(G. W F. Hegel)1

T h e r a b b le “m a k e s its e lf [m acht sich vo n selbst] ” ( H O P R , 2 2 1 , tr a n s i , m o d .).

For, a lth o u g h it is d e f in e d a s t h e “lo w e st level o f s u b s is te n c e ” H e g e l r e m a r k s
a f te r w a r d s th a t “p o v e r ty in its e lf d o e s n o t t u r n p e o p le i n t o a r a b b le ” (Ib id .).
P o v e rty a p p e a r s a s a p r e c o n d itio n o f t h e r a b b le b u t w h e n a n d w h e r e th e
r a b b le o c c u r s is c o n t in g e n t . T o say t h is is a ls o to sa y t h a t its o c c u r r e n c e is
so le ly a n d d e c isiv e ly d e t e r m i n e d b y a s u b je c tiv e o p e r a t i o n o r a c t. T h e r a b ­
b le " is c r e a te d o n ly w h e n t h e r e is j o i n e d to p o v e rty a d is p o s itio n o f m in d
. . .” ( H O P R , 2 6 7 ). S in c e th e r a b b le n o t o n ly n a m e s t h e p o o r , b u t th e p o o r
w h o a p a r t f r o m t h e i r p r o p e r t y h a v e lo st a ls o t h e i r h o n o r to e a r n t h e i r o w n
s u b s is te n c e th r o u g h la b o r i n g , t h e i r p a r ti c ip a tio n in a n e s ta t e a n d , m o re o v e r,
t h e i r in s ig h t in to th e r a ti o n a l w h o le o f t h e o r g a n ic a ll y s t r u c t u r e d s ta te . “T h e
r a b b le is d if f e r e n t f r o m p o v e r ty . . .” (H V O R L 4 , 6 0 8 ); it is t h e p o o r w h o h a s
b e c o m e d is g r a c e f u l. “W ith in th e s ta te t h e c itiz e n r e c e iv e s its h o n o r th r o u g h
t h e o ffic e t h a t h e o c c u p ie s , th r o u g h t h e b u s in e s s th a t h e r u n s o r th r o u g h h is
o t h e r w o r k in g a c tiv itie s ” (H E N Z 3 , 2 2 2 ). A n y o n e w ith o u t o ffic e , b u s in e s s o r
a c tiv ity b e c o m e s d is h o n o r a b l e . T h e e x t e n d e d a n d d e e p e n e d lo s s le a d s to th e
f a c t t h a t h e is f u ll o f “i n n e r i n d i g n a t i o n [E m pörung] a g a in s t t h e r ic h , a g a in s t
so c iety , a g a in s t th e g o v e r n m e n t, e tc .” ( H O P R , 221) b e c a u s e h e c o n s id e r s h im ­
s e lf to b e “in a s ta te t h a t la c k s r i g h t s [Rechtlosigkeit]" (H P R V , 2 2 2 ). T h is is
w h a t H e g e l c a lls “p a l tr y r a b b le lo u tis h n e s s [Pöbelhaftigkeit]" ( Ib id ., 2 2 3 ), a n d
im p lic itly th is r e n d e r s m o r e d e t e r m i n a t e w h a t th e r a b b le 's e x t e n d e d lo ss is.
T h e te r m ‘lo u tis h [dürftig]' is s ig n if ic a n t in th is f o r m u l a ti o n . It r e f e r s to th e
O ld H ig h G e r m a n w o r d ‘d ü r f t ’2 w h ic h n a m e s a s m u c h a n e e d a s n a t u r e ’s c a ll
[N otdurft]. W h a t H e g e l a ls o c a lls th e “lo u tis h n e s s [N otdurft]"3 o f p o v e rty , th is
is th e r a b b le . T h e r a b b le is lo u tis h in tw o r e s p e c ts : firs t b e c a u s e it e m e r g e s
in t h e lo u tis h , a n d , s e c o n d , a s s o o n a s it e m e r g e s it is n o t h i n g b u t th e e x c r e ­
m e n ta l , t h e e x u d a tio n , t h e u n b o u n d o f civ il so c ie ty . I t is w h a t is e x p e lle d e v e n
f r o m th e p o o r . T h e r a b b le is g e n e r a t e d f r o m th e n e e d y , b u t is its e lf n e e d ie r
36 Hegel's R abble

t h a n th o s e in n e e d b e c a u s e it is t h e p r o d u c t o f a f u r th e r , d e e p e n i n g p riv a tio n .
T h is f u r t h e r p r iv a tio n d is tin g u is h e s it f r o m th e p o o r a n d it d e t e r m in e s its p e c u ­
l ia r lo u tis h n e s s . T h is is w hy it c o n s id e r s h im s e lf to b e w ith o u t r ig h ts . B e c a u s e
“in civil s o c ie ty e v e ry o n e is e n title d to e x is t th r o u g h h is w o rk " (H PR V , 222)
a n d w h ile t h e p o o r c a n n o t s e c u r e h is s u b s is te n c e in it “a n d b e c a u s e h e [th e
r a b b le ] k n o w s th a t it h a s t h e r i g h t to f in d h is s u b s is te n c e , its p o v e rty b e c o m e s
a w ro n g , a n in ju r y o f its r ig h t; th is g e n e r a te s a d is s a tis fa c tio n t h a t a t th e s a m e
t im e ta k e s th e fo rm o f a r ig h t" (IIV O R L 4 , 6 0 9 ). It m e a s u r e s it a g a in s t th e g e n ­
e r a l c la im th a t a r is e s fro m its o w n n a t u r e a n d w h ic h c a n n o t b e u p h e l d d u e to its
in s c r ib e d la c k . I f civil so c ie ty u n a v o id a b ly p r o d u c e s th e p o o r , w ith t h e i r e x ist­
e n c e c o m e s a n in d ig n a tio n a b o u t th is e x is te n c e . T h e r a b b le fe e ls in d ig n a n t
a b o u t th e e x c e ssiv e a n d c o u n t e r n a t u r a l e f f e c ts o f t h e e c o n o m ic m o v e m e n t o f
s o c ie ty b e c a u s e in th e m it b e c o m e s c l e a r t h a t t h e le g a l e n t itle m e n t o f ev e ry ­
o n e ’s e x is te n c e c a n o n ly b e u p h e l d o n c o n d i tio n o f t h e c o n s ta n t d e p r iv a tio n
o f r ig h ts o f a h u g e m a s s o f im p o v e r is h e d in d iv id u a ls , w h ic h b e c o m e s v isib le
re tro a c tiv e ly . T h e p o s s ib ility o f m a i n t a i n i n g th e r ig h t to s u b s is te n c e o f a ll in
s o c ie ty m e a n s a t th e s a m e tim e t h e im p o s s ib ility to e n s u r e th e r i g h t o f s u b s is t­
e n c e f o r a ll. It is th is c o n t i n g e n t in s ig h t in to th e c o u n t e r n a t u r e w h ic h c r e a te s
t h e r a b b le a n d its in d ig n a tio n . It is, to s p e a k w ith M a rx , “in its a b a s e m e n t th e
i n d i g n a t i o n a t th a t a b a s e m e n t, a n in d ig n a tio n to w h ic h it is n e c e s s a r ily d r iv e n
b y th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e tw e e n its h u m a n n a tu re a n d its c o n d i tio n o f life , w h ic h
is o u t r i g h t , r e s o lu te a n d c o m p r e h e n s iv e o f t h a t n a t u r e .”4
T h a t t h is in d ig n a tio n a p p e a r s a s “c o n v ic tio n w ith o u t r ig h ts ” (H V O R L 3,
70 3 ) is, fo llo w in g H e g e l, d u e to th e fa c t t h a t t h e r a b b le la c k s “h o n o u r to s e c u r e
s u b s is te n c e b y its o w n la b o u r a n d y e t a t t h e s a m e tim e ” c la im s “th e r ig h t to
re c e iv e s u b s is te n c e ” ( H O P R , 221) b e c a u s e “o n c e s o c ie ty is e s ta b lis h e d , la ck
[der M angel] ta k e s t h e f o r m o f a w ro n g . . ( I bi d. , tr a n s i, m o d .). It is h e r e th a t
f o r th e f ir s t tim e th e c o m p le x s t r u c t u r e o f th e p r o b le m o f th e r a b b le b e c o m e s
c le a r: o n ly t h a t w h ic h is m e d ia t e d th r o u g h w o rk a n d a c tiv ity e x ists tr u ly in civil
s o c ie ty ; its o w n d y n a m ic p r o d u c e s s o m e th in g th a t c a n n o t b e m e d ia t e d b y w o rk
o r a c tiv ity ; th e in d ig n a tio n t h a t m ig h t s u r f a c e c o n c e r n in g th is s t r u c t u r a l lack,
w h ic h is its in d ig n a tio n a b o u t its o w n c o u n t e r n a t u r e , c a n a p p e a r to c iv il so c i­
e ty o n ly a s c o u n te r n a U ir a l. In th e i n d i g n a n t v o ic e o f th e r a b b le , civil so c ie ty
d o e s n o t h e a r a n y th in g b u t th e c o u n t e r n a t u r a l v o ic e th a t it its e lf g e n e r a te s .
T h e r a b b le b e c o m e s th e c o u n t e r n a t u r a l e n tity w h ic h u n b in d s civil s o c ie ty a n d
f r o m its p e r s p e c tiv e a p p e a r s a s c o u n t e r n a t u r a l in d ig n a tio n . In th is w ay th e
“lo u tis h r a b b le -lik e n e s s ” is a “c o n s c io u s n e s s o f la c k o f r ig h ts u n d e r th e c o n d i­
t io n o f r ig h t” (H P R V , 2 2 3 ). T h e r e f o r e H e g e l c a n j u d g e h im a s “im p u d e n t” a n d
t h e w h o le a t titu d e a s “im p u d e n c e ” (Ib id .). T h e r a b b le d r o p s t h e “s u b je c tiv e
b a s e s o f s o c ie ty ” ( H O P R , 2 2 2 )— s h a m e a n d h o n o r — a n d b e c o m e s “friv o lo u s
a n d s h y o f w o rk . . . lik e t h e N a p o lita n L a z z a ro n i f o r e x a m p le " ( Ib id ., 221,
tr a n s i, m o d .). In th is w ay it f u n d a m e n ta l ly lo se s th e “ h a b it o f w o rk in g " a n d th e
“n e e d f o r in d u s tr io u s n e s s d is a p p e a r s ” (H V O R L 4 , 6 0 9 ) a n d it a b a n d o n s its e lf
 P auper-R abble 37

to “la z in e s s a n d e x tr a v a g a n c e [ Verschwendung] ” ( II O P R . 2 2 2 ). I t b e c o m e s c le a r
h e r e , a n d th is e x p a n d s t h e r a b b le p r o b le m w ith o n e d e c isiv e c o m p o n e n t, th a t
t h e lazy, im p u d e n t, s h a m e le s s , friv o lo u s r a b b le w ith o u t h a b it d o e s n o t o r ig i­
n a t e o n ly in r e la tio n to p o v erty .
“T h e r e is a ls o a r ic h r a b b l e ” (IIP R V , 2 2 2 ) ,’ H e g e l r e m a r k s f a r - s ig h te d ly in
h is l e c t u r e s o f 1 8 2 1 /2 2 . I n t h e p o s th u m o u s ly p u b lis h e d l e c t u r e s h e a t th e
s a m e p o i n t s p e a k s a b o u t t h e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n p r o l e t a r i a n s a n d c a p ita l­
ists.6 W ith th is a n e s s e n tia l s t r u c t u r a l c o m p a r a b il ity o f t h e r a b b le a n d th e
p r o l e t a r i a n is n o t e d w h ic h I wi l l c a r r y a l o n g in t h e b a c k g r o u n d in w h a t fo l­
lo w s. R u t it is w o r th m a k in g th e im p lic a tio n s o f H e g e l ’s r e m a r k o n t h e ric h
r a b b le f r o m th e n o te s o f h is le c tu r e s e x p lic it, f o r in th is w ay o n e c a n b e t t e r
g r a s p d e c is iv e c h a r a c t e r is ti c s o f t h is c o n c e p t .7 T h e r e is a ls o a r ic h ra b b le .
A n d it is m a r k e d by s im ila r m e c h a n is m s o f p r iv a tio n to t h o s e o f th e p o o r
r a b b le . T h a t t h e r e is th is e q u a t i o n is d u e to th e f a c t t h a t , a s I le g e l d ia g n o s e s ,
t h e f a c t t h a t it u s e s th e “p o w e r o f w e a lth ” to “p u ll its e lf o u t o f m a n y th in g s
t h a t w o u ld d o n o g o o d to o th e r s ” (IIP R V , 2 2 2 f f) . T h e r ic h r a b b le p u lls its e lf
o u t o f m a n y t h i n g s a n d u n b in d s its e lf f r o m th e m . It a p p e a r s t h e r e f o r e a ls o as
a r e s u lt o f a p r iv a tio n , a l t h o u g h it in itia lly d o e s n o t a p p e a r to b e a d e e p e n i n g
p r iv a t io n . A lr e a d y th e m e a g e r r a b b le w a s m a r k e d b y a lo ss o f s h a m e , h o n o r ,
e tc . T h is m o v e m e n t o f lo s s is r e p e a t e d w ith t h e r ic h r a b b le . T h e p o o r r a b b le
is f u r t h e r m o r e m a r k e d by d e n y i n g its le g itim a c y to a n y t h i n g t h a t is r e c o g ­
n iz e d a n d le g itim a te in civil s o c ie ty a n d it s h a r e s th is j u d g m e n t w ith t h e ric h
r a b b le . B u t t h e p o o r r a b b le d e c la r e s a ll e x is tin g t h i n g s m ill a n d v o id b e c a u s e
it is d r iv e n b y th e i n d i g n a n t in s ig h t t h a t t h e p o o r is h i m s e l f a p r o d u c t o f th e
s o c ia lly r e p r e s s e d im p o s s ib ility to u p h o ld t h e r ig h t to s u b s is t fo r a n y o n e . It is
i n d i g n a n t a t t h e s u b s t a n tia l d e p r iv a tio n o f r ig h ts t h a t b e f a lls t h e p o o r a n d
d e n o u n c e s t h e to ta lity o f civil s o c ie ty by t a k i n g its p e c u l i a r c o u n t e r n a t u r e
a s a b a s is to d is t a n c e h im s e lf f r o m it. B e c a u s e t h e m e a g e r r a b b le d e n o u n c e s
a n in ju s tic e (w h ic h is a ls o h is o w n ) it fo llo w s f r o m t h a t , t h a t t h i s in ju s tic e
p la c e s it o u ts i d e o f r i g h t in g e n e r a l. A s A v in e ri r e m a r k e d , th e r a b b le is “a
h e a p o f h u m a n b e in g s u tte r ly a t o m iz e d a n d a l i e n a t e d f r o m so c ie ty , f e e lin g
n o a l le g i a n c e to it a n d n o lo n g e r e v e n w is h in g e v e n to b e i n t e g r a t e d in to it"
(A H T , 150).
A to m iz a tio n , a l ie n a tio n , u n b i n d i n g , d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . T h e s e a r e t h e c h a r ­
a c te r is tic s o f th e r a b b le . B u t in c o n t r a s t to t h e p o o r r a b b le , th e r ic h r e f u s e s
t o le g itim a te e v e r y th in g th a t e x is ts f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s . It p r e s u p p o s e s a
“s ta te o f la c k o f r ig h ts " (H P R V , 2 2 3 )— a s o r t o f e c o n o m ic a l s t a t e o f n a t u r e 8—
i n w h ic h its w e a lth is th e o n ly p o w e r d e t e r m i n i n g e v e r y th in g . B e c a u s e a
g r e a t m a n y s u b s is te n c e s d e p e n d u p o n its w e a lth , it m is u n d e r s t a n d s t h e i r
d e p e n d e n c y a s h is p o w e r (o v e r th e m ) . I t m is p e r c e iv e s its e lf a s a s o v e re ig n ,
w h o d e c id e s u p o n t h e i r m is e r y a n d t h e r e f o r e a ls o t h e i r r ig h ts . I n th is w ay
i t o p p o s e s h is p u r e ly e c o n o m ic p o w e r o v e r th e a b s tr a c t r ig h t, o v e r t h e u n i­
v e rs a l le g a l r ig h t o f a n y o n e a n d th e r e b y to t h e e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity a s s u c h . It
 Hegel's R abble

o p p o s e s w ith t h e w h o le o f its f o r t u n e “t h e c u s to m s [&'/**]” (H P R V , 2 2 3 ). T h e

r ic h r a b b le is m a r k e d by t h e “c o r r u p t n e s s ” w h ic h m a n if e s ts its e lf in t h e fa c t
t h a t th e r a b b le “ta k e s e v e r y th in g f o r g r a n t e d f o r its e lf ” ( Ib id .) b e c a u s e h e
a ls o d e n i e s t h e r i g h t to e x is t to a n y o f th e e t h i c a l , le g a l o r s ta tis t in s titu tio n s .
T h e r e f o r e it u n d e r s t a n d s i t s e l f to b e b e y o n d t h e ( e x is tin g ) r ig h t, b e c a u s e
it a s s u m e s th a t it s ta n d s a b o v e r ig h t a s s u c h ; o r : it s t a n d s o u ts i d e (e x is tin g )
r ig h t b e c a u s e it th in k s t h a t it its e lf is t h e o n ly v a lid r i g h t . It c a n o n ly c la im
t h is b y a s s u m in g a n e c o n o m ic a lly d e t e r m i n e d s ta te o f n a t u r e , in w h ic h it
c a n a ls o a s s u m e t h e e c o n o m ic r i g h t o f t h e f itte s t.9 T h e r i c h r a b b le p its its
s o v e re ig n c o m m a n d o f p u r e ly e c o n o m ic a l p o w e r a g a in s t t h e s o v e r e ig n ty o f
t h e s ta te a n d its in s t itu ti o n s . It th e r e b y s e ts u p its ( p u r p o r t e d ) r ig h t a g a in s t
t h e r i g h t ( o f t h e g iv e n ). T h u s it t h i n k s o f its e lf a s t h e s o le t r u e in s t a n c e o f
r ig h t a n d o r d e r : b e y o n d th e e x is tin g r ig h t o f t h e e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity t h e r e is
a r ig h t, w h ic h it a s s o le s o v e re ig n . T o p u t it d if f e r e n tly : it d o e s n o t r e c o g n iz e
“th e e t h ic a l s u b s t a n c e a n d its law s a n d p o w e rs" ( II O P R , 155) b e c a u s e h e
c o n c e iv e s o f h i m s e l f a s t h e s o le a b s o lu te . B u t i f o n e c a n c la im h e r e t h a t th e
m e a g e r r a b b le is f u n d a m e n t a l l y g e n e r a t e d b y a “d is s a tis f a c tio n ” ( H V O R L 4,
6 0 9 ) o f t h e p o o r w ith r e g a r d to t h e i r o w n s it u a ti o n , h o w d o e s th e c o r r u p t ­
n e s s o f th e r ic h r a b b le o r ig in a te ? O r to p u t it d if f e r e n tly : f r o m w h ic h p o i n t
o n d o t h e a s s e ts t r a n s f o r m in to s u c h a p o w e r o f w e a lth th a t t h e c o n d i tio n s o f
p o s s ib ility o f b e c o m in g - r a b b le a r e g iv e n ?
T h e s e q u e s tio n s a r e a ll r e la te d to w h a t H e g e l c a lls “lu x u r y ” (H P R V , 22 9 ).
T o s t a r t , ex negativo, o n e c a n c la im t h a t a s s o o n a s t h e r ic h r a b b le a p p e a r s
w ith in c iv il s o c ie ty th e in s titu tio n s th a t fo r H e g e l a r e s u p p o s e d to p e r f o r m th e
tr a n s i tio n to e th ic a lity d o n o t p r o p e r ly f u n c ti o n . T h e c o r p o r a ti o n , fo r e x a m ­
p le , d i d n o t o n ly h a v e th e ta s k o f o p p o s in g p o v e r ty b u t a ls o o f h i n d e r i n g th e
c o n c e n t r a tio n o f w e a lth a n d w ith it t h e o r ig in o f lu x u r y . T h is is w hy H e g e l
d e t e r m in e s th e c o r p o r a ti o n n o t o n ly in s u c h a w ay t h a t in it t h e c o n tin g e n c y
o f a lm s is a b o lis h e d . It s h o u ld a ls o p r o d u c e g e n e r a l r e s o u r c e s th a t s u p p o r t its
m e m b e r s a n d s h o u ld ta k e “th e a r r o g a n c e o f w e a lth in its d u tie s a g a in s t th e
c o o p e r a tiv e [ Genossenschaft] a n d th e e n v y it c a n c a u s e ” (H V O R L 3 , 6 8 9 ). T h e
c o n c e n t r a tio n o f w e a lth in th e h a n d s o f t h e few always e n g e n d e r s e n v y o u ts id e
t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d is always m a r k e d b y th e g r e e d o f th e in d iv id u a l: th is is
H e g e l’s r a d ic a l a n t ilib e r a l d ia g n o s is t h r o u g h o u t. W e a lth o u ts id e th e c o r p o r a ­
t io n a n d t h e a lm s g iv e n to th e p o o r is d e t e r m i n e d b y a r b itr a r in e s s . T o p u t it
d if fe r e n tly : a n y wealth outside the corporation a n d the estates is the property o f the rich
rabble. In s h o r t: th e r ic h m a n w h o is o u ts id e o f b o th is alw a y s r ic h r a b b le . B ut
to ta m e th is d o u b le a r b it r a r in e s s (o f w e a lth , o f t h e a lm s ) th e c o r p o r a ti o n is
i n t r o d u c e d by H e g e l. It w o u ld m e d ia te b o t h w ith th e c o m m o n p r o p e r ty . B ut
“w h e n c o m p la in ts a r e m a d e a b o u t th e lu x u r y o f t h e b u s in e s s c la ss e s [Klassen]
a n d t h e i r p a s s io n fo r e x tr a v a g a n c e — w h ic h h a v e a s t h e i r c o n c o m it a n t th e c r e a ­
tio n o f a r a b b le o f p a u p e r s — w e m u s t n o t f o r g e t . . . th is p h e n o m e n o n h a s a n
ethical g r o u n d " ( H O P R , 225).
 P auper-R abble 39

T h e f a il u r e , a s H e g e l p o in ts o u t h e r e , d o e s n o t r e s u lt f r o m th e c o n s titu tio n
o f th e c o r p o r a ti o n . T h e g r o u n d lie s r a t h e r in th o s e s in g le w ills w h ic h a r e n o t
m e m b e r s o f a le g itim a te c o r p o r a t i o n a n d th e r e f o r e its “is o la tio n r e d u c e s h is
b u s in e s s to m e r e s e lf-s e e k in g . . ( Ib id ., 2 2 6 ). It is th is r e d u c t i o n th a t d e l in ­
e a te s th e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n d i tio n o f p o s s ib ility o f t h e r ic h r a b b le . L ik e th e
p o o r , it liv e s a s a “m e r e p r iv a te p e r s o n ” ( Ib id ., 197) w ith o u t a n y f o r m o f u n i­
v e rs a lity w ith in c iv il s o c ie ty b e c a u s e it, to o . d o e s n o t p a r ti c ip a te in a n e s ta te
a n d c o n s e q u e n tly in n o c o r p o r a t i o n . T h is is w h y th e p o o r a n d t h e r ic h r a b ­
b le liv e a s p r iv a te p e r s o n s in a n a to m iz e d , a l ie n a te d , u n b o u n d , d is i n te g r a t e d
m a n n e r . W h e n H e g e l d e f in e s t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a s “t h e s e c o n d ethical r o o t o f
th e s ta te , th e o n e p l a n t e d in c iv il s o c ie ty " ( Ib id ., 2 2 6 ), o n e c a n c o n c lu d e th a t
b o t h , t h e lu x u r y - a n d t h e p o v e r ty - r a b b lc a r c e th ic a lly u p r o o te d . T o b e e t h i­
c a lly u p r o o te d m e a n s to liv e a s a m e re ly p r iv a te p e r s o n . B u t h e r e o n e c a n
f in d a n i m p o r t a n t d if f e r e n c e in t h e f o r m o f a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e tw o ty p e s o f
t h e r a b b le w h ic h c a n b e r e a d a t t h e s a m e t im e a s a d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n tw o
d if f e r e n t d im e n s io n o f c o n tin g e n c y . T h e p o o r d e p e n d s o n th e a lm s a n d th e
p u b lic in s titu tio n s , i.e . h e u ltim a te ly d e p e n d s o n n o t h i n g b u t c o n tin g e n c ie s
t o m a in ta in h is s u b s is te n c e . T h e p r iv a te p e r s o n w h o is r e d u c e d to t h e e g o is tic
s id e o f b u s in e s s , i.e . to t h e p u r e s e lf- s e e k in g a c c u m u la t io n o f c a p ita l, is o n
t h e o n e h a n d a ls o s t r u c t u r a l l y d e p e n d e n t o n c o n tin g e n c ie s . B u t it is d e c isiv e
t h a t h e h im s e lf h a s c o n tin g e n tly , w h ic h is to say, a r b it r a r il y d e c id e d in fav o r
o f th e s e c o n tin g e n c ie s . H e w h o th ir s ts fo r lu x u r y is s u b o r d i n a t e d to c o n t in ­
g en c y , j u s t a s th e p o o r m a n is. B u t o n e c a n n o t c la im t h a t it is t h e s a m e c o n t in ­
g e n c y in b o th c a se s. I f th e p o o r is in v o lu n ta rily in t h e s it u a ti o n o f d e p e n d i n g
o n c o n tin g e n c ie s , n e v e r th e le s s , t h e vo lu n ta ry d e c is io n o f a s in g le p r iv a te p e r ­
s o n p r e c e d e s th is d e p e n d e n c e . T h is is w hy H e g e l c a n c la im t h a t t h e a r b it r a r y
d e c is io n a g a in s t t h e u n iv e r s a lity o f t h e e s ta t e a n d th e c o r p o r a t i o n g e n e r a te s
t h e e x is te n c e o f t h e g a m b le r .10 W h e n th e in d iv i d u a l b e c o m e s a g a m b le r b y
d e c id in g to d e p e n d a n d g r o u n d h is e x is te n c e a n d s u b s is te n c e p u r e ly o n th e
c o n tin g e n c ie s o f civ il so c ie ty , f o r h im , th e n , t h e w h o le e c o n o m ic d y n a m ic s
b e c o m e s a g ig a n tic r o u l e t t e w h e e l a n d g a m b lin g ta b le .
H e r e th e g e n e r a l s tr u c t u r e o f th e Philosophy o f R ight s h o u ld b e r e c a lle d b riefly .
T h e p a r ti tio n in to a b s tr a c t r ig h t, m o r a lity a n d e th ic a lity is r e p e a t e d in e a c h
in d iv id u a l s te p ,11 in c lu d in g th e la st o n e , e th ic a lity . T h e r e , th is p a r ti tio n is r e n ­
d e r e d in th e fo rm o f th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n fam ily , civil s o c ie ty a n d finally, th e
sta te . I f o n e lin k s e a c h o f th e s e s te p s to g e th e r , t h e n m o r a lity a n d civil so c ie ty
s ta n d o n th e s a m e lo g ic a l level a n d th e r e f o r e o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d civil so c ie ty
a s th e d im e n s io n o f m o r a lity w ith in e th ic a lity . T h e s p h e r e o f m o r a lity is f u n d a ­
m e n ta lly d e t e r m in e d by th e f a c t th a t in it th e s u b je c t d e t e r m in e s b y h im s e lf a n d
in h im s e lf w h a t h is o w n g o o d is; a n alw ays su b je c tiv e a n d alw ay s s in g u la r d e te r ­
m in a tio n o f th e g o o d . M o ra lity c a n b e c o n c e iv e d o f a s a d e t e r m in a tio n o f th e
g o o d in its e lf o n th e level o f th e w ill as f r e e f o r itself. A s J o s e f D e rb o la v w rites:
“W ith in a b s tr a c t r ig h t m e n a r e r e c o g n iz e d a s m e re ly f o rm a lly f r e e p e rs o n s ,
40 Hegel's R abble

m o r a lity d o e s j u s t ic e to th e m a s s u b je c ts , th a t is a s in d iv id u a l, w illin g a n d
a c tin g h u m a n b e in g s .”12 It is o n ly h e r e th a t t h e r e a p p e a r s t h a t “w h ic h w e call
h u m a n being" (IIO P R , 188) b e c a u s e o n ly h e r e d o e s it m o v e f r o m th e c o n c r e te
n e e d s to a d e t e r m in a tio n o f its o w n g o o d , o f a n alw ay s s in g u la r c o n c r e te g o o d .
H o w ev er, th is g o o d in its e lf m u s t b e o b je c tifie d , i.e . r e a liz e d , th r o u g h a c tio n s ,
a n d it d e lin e a te s o n ly in a n a b s tr a c t w ay w h a t c a n b e c o n s id e r e d a s th e e n d o f
a n a c tio n t h a t c a n o n ly b e c o m e a n e n d in a n d th r o u g h a c tin g . I f o n e s tr u c t u r ­
ally d ra w s a p a r a lle l b e tw e e n m o r a lity a n d civil so c iety , o n e c a n u n d e r s ta n d
h o w t h e e x is te n c e o f t h e g a m b le r is g e n e r a te d . A s I le g e l p u t it in h is h a n d w r it­
t e n n o te s o n th e d e t e r m in a tio n o f o n e ’s o w n g o o d , ta lk in g a b o u t th e fo rm in
w h ic h th e g o o d in itia lly a p p e a r s in t h e s u b je c t: “w ith th e in d iv id u a l, a m a tte r o f
c o n tin g e n c y , a r b it r a r in e s s o f h is o w n p a r ti c u la r d e c is io n . . ( I I GPR, 2 3 8 ). O r
ev e n m o r e su c c in c tly : “T h e G o o d is in itia lly d e t e r m in e d b y th e p a r tic u la r , by
o p in io n [M einen] ” (Ib id .): o p in io n , o n e s h o u ld a d d , b e c a u s e it d e p e n d s o n th e
p o ss ib ility th a t c o n tin g e n c y c a n e rr.
T h e in d iv id u a l b e c o m e s a g a m b le r by h is o w n c o n t in g e n t d e c isio n . A n y o n e
is r e d u c e d to b e in g a m e r e p r iv a te p e r s o n w h o v o lu n ta rily — o r in v o lu n ta rily —
w ith d ra w s f ro m p a r ti c ip a tio n in a n e s ta te a n d th e c o r p o r a ti o n ; in s h o r t: to
s o m e o n e w h o , w h e th e r v o lu n ta r ily o r n o t, d o e s n o t w a n t to b e som ething (re c o g ­
n iz e d ). T h a t is w hy H e g e l c a n d e s c r ib e t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e g a m b le r in civil
so c ie ty a s a c o n t in g e n t a n d p a r t i c u l a r d e t e r m in a tio n o f o n e ’s o w n g o o d a n d
p u r p o s e . T h e g a m b le r is th u s tw ic e g o v e r n e d b y a r b itr a r in e s s . H e b e c o m e s a
g a m b le r th r o u g h h is o w n a r b it r a r in e s s a n d r e m a in s in c o n s e q u e n c e alw ays s u b ­
o r d i n a t e d to th e s a m e c o n tin g e n c y ( o f th e g a m e ) . H e th e r e f o r e d e p e n d s o n all
o f t h e d im e n s io n s o f c o n tin g e n c ie s w ith in civil so c iety . T h is is w hy g a m b le r s ju s t
live fro m m o m e n t to m o m e n t w ith o u t it b e in g p o s s ib le fo r th e ir s u b s is te n c e to
g a in a n y s e c u r ity o r so lid ity . F o r o n e m ig h t c la im th a t th e g a m b le r p u ts , d u e to
h is p a r t i c u l a r o p in io n , / ^ c o n t i n g e n t a s s u c h in t h e p la c e o f th e u n iv e rs a l. F or
h im s e c u r ity e x ists “o n ly fo r to d a y " (H PR V , 2 3 0 ) a n d th u s h e d o e s n o t rec eiv e
t h r o u g h th e m e d ia tio n o f a n e s ta te a n d th e c o r p o r a ti o n a n y r e c o g n itio n a n d
h o n o r (as w o u ld b e a c c o r d e d to a m a s te r) , h e is in a s ta te o f lack. T h e la ck
o f r e c o g n itio n h e a tte m p ts to c o m p e n s a te th r o u g h lu x u r y 1*— w h ic h c a n o n ly
s u c c e e d i f to d a y ’s g a m e e n d e d h ap p ily . L u x u ry e x p r e s s e s th e lim itle s s e x te r io r
e la b o r a tio n , th e "external evidence" ( H O P R , 2 2 5 ) o f th e w e a lth a c c u m u la te d in
t h e g a m e . T h u s , in lu x u r y o n e c a n s e c th e in d e f in ite m u ltip lic a tio n “o f n e e d s ,
m e a n s a n d e n jo y m e n ts ” ( Ib id ., 190) th a t a r e n o lo n g e r p r o d u c e d by a n e x te r n a l
d e p e n d e n c e o r n e c e ssity . In th is w ay, lu x u ry , t h a t is th e c o n s ta n tly a n d in c re a s ­
in g ly d if f e r e n tia te d a n d m u ltip lie d e x t e r io r e la b o r a tio n o f o n e 's o w n sa tisfa c ­
t io n o f n e e d s , b e c o m e s a s u p p o s e d m e d iu m o f c o m p e n s a tio n f o r th e la c k in g
r e c o g n itio n . L u x u r y is a c o m p e n s a tio n f o r a la ck o f r e c o g n itio n b u t a t th e s a m e
tim e it a ls o c la rifie s w h a t t h e g a m b le r a s s u c h is m a r k e d by. F o r t h e lo g ic o f th e
e x is te n c e o f th e g a m b le r is a lo g ic o f a d o u b le hapfry few. O n o n e sid e , th e g a m e
p r e s u p p o s e s th a t n o t e v e ry o n e c a n w in in it, b u t o n ly t h e h a p p y few ; o n th e
 P auper-R abble 11

o t h e r sid e , th e w in n in g s in th is g a m e a r c n e v e r la s tin g a n d p e r s is te n t, r a t h e r it
is th e fe w happy moments th a t allo w th e g a m b le r to e n s u r e h is s u b siste n c e .
T h e g a m b le r w h o w in s t h e g a m e f o r to d a y a n d s o c a n s e c u r e h is s u b s is te n c e
lo s e s , lik e t h e p o o r , h is h o n o r b u t h e is c a p a b le o f s e e m in g ly r e g a i n i n g th e
r e f u s e d r e c o g n itio n in “th e m o s t o u tr a g e o u s w ay" (H P R V , 2 3 0 ) th r o u g h lu x ­
ury. T h e g a m b le r w h o w in s f o r to d a y is t h e r i c h r a b b le . L u x u r y d e s ig n a te s in
r e la tio n to th e g a m b le r th e “e x t e r n a l d e m o n s tr a ti o n o f h is su c c e ss” ( I b id .) , o f
a su c c c ss in th e alw ays o n g o in g g a m e o f c o n tin g e n c y . T h is a ls o m e a n s : L u x u r y
e x is ts o n ly o n t h e s id e a n d o n ly b e c a u s e o f th e g a m b le r . L u x u r y is alw ays
lu x u r y o f t h e r a b b le ; o r m o r e p re c ise ly : lu x u r y is t h e p e c u l i a r ( e x te r n a l) fo rm
o f a p p e a r a n c e o f th e r ic h r a b b le . T h e g e n e r a l a n d r e c o g n iz e d r e s o u r c e s o f
t h e c o r p o r a t i o n a n d t h e p o o r w ith o u t a n y r e s o u r c e s t a n d o p p o s ite to h im .
In s h o r t a n d in a f o r m u la o n e c a n c la im fo r I le g e l: w h e r e t h e r e is lu x u ry ,
t h e r e is t h e r ic h r a b b le ; w h e r e t h e r e is th e r ic h r a b b le , t h e r e is lu x u r y . lie
a s s u m e s t h a t t h e r e c a n b e a lo g ic o f r e c o g n itio n b e y o n d t h e m u tu a l m e d ia ­
t io n th r o u g h la b o r: th e lo g ic o f lu x u r y itse lf. F o r th e r ic h r a b b le p r e te n d s th a t
a b e in g - r e c o g n iz e d e x is ts b e y o n d th e e s ta te s , w ith o u t t h e h o n o r o f t h e e s ta te ,
a r e c o g n iz in g w ith o u t s h a m e a n d h o n o r . H o w e v e r th e s t r u c t u r e o f r e c o g n i­
t io n is its e lf s u s p e n d e d b e c a u s e t h e s u p p o s e d r e c o g n itio n is a p u r e ly e x te r ­
n a l a n d th is m e a n s a p u r e ly m o m e n ta r y o n e . A lth o u g h t h e g a m b le r a s s u m e s
t h a t a s s o o n a s h e e x t o r t s t h e w in n in g s o f t h e c o n t i n g e n t g a m e , h e c a n e v e n
o u t th e d e f ic it o f r e c o g n itio n a n d h o n o r b y t h e e x t e r i o r d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f
h is su c c e ss. H o w e v e r, th is in c o r r e c t a s s u m p tio n d r iv e s h im e v e n d e e p e r in to
m e r e e x t e r n a li ty a n d th e s e m b la n c e o f r e c o g n itio n . H e p e r v e r ts t h e s p e c ific
r e c ip r o c a l r e f e r e n c e t h a t m a rk s th e lo g ic o f r e c o g n itio n b y d is s o lv in g it in to a
p u r e ly e x t e r i o r a n d m o r e o v e r a o n e - s id e d r e la tio n . H e a p p lie s a ll s o c ia l r e la ­
t io n s o n ly to h is w e a lth in t h e s a m e w ay t h a t h e t h i n k s o f a ll r e la tio n s o n ly
w ith r e f e r e n c e to it. W ith th is m o v e h e w ro n g ly p r e s u p p o s e s a r e c o g n itio n
w ith o u t th e ( in s tit u tio n a l a n d le g a l, i.e . e th ic a l) s t r u c t u r e s o f r e c o g n itio n o f
th e o t h e r a s e q u a l. A r e c o g n itio n n e i t h e r o f t h e o th e r s a s th e s a m e n o r o f
th e s a m e a s o t h e r s , b u t a r e c o g n itio n o f t h e o n e , t h e p a r t i c u l a r in d iv id u a l as
is o la te d a n d p a r ti c u la r i z e d . T h e g a m b le r a n d h is w e a lth c r e a te a n d a r e th e
o n ly th in k a b le u n iv e r s a l in t h is lo g ic . T h e e x t e r n a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f h is s u c ­
c e s s th a t c a n , b e c a u s e o f th is , n e v e r k n o w a n e n d is b o u n d to a lo g ic o f b a d
in fin ity . O v e r a n d o v er, h e h a s to c o n f ir m h im s e lf a n d h a s to e x te r n a lly s e c u r e
h is s u p p o s e d r e c o g n itio n . F o r H e g e l, th e g a m b le r k n o w s th e u n iv e r s a l o n ly
a s a n e x t e r i o r r e la tio n s h i p a n d th e r e f o r e alw a y s r e m a in s m e re ly e x t e r n a l to
it. T h r o u g h th e e x t e r io r d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f h is p r o p e r ty , a n y o t h e r p r o p e r t y is
alw ays c u t o f f f r o m it.
A t e a c h m o m e n t, th is s u p p o s e d r e c o g n itio n c a n b e lo s t a g a in a n d it is alw ays
u n c e r t a i n w h e th e r th e lu x u r y a n d s p le n d o r w ill e v e r b e e n o u g h to b e tr u ly r e c ­
o g n iz e d . A lth o u g h h e is f r e e f r o m h o n o r a n d s h a m e th e g a m b le r a s s u m e s th a t
h e c a n g a i n r e c o g n itio n e x te r n a lly . H e is d r iv e n f u r t h e r in to sh a m e le s s n e s s
42 Hegel's R abble

a n d t h e la c k o f h o n o r b e c a u s e h e e x te r io r iz e s h im s e lf f u r t h e r in a n d th r o u g h
lu x u r y . I n s h o r t, t h e g a m b le r fails b e c a u s e h e c a r r ie s o u t a p e r v e rs io n o f
t h e lo g ic o f r e c o g n itio n w h ic h le a d s a t t h e s a m e tim e a n d im m e d ia te ly to th e
im p o s s ib ility o f r e c o g n itio n . T h is is a ls o w hy t h e s u c c e s s fu l g a m b le r a n d th e
p o o r a r e t h e tw o f ig u re s in w h ic h t h e r a b b le c a n o r ig in a te . B u t o n e h a s to
r e m a r k t h a t t h e p o o r c a n b e t h e f a ile d g a m b le r, a n d y e t it d o e s n o t h a v e to b e
h im . T h e lo st g a m e is o n ly o n e p o s s ib ility a m o n g m a n y f o r th e g e n e s is o f p o v ­
e rty , a c o n t in g e n t , a n d n o t a n e c e s s a r y o n e . B u t p o v e r ty is p r o d u c e d n e c e s s a r ily
b y t h e u n h i n d e r e d e ffc c tiv ity o f civil so c ie ty . T h e g a m b le r tr u s ts p re c is e ly in
th is u n h i n d e r e d e ffc c tiv ity t h a t p r o d u c e s th e p o o r , b u t h e s ta n d s o n th e s id e
o f its c o n tin g e n c ie s a n d n o t o n th e s id e o f its n e c e s s a r y r e s u lt. I f th e g a m b le r
b e c o m e s p o o r , th is m e a n s t h a t t h e e c o n o m ic c o n tin g e n c ie s , to w h o s e d e p e n d ­
e n c e h e e x p o s e d h im s e lf , h a v e t u r n e d o n h im a n d h is su c c e ss a n d w e a lth h a v e
p ro v e n to b e w h a t th e y alw ays w ill h a v e b e e n in a d v a n c e : a b s o lu te ly m o m e n ta r y
a n d m e re ly p a r ti c u la r . T h e f a ile d g a m b le r w h o c a n n o t b e c a u g h t u p b y an y
g e n e r a l r e s o u r c e s a n d th e g a m b le r w h o lo s e s h is w e a lth fall b a c k in to p o v e rty .
T h e r e is alw ays a p a t h f r o m g a m b lin g a n d lu x u ry ' to p o v e rty b u t n o p a t h fro m
p o v e rty to lu x u ry .
B u t H e g e l’s w o rry , a s o n e h a s to r e m a r k , c o n c e r n s t h e s u c c e s s fu l g a m b le r,
w h o is t h e r ic h r a b b le . B e c a u s e h e h a s m a d e a n “a c q u is itio n . . . w ith o u t
la b o r,” a “c o n t i n g e n t w in n in g ” s o th a t h e p r o d u c e s , a s H e g e l n o te s in a n o t h e r
p a s s a g e : “a n e x t e r n a l , m in d le s s a n d im m o r a l [gesinnungslos] r e la tio n s h i p ”
( H G P R , 3 3 1 - 2 ). T h e e x p l a n a tio n o f h is p e c u l i a r d a n g e r t h a t h e p o s e s a g a in
le a d s b a c k to t h e q u e s tio n o f r e c o g n itio n : T h e s u c c e s s fu l g a m b le r is d a n g e r ­
o u s b e c a u s e h e o n t h e o n e s id e — a n d in c o n t r a s t to th e p o o r r a b b le — s e c u r e s
h is s u b s is te n c e w ith o u t e n t e r i n g 14 in to t h e m e d i a t i n g r e la tio n s o f w o rk a n d
a c tiv ity a n d th e r e f o r e h e u n b in d s h im s e lf by a s u p p o s e d le g a l e n t i t l e m e n t 1’
f r o m a n y f o r m o f u n iv e rs a lity . F o r t h e s u c c e s s fu l g a m b le r o n ly th e f ir s t f u n d a ­
m e n ta l d e f in i tio n o f th e lev el o f civil s o c ie ty is v a lid : " In c iv il s o c ie ty e a c h in d i­
v id u a l is h is o w n e n d , e v e r y th in g e ls e is n o t h i n g to h im ” ( H O P R , 181). But th is
w o u ld n o t r e a lly b e a p r o b le m , b e c a u s e it d e f in e s th e f o r m a l c o n s titu t io n o f
“th e w orld o f appearance fErscheinungsxoelt] o f Ihe ethical— c ivil society" ( Ib id ., 180)
a n d th e r e f o r e b e c o m e s t h e d e f in i tio n o f a n y m e m b e r o f so c ie ty . R a th e r th e
d a n g e r is g e n e r a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e c o n d d e f in i tio n is n o t v a lid f o r h im ,
w h ic h is th a t: “B u t e x c e p t in c o n t a c t w ith o t h e r s h e c a n n o t a t t a i n t h e w h o le
c o m p a s s o f h is e n d s . . .” ( I b id ., 181). T h e c o n t in g e n t w in n in g s e n a b le h im to
u n d e r s t a n d h im s e lf in a w ay t h a t h e is o w n e n d a n d a ll o t h e r s a r e n o t h i n g to
h im . T h u s h e is n o lo n g e r “c o n d i tio n e d by u n iv e r s a lity ” (Ib id .). I n a h a n d w r it­
te n n o te to p a r a g r a p h 155 o f h is Philosophy o f R ig h t, H e g e l d e s c r ib e s t h e fo rm
o f t h e e x is tin g r e c ip r o c a l r e c o g n itio n w ith in t h e e t h ic a l a s fo llo w s: “N o t o n ly :
o th e r s h a v e r ig h ts , I a m e q u a l to th e m , a m a p e r s o n lik e th e m . I s h a ll h a v e
d u tie s by t h e i r r ig h ts — a s b e i n g e q u a l to th e m I a ls o s h a ll h a v e r ig h ts th r o u g h
th e s e d u tie s . . .” (H O P R , 3 0 5 ).
 P auper-R abble 43

O n ly b y a d d r e s s in g a n d p r e s u p p o s i n g t h e o t h e r in a ll m y a c tio n s a s e q u a l
c a n I r e c ip r o c a lly b e r e c o g n iz e d a s e q u a l . I a s a p e r s o n r e s p e c t th e o t h e r a s a
p e r s o n i f a n d o n ly i f a ll m y a c tio n s p r e s u p p o s e t h a t th e y c a n o n ly s u c c e e d i f I
h a v e a l r e a d y r e c o g n iz e d t h e o t h e r a s a p e r s o n . R e c o g n i tio n e s s e n tia lly r e lie s
u p o n t h e f o r m o f r e c ip r o c ity . T h e r ic h r a b b le — i.e . t h e s u c c e s s fu l g a m b le r —
i n t e r r u p t s t h is r e c ip r o c ity . It c o n s id e r s h is e c o n o m ic p o w e r, its w e a lth , a s th e
s o le r i g h t s t a n d i n g a b s o lu te ly a b o v e th e r i g h t o f a ll o th e r s . T h e r e w it h it d is ­
so lv es, a s a d i r e c t d ia le c tic a l c o n s e q u e n c e , its d u ty b y th e m . A n d a s it “h o ld s
i n h is h a n d s m a n y s u b s is te n c e s ” (IIP R V , 2 2 3 ) a n d it a ls o r e n o u n c e s its d u tie s
b y th e m , “it c o n s id e r s its e lf a s a m a s te r o f t h e i r m is e r y a n d th e r e w ith a ls o
o f m a n y o f t h e i r r ig h ts ” ( I b id .) . T h e r ic h r a b b le p o s its its e lf a s th e s o u r c e o f
t h e s e r ig h ts . B e c a u s e o f t h e p u r e ly e x t e r n a l d e p e n d e n c e o f a c e r t a i n n u m b e r
o f s u b s is te n c e s o n its w e a lth , it c o n s id e r s h i m s e l f n o t to b e r e c o g n iz e d as
e q u a l b u t a s u n e q u a l , a s fitte r, a s t h e i r m a s te r. B e c a u s e o f t h i s d e p e n d e n c e it
c o n s id e r s i t s e l f to b e r e c o g n iz e d a s ( th e ir ) m a s te r. B u t t h is it c a n d o o n ly by
u n d e r s t a n d i n g its e c o n o m ic p o w e r 1*1a s th e s o le le g itim a te p o w e r t h a t o p p o s e s
a ll o t h e r p o w e r a n d a u th o r ity . I n th is w ay it m is in te r p r e ts t h e i r d e p e n d e n c e
o n h is w e a lth a s its m a s te ry . It p o s its h i m s e l f a s in d iv id u a l a n d th e p o w e r
o f a n in d iv id u a l f o r t u n e a s t h e o n ly a u t h o r i z e d a n d a u t h o r i z i n g u n iv e rs a l.
T h e r e w it h it f u n d a m e n t a l l y p o s its ^ p a r t i c u l a r i t y , t h e p a r t i c u l a r o f h is p o s i­
t io n a s s o le le g itim a te u n iv e r s a l, i.e . a s t h e u n iv e r s a l t h a t b e f its it a n d o n ly
it a n d th e r e f o r e it h y p o sta tiz .e s s t r u c t u r a l l y the p a r t i c u l a r i t y (as s u c h ) a s th e
u n iv e rs a l. T h e r ic h r a b b le , in h is u n d e r s t a n d i n g , is t h e o n ly o n e w h o s ta n d s
a b o v e th e e t h ic a l u n iv e r s a l o f t h e s ta te ; t h e o n ly o n e w h o d u e to its w e a lth
c a n u n d e r s t a n d its e lf as b e i n g t h e r e a l u n iv e r s a l. T h e r ic h r a b b le is: t h e e g o
a n d its o w n , m o r e p re c ise ly : th e o w n (e d ) is t h e e g o , t h e o n ly tilin g . In th is
w ay it ta k e s th e s t a n d p o i n t o f th o s e “p r in c i p le s . . . f r o m . . . [w h ic h ] fo llo w s
th e r u i n o f i n n e r e t h ic a l life a n d t h e u p r i g h t c o n s c ie n c e , o f lo v e a n d r ig h t
b e tw e e n p r iv a te p e r s o n s , n o less t h a n t h e r u i n o f p u b lic o r d e r a n d t h e law o f
t h e s t a t e ” ( H O P R , 11).
T h e r ic h r a b b le (is) a to m iz e -s (-d ), a lie n a te -s ( - d ). u n b i n d s ( u n b o u n d ) , d is in ­
t e g r a t e s (d ). It p o s its its e lf a s a to m iz e d in d iv id u a l in th e p la c e o f t h e u n iv e rs a l;
t h e r e w ith it a lie n a te s it in th e fo rm o f m e r e p a r tic u la r ity , u n b i n d s its e lf fro m
it a n d th e r e b y d is in te g r a te s th e lo g ic o f e th ic a l c o m m u n ity a s s u c h . L u x u ry
t h e r e f o r e p r e s e n ts r a t h e r th e e x p r e s s io n o f a m e r e s e m b la n c e o f r e c o g n itio n
t h a t c a n s u b s id e a g a in a n y d ay. B e c a u s e t h e r e c a n o n ly b e r e c o g n itio n o f a
p u r e ly e g o is tic in te r e s t i f it is a t le a s t f o rm a lly m e d ia t e d w ith t h e u n iv e r s a l o f
a ll e g o is tic in te r e s ts . A s H e g e l n o te s , it is n e c e s s a ry

b y o n e 's o w n a c t, th r o u g h o n e ’s e n e r g y , in d u s try , a n d s k ill, to m a in ta in o n e ­

s e lf in t h is p o s itio n , a n d to p r o v id e f o r o n e s e lf o n ly th r o u g h th is p r o c e s s o f
m e d ia t in g o n e s e lf w ith t h e u n iv e rs a l, w h ile in th is w ay g a i n in g recognition
b o t h in o n e ’s o w n eyes a n d in th e ey e s o f o th e r s . ( H O P R , 197)
41 Hegel's R abble

T h e g a m b le r a s a m e re ly p r iv a te p e r s o n a lr e a d y a n d n e c e s s a r ily c u ts o ff th is
m e d ia t io n , a n d t h e s u c c e s s fu l g a m b le r , th e r ic h r a b b le is o n ly th e o b v io u s
d e e p e n i n g o f th is la c k o f u n iv e rs a lity . T h is is w h y o n e c a n a ls o f in d h e r e a
d e e p e n i n g lo s s th a t a lre a d y m a r k e d t h e p o o r r a b b le , b u t w h ic h is d ec isiv ely
d if f e r e n t. R e c o g n itio n r e lie s o n a m in i m u m o f u n iv e rs a lity t h a t th e r e c o g ­
n iz e d a n d th e r e c o g n iz in g s h a r e 17: t h e s o le u n iv e r s a l th a t h e r e r e m a i n s is th e
u n m e d i a t e d e g o is m , th e a b s o lu te n e s s o f a p a r t i c u l a r p o s itio n c l a im in g it is
t h e o n ly le g itim a te o n e . I le g e l w rite s a s i f h e w e re th i n k i n g o f t h e r a b b le : “I f
a ll r ig h ts w e re p m o n o n e s id e a n d a ll d u tie s o n th e o th e r , t h e w h o le w o u ld b e
d is s o lv e d . . ( I b id ., 161). By w ay o f t h e is o la te d c la im to u n i t e t h e w h o le o f
r ig h t in its e lf a n d by p r e s e r v i n g t h e o t h e r o n ly in h is d u ty to w a r d th is , its r ig h t,
t h e e n t itle m e n t o f th e r ic h r a b b le t h a t it c o n s ta n tly e x p r e s s e s in its e x te r n a l
d e c la r a tio n o f h is p o w e r is c o n s titu t e d . B u t its e n t i t l e m e n t is “in s e c u r e [ n ic h ts
Stehendes]” ( H O P R , 2 2 6 ) a s o n e m ig h t p u t it w ith H e g e l. T h is is b e c a u s e fo r
t h e c la im o f t h e r ic h r a b b le to h o ld th e a b s o lu te r ig h t is v a lid w h a t w e sa y fo r
t h e c la im to r ig h t in g e n e r a l: “A c la im a s s u c h , [is] o n ly a n in c o m p le te r ig h t”
( II O P R , 181).
T h r o u g h its w e a lth , s u b s is te n c e s a r e d e p e n d e n t u p o n it a n d it m is ju d g e s th is
e x t e r n a l d e p e n d e n c e b y c o n c e iv in g o f it a s h is r e c o g n iz e d p o w e r a n d o f its e lf
a s m a s te r o f th e s e s u b s is te n c e s . O n e c a n s p e a k o f a double m isu n d ersta n d in g on
the p a r t o f the rich rabble. B e c a u s e it m is u n d e r s ta n d s itself a s t h e m a s te r o f th e
s u b s is te n c e s s u b o r d i n a t e d to it a n d m is u n d e r s ta n d s in th is w ay w h a t a p p e a r s to
b e a n e x t e r n a l d e p e n d e n c e a n d e n v y a s a s u p p o s e d ly u n iv e r s a l r e la tio n (o f r e c ­
o g n itio n ) w h o s e c r e a tio n is d u e o n ly to th e r a b b le a n d it p r o p e r ty . T h e r e w ith
t h e r a b b le ta k e s H e g e l's c o m m e n t “to particularity it [civil so c ie ty ] g iv e s th e
r ig h t to d e v e lo p a n d la u n c h f o r th in all d ir e c tio n s ” ( H O P R , 181) in a c e r ta in
s e n s e to o se rio u sly , b e c a u s e it tr a n s f o r m s th e “sy stem o f c o m p le te in te r d e ­
p e n d e n c e '’ (Ib id .) in to a sy ste m o f o n e - s id e d d e p e n d e n c e . T h e r ic h r a b b le so
i n te r p r e ts th e e n v y o f o th e r s a s a c o m p e n s a tio n fo r its la c k o f r e c o g n itio n . B ut
e n v y is a lr e a d y a n e f f e c t o f th e m o v e m e n t o f is o la tio n a n d p a r ti c u la r i z a t io n
t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e g a m b le r a n d h a s th e r e f o r e lo st th e c h a r a c t e r o f a n y th in g
e s s e n tia lly u n iv e rs a l. T h r o u g h e n v y th is m o v e m e n t o f p a r ti c u la r i z a t io n n o w
e x te r n a lly r e fle c ts b a c k o n to th e r a b b le : w h a t it p r e s u m e s to s e e a s r e c o g n itio n
i n t h e o th e r s is n o t h i n g b u t th a t w h ic h it its e lf is m a r k e d by— n a m e ly e g o istic
in te r e s ts , in th e f o r m o f e n v y (o f h is w e a lth ). T h e u n iv e rs a l th a t it a s s u m e s to
c r e a te w ith its w e a lth d isso lv e s in its e x t e r io r r e la tio n to o th e r s im m e d ia te ly
i n to t h a t w h ic h th is s u p p o s e d u n iv e rs a l alw ays a lre a d y w as: a se lfish a f f e c t o f
a p a r t i c u l a r w ill. T h e s e m b la n c e o f r e c o g n itio n h e r e a p p e a r s a s t h a t w h ic h it
e s s e n tia lly is: a m e r e s e m b la n c e .
T h e r ic h r a b b le is a se lfish p a r ti c u la r i ty h y p o s ta tiz e d to b e c o m e a u n iv e rs a l
a n d th is is p r e c is e ly w h a t a p p e a r s a g a in a n d a g a in in a n y r e la tio n in to w h ic h
it e n te r s : a s lu x u r y a n d envy. H e r e th e lo g ic o f b a d in f in ity a p p e a r s a g a in in
a b s o lu te c la rity : to c o m p e n s a te f o r t h e la ck o f r e c o g n itio n , it d e m o n s tr a te s its
 P auper-R abble 45

w e a lth e x te r n a lly a s lu x u r y ; th is d o e s n o t g e n e r a te r e c o g n itio n b u t r a t h e r envy;

e n v y d o e s n o t m e a n r e c o g n itio n o f th e r ic h r a b b le b u t is se lfish ly d ir e c te d a t
t h e in e q u a lity o f h is w e a lth ; th e e x t e r n a l d e m o n s tr a ti o n o f lu x u r y th e re b y g e n ­
e r a te s a r e la tio n s h ip to it t h a t is a ls o p u r e ly e x te r n a l; th e r ic h r a b b le c o n s id e r s
its e lf th e r e b y to b e r e c o g n iz e d a s a b s o lu te ly u n e q u a l, as m a s te r; b u t b e c a u s e
its s u p p o s e d p o w e r a n d r u l e is b a s e d so le ly u p o n th e e x te r io r ity o f its w e a lth ,
it h a s to r e p e a t th is e x t e r n a l d e m o n s tr a ti o n p e r m a n e n tl y in o r d e r to le t h is
p o w e r n o t b e s e e n a s a m e r e s e m b la n c e o f p o w e r; th e r e w ith th e r ic h r a b b le
s ta n d s in a c o n s ta n t a n d u n s u r p a s s a b le d e p e n d e n c e o n th e e x t e r n a li ty o f its
f o r tu n e ; it fo llo w s a lo g ic o f “a g a in a n d a g a in ” th a t c o n tin u a lly s u b o r d in a te s
its c la im to b e r e g a r d e d a s a le g itim a te u n iv e rs a l a n d a b s o lu te r ig h t to th e
e x t e r n a l c o n tin g e n c y o f h is a c q u ir e d w e a lth ; c o n s e q u e n tly it is c o n s ta n tly s u b ­
o r d i n a t e d to t h e law s ( o f e x te r n a lity ) th a t h a v e g e n e r a te d it: th e m a s te r b e f o r e
w h o m t h e r ic h r a b b le b e n d s its k n e e s is, h o w ev e r, c o n tin g e n c y . M e re o n e fin d s
t h e w h o le “in c o h e r e n c e o f t h e u n e t h i c a l ” ( II O P R , 179, tr a n s i, m o d .) th a t th e
ric h r a b b le is m a r k e d by. O n e c a n s ta te t h a t t h e c o n d itio n s o f p o s s ib ility o f
t h e r ic h r a b b le a r e p r o d u c e d su b je c tiv e ly . It is d u e to a n a r b it r a r y d e c is io n
t o p o s it o n e s e lf o u ts id e th e e th ic a l b o n d o f m e d ia tio n th a t th e g a m b le r will
alw ays d e p e n d o n o b je c tiv e , i.e . e x t e r n a l c o n tin g e n c ie s . T h is is w hy t h e ric h
r a b b le e v e n la c k s w h a t d e t e r m in e s th e fa m ilia l p e r s o n , n a m e ly t h e n e e d fo r
“p o s s e s s io n s s p e c ific a lly d e t e r m i n e d a s p e r m a n e n t a n d s e c u r e . . . r e s o u r c e s .
. . p e r m a n e n t p r o p e r ty ” ( H O P R , 171). B o th in t h e r ic h r a b b le a n d in its fo rm
o f a p p e a r a n c e (lu x u ry ) t h e r e alw ays a p p e a r s a n o t h e r r e g e n t w h o is th e re a s o n
f o r its i n n e r in s ta b ility : c o n tin g e n c y . W h a t fo llo w s a f te r th e s u b je c tiv e c o n t in ­
g e n c y o f d e c id in g to r e m a in a m e r e p r iv a te p e r s o n a n d b e c o m e a g a m b le r is
t h e e x t e r n a l c o n tin g e n c y w h ic h c h a r a c te r iz e s th e g a m e t h a t is th e b o u r g e o is
e c o n o m y . T h e r ic h r a b b le r e m a in s w ith in t h e h e te r o n o m o u s d e t e r m in a tio n
by ch an ce.
L e t m e s u m m a r iz e w h a t h a s b e e n s a id th u s f a r : th e g a m b le r d o e s n o t c a r e
f o r r e c o g n itio n . By s id in g w ith c o n tin g e n c y a s s u c h h e alw ay s a lr e a d y p o sits
h im s e lf in “a s itu a tio n o f sla v ery a n d d i s h o n o u r ” ( Ib id ., 147) a n d g e ts b a c k
w h a t h e is f u n d a m e n ta l ly d e t e r m i n e d b y in t h e in v e r te d fo rm o f en v y , "a s a n
a lie n su b je c tiv e c o n v ic tio n ” (Ib id .) th a t alw ays r e m a in s a lie n to h im , i.e. m e re ly
e x t e r n a l. T h is is a n e x a m p le o f su c c e s s fu l c o m m u n ic a ti o n .18 T h e g a m b le r
r e f u s e s a lr e a d y th r o u g h its h y p o s ta tiz a tio n o f th e m e r e c o n t in g e n t p a r ti c u la r ­
ity a s s u c h “th e n o r m a tiv e p r e s u p p o s itio n s th a t w e a d o p t a s s o o n a s w e ta k e
p a r t in c o r r e s p o n d i n g a c tiv ity ” (H P IF , 73). T h e o n ly n o r m th a t is k n o w n to th e
g a m b le r is c o n tin g e n c y a n d p a r ti c u la r i ty a s s u c h . T h e r e f o r e h e d e -so c ia liz e s,
o r b e tte r : a -so c ia liz e s h im s e lf. C o n s e q u e n tly , th e su c c e s s fu l g a m b le r is a ls o d is ­
i n t e g r a t e d a n d a s o c ia l. If, fo r e x a m p le , th e fa m ily — th e firs t s o c ia l u n it in th e
s ta te — is fo r H e g e l f u n d a m e n ta l ly d e t e r m i n e d b y a “c o n s c io u s n e s s t h a t is n o t
s e lfis h ” (H G P R , 323), t h e n th is is b e c a u s e , in it, th e in d iv id u a l a lr e a d y s ta n d s in
a r e la tio n s h ip w h ic h a c c o m p a n ie s th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t h e w o u ld b e la c k in g
16 Hegel's R abble

s o m e th in g if th e r e w e re n o o th e r s . T h e r ic h r a b b le h o w e v e r a n d a lre a d y th e
e x is te n c e o f t h e g a m b le r is la c k in g th is f o r m o f s o c ia lity a n d h e is s tu c k in “th e
a r b it r a r in e s s o f a m e r e in d iv i d u a l’s p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s . . ( II O P R , 171). T o h im
o n e m a y a p p ly th e in v e rs io n o f w h a t H e g e l d e s c r ib e s in h is h a n d w r itt e n n o te to
p a r a g r a p h 170. w h ic h d e a ls w ith th e r e s o u r c e o f f a m ily a s a g e n e r a l re s o u r c e :
“T h e r o o s te r e a ts n o t h i n g f o r its e lf— s e a r c h e s t h e h e n s a n d c h ic k s — m o v in g "
( II O P R , 324). T h e r ic h r a b b le e v e n la c k s t h e m o v in g b e h a v io r o f a n a n im a l; h e
r a t h e r r e p r e s e n ts a r o o s te r w h o c a ts e v e r y th in g f o r itself.
T h e r ic h r a b b le , th e s u c c e s s fu l g a m b le r , is a to m iz e d a n d is o la te d in a d o u ­
b le se n s e : fo llo w in g t h e te m p o r a l lo g ic o f t h e few happy m om ents a n d e s s e n ­
tially , b e c a u s e it is t h e o n ly o n e to w h o m its w e a lth is o f a n y u s e ; it is th e
i n c a r n a t i o n o f th e ha p p y few. In th is it c o n t r a d ic t s th e f o rm a l u n iv e r s a l o f th e
m e d ia t io n o f n e e d s a n d a c tiv ity w ith in civil so c iety . I f f o r I le g e l civil s o c ie ty is
in t e g r a t e d in to t h e ( r a tio n a l) d ia le c tic a l m o v e m e n t w h ic h le a d s to t h e s ta te ,
th e n th is is b e c a u s e it d e s c r ib e s a s f o r m a l u n iv e r s a lity a m e d ia tio n o f th e
c o n tin g e n c y o f e a c h in d iv i d u a l’s e g o is tic w ill a n d t h e n e c e s s ity o f a u n iv e rs a l,
c o m p le te d e p e n d e n c e . T h e p r e s e n c e o f th e r ic h r a b b le in lu x u r y a g a in r e f e r s
to a c o n t r a d i c t i o n o f civil s o c ie ty w ith itself: I f o n th e sid e o f u n iversa lity, i.e.
o f its n e c e s s a r y m o v e m e n t, t h e r e is a c o n t r a d i c t i o n d u e to th e p r o d u c tio n
o f p o o r m a s s e s , t h e r e is o n t h e s id e o f fo rm a lity , i.e . o f th e p a r t i c u l a r se lfish
in te r e s ts in t h e i r c o n t in g e n c ie s t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n th a t th e c o n t in g e n t g a m e s
o f civ il s o c ie ty c a n c o n t in g e n t ly p r o d u c e a p a r t i c u l a r p o s itio n w h ic h d isso lv e s
t h e m e d ia t io n w ith t h e u n iv e rs a l. T h is p o s itio n is its o w n e n d a s w ith ev e ry ­
o n e in civil s o c ie ty b u t it d o e s n o t n e e d o th e r s in o r d e r to a t ta i n it. T h u s its
p a r t i c u l a r e n d d o e s n o t ta k e “th e f o r m o f u niversa lity . . .” ( H O P R , 181). T h e
s u c c e s s fu l g a m b le r is r a t h e r t h e c o n t in g e n t p a r t i c u l a r i t y w h ic h p o s its its e lf as
su ch a s u n iv e r s a l a n d a b s o lu te . In t h i s c o n te x t, o n e o f H e g e l’s c la im s a b o u t th e
r a b b le g a i n s a n o t h e r m e a n in g : “ It is p re c is e ly t h e e x c e s s o f w e a lth b y w h ic h
c iv il s o c ie ty b e c o m e s to o p o o r to c o n t r o l t h e e x c e s s o f t h e r a b b le ” (H V O R L 4,
( i l l ) . C iv il s o c ie ty b e c o m e s to o p o o r ( c o n c e r n in g th e d e g r e e o f its u n iv e rs a l­
ity ) d u e to th e e x c e s s o f w e a lth w h ic h is th e e x c e s s o f th e r ic h ra b b le . O n e c a n
n o te h e r e : T h e r e is a r a b b le o n th e s id e o f n e c e s s ity w ith in civ il so c ie ty , w h ic h
e m e r g e s fro m th e p o o r , a n d a r a b b le o n th e s id e o f c o n t in g e n c ie s w ith in civil
so c ie ty , w h ic h e m e r g e s f r o m th e g a m b le r s . O r , o n e c a n say: t h e r e is a rabble o f
necessity a n d a rabble o f contingency. T o r e f o r m u la te t h is o n c e a g a in : t h e r e is a
u n iversal a n d a p a rtic u la r rabble.
T h e u n iv e r s a lity o f th e p o v c r ty - r a b b lc c o m e s fro m its c o n t i n g e n t e m e r ­
g e n c e f ro m t h e n e c e s s a r ily p r o d u c e d p o o r , a n d th is e m e r g e n c e p r o v id e s a
p e c u l i a r b u t ir r e v e r s ib le in s ig h t. Its e m e r g e n c e r e v e a ls a lo g ic t h a t I w ill c a ll
t h e logic o f double latency'. A n y o n e w ith in civ il s o c ie ty a n d t h e s ta te c a n , as
a r e s u lt o f t h e i r s in g u l a r f a te , d e t e r i o r a t e in to th e unestate o f p o v e rty . B u t
b e c a u s e im p o v e r is h e d m a s s e s a r e in e v ita b ly p r o d u c e d w ith in c iv il so c ie ty , a n d
p o v e r ty is th e r e f o r e n o lo n g e r g e n e r a t e d d u e to in d iv id u a l m is d e m e a n o r s ,
 P auper-R abble 47

th is m e a n s th a t a n y o n e in th e s ta te is la te n tly p o o r . A t t h e s a m e tim e a n y
p o o r — b e c a u s e t h e r a b b le m a k e s its e lf a n d is n o t s u b o r d i n a t e d to a n y o t h e r
o b je c tiv e c o n d i tio n — c a n b e c o m e r a b b le . F o r t h e r a b b le is r a t h e r th e p r o d u c t
o f a g e n u in e ly s u b je c tiv e o p e r a tio n , a s u b je c tiv e a c t. T h e d ir e c t c o n s e q u e n c e
o f th is is t h a t a n y o n e in th e s ta te is la te n tly p o o r a n d t h e r e f o r e la te n tly ra b b le .
M o r e p re c is e ly o n e h a s to s ta te th a t th is lo g ic o n ly a p p e a r s w ith in th e d ia le c ­
tic a l m o v e m e n t th a t c o n s is ts in th e f o r m o f “r e tr o a c tiv e p e r f o rm a tiv ity ,”19 to
e m p lo y Z iz c k ’s t e r m . W ith t h e r a b b le t h e in s ig h t b e c o m e s p o s s ib le th a t anyone
in t h e s ta te w ill h a v e b e e n la te n tly ra b b le .
H e r e o n e f in d s a g o o d e x a m p le of " t h e c o n v e r s io n o f n e c e s s ity in to c o n t in ­
g e n c y a n d v ic e v e rsa ” ( H O P R , 117). T h e n e c e s s a r y p r o d u c t i o n of t h e p o o r is
c o n v e r te d in to th e c o n t in g e n t p r o d u c ti o n of th e r a b b le a n d its e m e r g e n c e
in t u r n is c o n v e r te d in to t h e r e tr o a c tiv e in s ig h t t h a t a n y o n e in t h e s ta te w ill
n e c e s s a r ily h a v e b e e n la te n tly r a b b le . B e c a u s e o f t h is lo g ic o f d o u b le la te n c y
t h e p o v e r ty - r a b b le b e c o m e s a u n iv e rs a l r a b b le . O n e c a n a ls o e x p r e s s th is lo g ic
b y r e v e r s in g a H e g e lia n r e m a r k . I f H e g e l c la im s t h a t " [t]h e e d u c a t e d p e r s o n ,
h o w e v e r, d e v e lo p s a n i n n e r lif e a n d w ills t h a t h e h im s e lf s h a ll b e in e v e r y th in g
h e d o e s ” ( I b id ., 110), o n e c a n s ta te t h a t th e r a b b le is (o r m o r e p rec isely , w ill
h a v e b e e n ) in e v e r y th in g w ith o u t d o in g a n y th in g . A lth o u g h it a ls o p o s its its
s u p p o s e d ly m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r p o s itio n a s a u n iv e rs a l, it is a b le to r e f e r to a
u n iv e r s a lity t h a t a p p e a r s in th is logic o f double latency w h ic h is im m a n e n tly
p r o d u c e d b e h i n d th e b a c k o f c iv il so c iety . In a c e r t a i n s e n s e , to a n t ic i p a te a
f o r m u la w h ic h n e e d s to b e c la r if ie d in t h e fo llo w in g , o n e c a n c la im t h a t th e
p o o r r a b b le in s e r t s a n e q u a lit y d i f f e r e n t f r o m th e o n e H e g e l a i m s a t w h e n h e
c la im s th a t: “T h is s in g le a b s tr a c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p e r s o n a lity c o n s titu t e s th e
a c tu a l equality o f h u m a n b e in g s ” (H P M , 2 3 7 ). A n yo n e a t a ll is latently rabble is
t h e f o r m u l a t h a t w ill e x p r e s s th is o t h e r e q u a lity .
T h e p a r ti c u la r i ty o f t h e r ic h , th e lu x u r y - r a b b le , is d e t e r m i n e d by th e fact
t h a t , w ith its w e a lth , it tr a n s f o r m s civil s o c ie ty n o t in to a sy ste m o f c o m p le te
d e p e n d e n c e , b u t a o n e - s id e d d e p e n d e n c e . It p o s tu la te s t h e a b s o lu te n e s s o f a
s in g le a n d alw ays is o la te d p a r ti c u la r i ty a s th e u n iv e rs a l a n d y e t a g a in s t it. It
m is u n d e r s ta n d s th is sy ste m a s th e sy ste m o f h is is o la te d n e e d s a n d d e c la r e s it
a s its o w n rig h t to s u b s is t w ith o u t w o rk a n d activ ity . A lth o u g h e v e r y o n e in th e
s ta te is se lfish , w h e n u n d e r s t o o d a s a b o u r g e o is a n d n o t a s a citoyen, h e o n ly c a n
b e it u n d e r t h e c o n d itio n o f u n iv e rs a lity to w h ic h h e is c o n s ta n tly r e f e r r e d a n d
b o u n d . B u t to w ith d r a w f r o m t h e r a tio n a l o r g a n iz a ti o n , i.e . to in s is t o n o n e 's
e g o is tic in te r e s ts o u ts id e th e c o r p o r a ti o n a n d t h e e s ta te m e a n s t h a t th e c o n d i­
tio n o f p o s s ib ility o f t h e r ic h r a b b le is a n a r b i t r a r y a c t o f t h e w ill o n t h e p a r t
o f th e in d iv id u a l to d r o p o u t o f t h e u n iv e rs a l m e d ia tio n . A nyone— a n d th is is
d e c isiv e — w h o in v o k e s h is e g o is t in te r e s ts a n d is o u ts id e o f t h e e s ta te b e c o m e s
a g a m b le r . A n y gam bler who is lu c k y in th e g a m e o f c h a n c e d e c a y s to th e lu x u ry -
r a b b le . H e r e o n e c a n s e e t h a t firs t a n a r b i t r a r y a c t o f th e w ill o n th e p a r t o f th e
in d iv id u a l is n e e d e d s o t h a t t h e n th e o b je c tiv e a n d e x t e r n a l c o n tin g e n c ie s o f
48 Hegel's R abble

t h e g a m e c a n p r o d u c e th e r i c h r a b b le . T h is lo g ic , w h ic h I w ill c a ll t h e logic o f
double contingency, m a k e s th e r ic h r a b b le in to a p a r t i c u l a r r a b b le . F irs t s u b je c ­
tiv e c o n tin g e n c y is n e e d e d ( th e a r b it r a r y d e c is io n to b e c o m e g a m b le r ) a n d
t h e n o b je c tiv e c o n tin g e n c y is n e e d e d (su c c e ss in th e c o n t in g e n t g a m e ) . T h is
d o u b le d e t e r m i n a t i o n is t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e p a r ti c u la r i ty o f th e lu x u ry -ra b b le .
T h e h y p o s ta s is o f p a r ti c u la r i ty a n d c o n tin g e n c y in to th e r e a l u n iv e r s a l alw ays
p a r ti c u la r i z e s t h e s t r u c t u r e o f th e lu x u r y -r a b b le . B u t h o w d o u n iv e r s a l a n d
p a r t i c u l a r r a b b le r e la te to o n e a n o th e r ?
 C h a p te r 6

Luxury-Rabble vs. Poverty-Rabble

[RJabble above, rabble below!

(Friedrich Nietzsche)1

B o th th e r ic h a n d t h e p o o r r a b b le a r e m a r k e d b y a p e c u lia r p r iv a tio n .2 T h is
p r iv a tio n is w h a t b o th h a v e in c o m m o n , o r, th e c o m m o n is w h a t th e y a r e
b o th la c k in g . H o w ev er, o n e c a n r e m a r k a lre a d y t h a t th e e f f e c ts o f t h e p riv a ­
t io n o f t h e r ic h r a b b le h a v e a d if f e r e n t f o u n d a tio n a n d sp e c ific ity to t h o s e o f
t h e p o o r o n e . In t h e fo llo w in g I w ill in v e s tig a te th e s e e f f e c ts in d e t a il . W h a t
s h o u ld b e c o m e c le a r is th a t u n d e r th e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ tw o d if f e r e n t p ro b le m s
o f H e g e lia n t h o u g h t a r e h id d e n , a n d a lth o u g h th e y d ra w n e a r to o n e a n o t h e r
a t c e r ta in p o in ts , th e y n e v e r th e le s s r e m a in s e p a r a te d b y a d e e p r if t. In th e
fo llo w in g it w ill b e c o m e c l e a r t h a t th e m o v e m e n t o f p r iv a tio n o n ly re a c h e s
its f u ll r a d ic a lity w ith th e p o o r r a b b le a n d th a t th is r a d ic a lity c o n s is ts a m o n g
o t h e r th in g s in th e fa c t t h a t h e c a n n o t b e in c lu d e d in a n y c a te g o r y o f k n o w l­
e d g e ( o f o b je c tiv ity , o f th e s ta te a n d u ltim a te ly o f H e g e l's p h ilo s o p h y ) n o r b e
o b je c tifie d . H e g e l d o e s n o t know ' a n y t h in g a b o u t th e r a b b le a n d h e , b y d e f in i­
tio n , c a n n o t k n o w a n y t h in g e x c e p t t h a t it a p p e a r s w ith th e p o o r o r b e tte r : it
c o u ld a p p e a r . B u t a t t h e s a m e tim e it is n e v e r c l e a r if it a p p e a r s , w ill a p p e a r
o r a lre a d y a p p e a r e d . T h e r e f o r e o n e c a n n o t c la im th a t t h e r a b b le is f o r H e g e l
“a s u b - s ta tis t, n u m e r ic a lly m e a n in g le s s s tr a t u m .”* O n e c a n r a t h e r c la im th a t
H e g e l’s Philosophy o f R ig h t f r o m a c e r ta in m o m e n t o n — th e m o m e n t o f h is p o s ­
sib le e m e r g e n c e — is c o n s ta n tly h a u n t e d b y th e r a b b le w ith o u t b e i n g a b le to
i n t e r r u p t th e lo g ic o f th is in f e s ta tio n th a t tr a v e rs e s a ll o f its d o m a in s . I w ill,
b y w ay o f a n im m a n e n t r e c o n s tr u c tio n , a tte m p t to u n c o v e r s o m e th in g t h a t in
a c e r t a i n s e n s e r e m a in s in e x p lic a b le f o r H e g e l, o r r a th e r , I w ill sh o w h o w h is
d e s c r ip tio n s o f th e r a b b le r e p r e s e n t p e r m a n e n tl y f a ilin g a tte m p ts to c o m p r e ­
h e n d a n d g r a s p t h e (p o o r) r a b b le . F o r th e d e d u c tio n o f th e th e s e r e q u ir e s a
c le a r d if f e r e n tia tio n o f lu x u r y - a n d p o v e r ty -ra b b le in o r d e r to p ro v id e f o r a n
a d e q u a t e d e s c r ip tio n o f b o th , t h e s tr u c t u r e s o f in te g r a tio n a n d o f u n b in d ­
in g . P a r a d ig m a tic a lly o n e c a n c la im : th e lu x u r y -r a b b le lo se s h o n o r , re s p e c t,
c u s to m s , s h y n e s s o f w o rk , e tc . b e c a u s e it w as a b le to ‘s e c u r e ’ w in n in g s in th e
50 Hegel's R abble

c o n t in g e n t g a m e in w h ic h it a r b it r a r il y d e c id e d to p a r ta k e . A lth o u g h its w e a lth

is u n s ta b le , it a p p e a r s to th e r ic h r a b b le a s s o p o w e r f u l th a t it u n d e r s ta n d s its e lf
a s th e o n ly le g itim a te in s ta n c e o f r ig h t— b e y o n d t h e s ta te . T h e p o o r r a b b le , o n
t h e o t h e r h a n d , is, a f te r a n ‘i n it ia l’ lo s s — p o v e rty — m a r k e d b y a f u r t h e r a n d
d e e p e n i n g lo ss. F o r f r o m th e sp e c ific ity o f t h e lo g ic o f p r iv a tio n f r o m w h ic h
t h e r e r e s u lts th e f u n d a m e n t a l d if f e r e n c e o f th e lo g ic a l s e q u e n c e s :
1. ‘W in n in g s— loss’ (rich rabble) aga in st ‘Loss— loss' (poor rabble). B e c a u s e th e
p o o r r a b b le n o t o n ly lo se s h is p r o p e r ty b u t in c o n s e q u e n c e e v e r y th in g th a t
m a k e s it a b o u r g e o is in civil so c ie ty . Its lo s s o f s h a m e , h o n o r , etc. d o e s n o t
d e p e n d o n a c o n tin g e n tly a c c u m u la t e d a n d e x t e r n a l w e a lth . R a th e r t h e d e e p ­
e n i n g lo ss is a r e s u lt o f a g e n u in e ly subjective operation, a s I w ill c a ll it, a n d w h ic h
I lc g c l c a lls “a d is p o s itio n o f m in d . . . jo in e d to p o v e r ty . . ." ( H O P R , 22 1 ). In
c o n tr a s t, th e g e n e s is o f t h e r ic h r a b b le e s s e n tia lly d e p e n d s u p o n th e e x te r io r
c o n tin g e n c y o f su c c e ss in th e g a m e , a l th o u g h it c r e a te s th e c o n d itio n o f th is
p o s s ib ility h im s e lf b y a n a r b it r a r y subjective operation. W h a t r e s u lts f r o m t h e fact
t h a t b o th ty p e s o f r a b b le a r e g e n e r a te d by a subjective operation is th is:
2 . t h e p o s s ib ility o f d is t in g u is h in g b e tw e e n t h e subjective operations w ith r e fe r­
e n c e to th e ir lo g ic a l p o s itio n . T h e a t titu d e t h a t is jo in e d to p o v e r ty is c a te g o r i­
ca lly d if f e r e n t f r o m th e o n e th a t m a k e s th e g a m b le r . B e c a u s e th e a r b itr a r y
a n d p a r t i c u l a r d e c is io n to p o s it o n e s e l f o u ts id e th e e s ta te a n d th e c o r p o r a ti o n
p r o d u c e s th e c o n d itio n s o f p o s s ib ility o f th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e r ic h r a b b le . T h e
subjective operation, t h e su b je c tiv e a r b i t r a r y d e c is io n , c r e a te s its c o n d itio n s . B ut
its e m e r g e n c e d e p e n d s , f o llo w in g th e lo g ic o f d o u b le c o n tin g e n c y , o n th e e x te ­
r io r c o n tin g e n c ie s o f t h e g a m e , b e c a u s e “[w ]h a t is b y n a t u r e c o n t in g e n t is s u b ­
je c t to c o n tin g e n c ie s , a n d th is f a te is th e r e f o r e its e lf a n e c e s s ity ” ( Ib id ., 30 6 ).
In c o n tr a s t, t h e c o n d i tio n s o f p o s s ib ility o f th e p o o r r a b b le a r e alw ay s a lre a d y
g iv e n by th e e c o n o m ic d y n a m ic , b y t h e u n a v o id a b le p r o d u c ti o n o f p o o r m a ss e s
t h a t a p p e a r w ith in civil so c iety . O n t h e o n e s id e w e h a v e a subjective operation
g e n e r a tin g th e c o n d itio n s o f p o ssib ility , o n t h e o t h e r w e h a v e a subjective opera­
tion th a t a lr e a d y re lie s u p o n a n in e v ita b le o b je c tiv e c o n d itio n o f p o ssib ility
o f th e s a m e o p e r a tio n . O n e c a n say th a t h e r e th e lo g ic a l s e q u e n c e ‘subjective
(arbitrary) operation— contingent w in n in g s— loss' (ric h r a b b le ) is o p p o s e d to th e
s e q u e n c e ‘loss— subjective operation— loss' ( p o o r ra b b le ). T h u s , t h e r e a r c tw o d if ­
f e r e n t r e a s o n s w h y th e tw o ty p e s o f r a b b le d o n o t g r a n t le g itim a c y to th e e x ist­
in g in s titu tio n s . T h is d if f e r e n c e is r e f le c te d in:
3 . th e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n ''depravity/corruptness [Verdorbenheit]"a n d “outrage/
in d ig n a tio n [E m pörung]" (H P R V , 2 2 3 ) A s s o o n a s t h e y e m e r g e , b o t h d e le g iti-
m iz e e a c h c o n c r e te a n d p a r t i c u l a r in s t itu ti o n a n d a n y o r g a n iz e d a g e n c y o f
t h e s ta te b y d is s o lv in g t h e o r g a n ic u n ity o f b o u r g e o is a n d p o litic a l lif e in to a
d is p a r a te c ro w d o f in d iv id u a ls w ith p a r t i c u l a r in te r e s ts . O n o n e s id e , h o w ev e r,
t h e d e c la r a tio n o f ille g itim a c y is g e n e r a t e d b e c a u s e th e r ic h r a b b le p o s its
its e lf, o n th e b a s is o f its c o n t in g e n t ly w o n w e a lth , a s a b s o lu te a n d p a r a m o u n t
to a ll e x is tin g in s titu tio n s . It h v p o s ta tiz e s its e lf a n d its w e a lth to b e c o m e th e
 L u x u ry -R a b b le vs. P overty-R a b b le 51

o n ly v a lid r ig h t. I n th e le c tu r e s o n th e p h ilo s o p h y o f r i g h t f r o m 1 8 2 1 -2 , th e
H e g e lia n n o tio n o f d e p r a v ity p r e c is e ly n a m e s th is h y p o s ta tiz a tio n .* It is one-
s id e o f t h e r a b b le -lik e ev il. F o r H e g e l, ev il in th is c o n te x t m e a n s t h a t th e w ill
is h e te r o n o m o u s ly d e t e r m i n e d b y c o n tin g e n c y . A s h e h a d a lr e a d y c le a rly
r e m a r k e d in 1820, i f a “p a r ti c u la r i ty m a y ta k e h i m s e l f a s t h e u n iv e r s a l” a n d
u n d e r s t a n d s t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a n e s ta te o n ly a s a lim ita tio n , th is is a “fa lse
id e a . . ( II O P R , 197). O n th e o t h e r s id e t h e i n d i g n a t i o n o f th e p o o r r a b b le
w ith r e g a r d to th e c o u n t c r n a t u r c o f c iv il s o c ie ty is g e n e r a t e d b y a “o s te n s ib le
f e e lin g o f r ig h t” (IIP R Y , 2 2 3 ). I n d i g n a t i o n is o u t r a g e a t t h e c iv il s o c ie ty a n d
its m o v e m e n t. T h a t o n ly t h e p o o r r a b b le is i n d i g n a n t s ig n ifie s th a t i n d ig n a ­
tio n c a n o n ly b e p r o d u c e d f ro m th e n e c e s s a r y p r o d u c t o f t h e e c o n o m ic m o v e­
m e n t. It d e riv e s f r o m th e s e n tim e n t o f a n a s s u m e d w ro n g . B e c a u s e t h e p o o r
r a b b le d e c la r e s th e r e s u lts o f t h e c o u n t e r n a t u r a l m o v e m e n t o f civil s o c ie ty to
b e a w r o n g t h a t is h a p p e n i n g to it. B u t b e c a u s e t h e r a b b le is in t h is w a y ju d g -
i n g t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e e x is tin g o r d e r its e lf to b e ille g a l, h e i n t e r p r e t s th e
s ta te o f r ig h t a s a “s ta te o f la c k in g r ig h ts ” ( Ib id ., 2 2 2 ). It th u s r e la te s to th e
o b je c tiv e c i r c u m s ta n c e s in th e m o d e o f n e g a tio n , a n d ta k e s “t h e m e r e ly n e g a ­
tiv e a s a s ta r t i n g - p o i n t ” (I IO P R , 2 5 7 ) f o r its r e la tio n to th e e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity
a n d is t h u s lo r I Ie g e l t h e p r o d u c t o f a s p e c if ic “d is s a tis f a c tio n t h a t m a k e s its e lf
in t h i s w ay” ( H V O R 1.4, 6 0 9 ) , a s a n in n e r - s u b je c tiv e p r o d u c t o f t h e p r iv a tio n
o f e c o n o m ic m o v e m e n t. By ta k in g h is p a r t i c u l a r j u d g m e n t a s th e o n ly v a lid
s t a n d a r d w ith w h ic h to m e a s u r e t h e o b je c tiv ity o f e x i s tin g c ir c u m s ta n c e s , th e
i n d i g n a t i o n o f t h e p o o r r a b b le p r e s e n ts th e o t h e r s id e o f t h e r a b b le -lik e evil.
B e c a u s e t h e r a b b le a ls o p o s its t h e c o n t in g e n c y o f its d is p o s itio n o f m in d in
a h y p o s ta tiz e d w ay a g a in s t t h e f r e e w ill t h a t r e a liz e s its e lf o b je c tiv e ly in th e
e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity . P o o r a n d r ic h r a b b le s h a r e t h e j u d g m e n t t h a t t h e s ta te o f
r ig h t f o r th e m a m o u n ts to a s ta te o f n a t u r e , a n a b s o lu te la c k o f r ig h ts . T h is ,
h o w ev e r, h a p p e n s b e c a u s e o n t h e o n e s id e th e lu x u r y - r a b b le c o n s id e r s its e lf
t o b e t h e a ll t r a n s c e n d i n g s tr o n g e s t w ith in th is s ta te , a s r e a l r ig h t, w h ile o n
th e o t h e r s id e , t h e p o o r r a b b le c o n s id e r s h im s e lf to b e th e w e a k e st , a s h a v in g
a b s o lu te ly n o r ig h ts . D e p ra v ity a s a n e x p r e s s io n o f th e h y p o s ta tiz a tio n o f o n e ’s
o w n , is o la te d p a r ti c u la r i ty to b e c o m e t h e o n ly a b s o lu te fo rm o f u n iv e r s a lity
a n d in d ig n a tio n a s t h e e x p r e s s io n o f a n e x p e r i e n c e d d e p r iv a tio n o f r ig h ts a r c
t h e tw o sid e s o f a c o in w h o s e n a m e is “r a b b le .” D e p ra v ity a n d i n d i g n a t i o n a r e
H e g e l's n a m e s f o r th e s e tw o s id e s o f a s u b je c tiv e p o s itio n a n d c o n v ic tio n th a t
is d i r e c t e d a g a in s t th e e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity a s s u c h . T h is m a k e s it c le a r th a t:
4. th e lo s s o f h o n o r , s h a m e a n d a ll t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w h ic h c h a r a c t e r iz e
t h e c itiz e n in t h e s ta te t h a t is p r o p e r to th e m s t a r t s f r o m th e f a c t t h a t b o th
o f th e m — a l b e it f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s — c o n s id e r it t h e i r rig h t to u n b in d them ­
selves from the (existing) right. T h is is w h y o n e o f t h e c le a r e s t d e f in i tio n s o f th e
r a b b le t h a t H e g e l g iv e s r e a d s lik e th is : “I f m a n m a k e s h i m s e l f to b e w ith o u t
r ig h ts a n d a ls o k e e p s h im s e lf u n b o u n d f r o m d u tie s . . . t h e n th is is t h e r a b b l e ”
(HPRV', 2 2 2 , m y e m p h a s is ). R ic h a n d p o o r r a b b le u n b i n d th e m s e lv e s b e c a u s e
52 Hegel's R abble

o f "a s u p p o s e d f e e lin g o f r ig h t" ( I b id ., 2 2 3 ) f r o m t h e d ia le c tic o f r ig h ts a n d

d u tie s w h ic h o p e r a t e s a s t h e c e n t r a l e l e m e n t o f t h e e t h ic a l o r d e r . B e c a u s e as
I l e g e l s ta te s in h is h a n d w r i t t e n n o te s : "D uties a r e b i n d i n g r e la tio n s " (H O P R ,
3 0 4 ). T o r e n o u n c e th e m m e a n s to u n b in d o n e s e l f f r o m b i n d i n g r e la tio n s .
T h e r a b b le in its tw o ty p e s is th e r e s u lt o f a n u n b i n d i n g a n d r e t r e a t s f r o m
t h e e t h ic a l- s ta tis t r u l e s a n d o f f e r s o f b i n d i n g . ’ B u t it is a g a in i m p o r t a n t to
d if f e r e n tia te : I f t h e r ic h r a b b le u n b i n d s its e lf o n ly to in t r o d u c e a n e w b in d ­
in g o r d e r , w h ic h o r i g i n a t e s f r o m its w e a lth , a n d is c e n t e r e d o n i t s e l f a n d its
f o r t u n e ; i f t h e p o o r r a b b le u n b i n d s its e lf t h e n it d o e s t h is w ith o u t a n y p o s ­
s ib ility o f in d ic a t in g a r e n e w e d o r r e v is e d b in d in g . O n e c a n r e m e m b e r in th is
c o n t e x t H e g e l’s r e m a r k th a t “t h e s a n c tity o f m a r r ia g e a n d h o n o u r . . . a r c
t h e tw o m o m e n ts a r o u n d w h ic h th e d is o r g a n i z a tio n o f civil s o c ie ty rev o lv e s”
(II O P R . 2 2 6 ). 11ère it b e c o m e s c l e a r th a t to s t a n d o u ts i d e o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n
a n d t h e d ia le c tic s o f r ig h ts a n d d u tie s m e a n s to b e s o m e a s o r t o f b a s t a r d o f
civil so c ie ty . O n e lo s e s t h e h o n o r b y n o t b e i n g b o u n d to a n e s ta t e o r a c o r p o ­
r a t i o n , a n d , w ith th e s a m e m o v e , o n e a ls o lo se s w h a t is p e c u l i a r to m a r r ia g e .
B e c a u s e H e g e l w r ite s t h a t it is “o u r e t h ic a l d u ty . . . to e n t e r in to t h e m a r r i e d
s ta te ” ( I b id ., 164) a n d if t h e r a b b le u n b i n d s its e lf f r o m th e to ta lity o f th e
d ia le c tic o f r ig h ts a n d d u tie s , it e v e n la c k s th is f u n d a m e n t a l e x p e r i e n c e o f
a n im m e d ia te ly e t h ic a l a n d s o c ia l c o m m u n ity . A s a lo g ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e fo r
H e g e l, t h e f a m ily is d e r iv e d f r o m m a r r i a g e a n d h e a t t e m p t s to s e c u r e in th is
w ay t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e s p e c ie s .5
T h e r a b b le is in p r e c is e ly th is s e n s e a -s o c ia l. B u t H e g e l a ls o in s c r i b e s a n
e s s e n tia l h is to r ic ity in to m a r r ia g e , a s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a r r i a g e is a lo n g ­
s id e w ith t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e — w h ic h H e g e l i n t e r p r e t s a s th e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f p r iv a t e o w n e r s h ip — th e s e c o n d d e c is iv e m o m e n t w h ic h le a d s
t o t h e h is to r ic a l c r e a t i o n o f t h e s ta te . W ith m a r r i a g e a n d a g r i c u l t u r e fin a lly
“t h e n o m a d ic life o f t h e s a v a g e ” ( Ib id ., 194) e n d s a n d is b r o u g h t “b a c k to
t h e t r a n q u i l i t y o f p r iv a te r ig h ts a n d th e a s s u r e d s a tis f a c tio n o f . . . n e e d s "
(Ib id .). T h u s , " m a r r i a g e is u n i o n [ V erbindung]" (H O P R , 31 4 ), H e g e l n o te s ,
a n d th e r e b y im p lic itly m a r k s in h is o w n h a n d w h a t t h e p o o r r a b b le la c k s. It
is t h e ‘o p p o s i t e ’ o f u n i o n [ V erbindung]: u n b i n d i n g [E n tb in d u n g ], T h e c o n s e ­
q u e n c e s o f th is a p p e a r q u ite c le a rly w h e n a lo n g w ith s h a m e th e n e e d to o w n
a s s u r e d p r o p e r t y is a ls o lo st. O f th e “h a p p i n e s s t h r o u g h each o t h e r [durch
einander]'' ( I b id ., 312), t h e o n ly t h i n g le ft is t h e n o m a d ic c o n - f u s io n [D urch­
einander] o f t h e r a b b le w h o in th e p r iv a t e r i g h t , w h ic h is t h e a s s u r e d s a tis fa c ­
tio n o f n e e d is a ls o u n b o u n d f r o m th is h a p p in e s s . T h is is w hy o n e c a n c la im
t h a t t h e r a b b le is u n b o u n d f r o m t h e d ia le c tic a l m o v e m e n t: u n b o u n d fro m
it a n d a t t h e s a m e tim e b y it. Its “a t t i t u d e w ith o u t r ig h ts ” ( H V O R L 3 , 70 3 ),
w h ic h d e l in e a te s t h e r e a s o n f o r th e u n b i n d in g , le a d s it to c la im th e r i g h t to
“s u b s is t w ith o u t h o n o r a n d la b o r a n d a c tiv ity ” ( I b id .) , a n d th is le a d s it o u t o f
t h e m e d ia t in g c o n n e c t io n s o f r ig h ts a n d d u tie s . T o b e a b le to s u b s is t w ith o u t
la b o r a n d a c tiv ity is:
 L u x u ry -R a b b le vs. P overty-R a b b le 53

5 . th e re a s o n why the poor rabble becomes lazy/fo u l I f aalJ a n d the rich rabble becomes
w a stefu l/ extravagant IverschwenderischJ. I h e r e r e a d H e g e l’s d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n
“la z in e s s a n d e x tr a v a g a n c e ” ( II O P R , 2 2 2 ) a s t h e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n th e tw o
ty p e s o f ra b b le . F o r b o t h lo s e t h e i r h a b it o f w o rk in g . T h is lo s s le a d s o n t h e o n e
s id e to a m e re ly c o n s u m p tiv e a t t i t u d e in th e r ic h r a b b le w h ic h d iv e s ts its e lf
i n e x tr a v a g a n t lu x u r y a n d w h ic h H e g e l c a lls d e p ra v ity ; a n d it le a d s o n th e
o t h e r s id e to a p u r e ly p a ssiv e a t titu d e o f r e f u s a l w h o s e g r o u n d is in d ig n a tio n .
B o th b e c o m e id le , in a c tiv e a n d stic k to a p o s itio n w h ic h e i t h e r c la im s to h o ld
a p o w e r th a t tr a n s c e n d s all in s t itu ti o n s o r d c le g itim iz e s th e m b y in d ig n a n tly
r e f e r r i n g to t h e i r im p o te n c e in v ie w o f t h e e f f e c ts o f th e so c ia l d y n a m ic . If
o n e p u s h e s th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n th e tw o ty p e s a b it f u r t h e r , o n e c a n c la im
t h a t t h e r ic h r a b b le r e la te s to th e p o o r lik e a 'g o d r e la te s to a n a n im a l.’ T h e
r ic h r a b b le a s sig n s th e s t a n d p o i n t o f th e a b s o lu te to h im s e lf, o f t h e a b s o lu te
i n s ta n c e o f r ig h t t h a t tr a n s c e n d s e v e r y th in g , a g o d -lik e p o s itio n b e c a u s e it
s ta n d s a b o v e e v e r y th in g ( c o n c r e te , le g a l, in s titu tio n a l) d u e to t h e p o w e r th a t
d e riv e s f ro m w e a lth . Its id le d e p r a v ity d e riv e s f ro m th is p e r s p e c tiv e fro m a n
id o liz a tio n o f its o w n p a r ti c u la r i ty o n th e b a s is o f h is f o r tu n e . In c o n tr a s t to
th is , H e g e l a s s ig n s t h e p o s itio n o f a n a n i m a l , w h ic h is f u lly d e p r iv e d o f a n y
r ig h t a n d r e d u c e d to its in te r e s ts a n d in s tin c ts , to th e p o o r ra b b le . A t t h e s a m e
tim e , th e p o o r r a b b le c a n n o t r e c o g n iz e in th e e th ic a l c o m m u n ity a n y t h in g b u t
a n a g g lo m e r a te of in te r e s ts a n d n e e d s w h ic h d u e to t h e i r se lfish n a t u r e la ck
a n y fo rm o f u n iv e rs a lity a n d le g itim a c y . It s e e s in it a m e r e g a m e o f in s tin c ts .
T h e r ic h r a b b le , fo llo w in g t h is d e s c r ip tio n , w o u ld b e a n id le a n d a t th e sa m e
(fo llo w in g h is o w n s e lf - u n d e r s ta n d in g ) o m n ip o t e n t g o d . T h e p o o r r a b b le
w o u ld b e a n in c a p a b le a n d th u s id le a n i m a l . B o th d if f e r e n t ty p e s o f id le n e s s
le a d o n c e a g a in to t h e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n tw o lo g ic s o f lo s s . T h is is b e c a u s e :
6 . o n e h a s to n o te t h a t b o th o f th e s id e s t h a t a r e f o rm a lly m e d ia t e d in civil
so c ie ty — p a r ti c u la r i ty a n d th e u n iv e rs a l— r e f le c t b a c k u p o n t h e tw o s o rts
o f th e r a b b le . T h e s e e m in g ly v o la tile d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n in d ig n a tio n a n d
d e p r a v ity h e r e b e c o m e s a d e c is iv e o n e . B e c a u s e if th e p o o r m a s s e s a r e n e c e s ­
s a rily g e n e r a te d b y th e d y n a m ic o f civil so c iety , t h e n th e in d ig n a tio n a b o u t
t h is p o v e rty w h ic h is th e g r o u n d fo r th e f o r m i n g o f th e p o o r r a b b le is g e n e r ­
a t e d c o n tin g e n tly . T h is d if f e r e n c e s o f a r h a s ta k e n th e fo llo w in g f o rm : ‘s u b ­
je c tiv e o p e r a t i o n — c o n t in g e n t w in n in g s ’ (ric h r a b b le ) vs. ‘loss— s u b je c tiv e
o p e r a tio n — lo ss’ ( p o o r ra b b le ). W ith th is th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n u n iv e rs a l
a n d p a r t i c u l a r r a b b le is a ls o a r ti c u la te d . H e r e , o n e c a n n o w f o r m a liz e tw o d if ­
f e r e n t lo g ic s t h a t r e n d e r t h e r e la tio n to n e c e s s ity a n d c o n tin g e n c y in te llig ib le .
W ith b o th o f t h e m d if f e r e n t s o r ts o f c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e lin k e d : b o th p r e s e n t
c h a in s o f n e c e s s a r ily d e d u c ib le a n d c o n tin g e n tly s u p p le m e n tin g a n d n o n d e -
d u c ib le c o o r d in a te s . T h e d if f e r e n t lo g ic o f th e e m e r g e n c e , t h e d if f e r e n t c h a in s
o f c o n t in g e n t a n d n e c e s s a r y e le m e n ts , d e t e r m in e t h e i r d is s im ila r ity : w h ile th e
lo g ic o f th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r ic h r a b b le fo llo w s th e s c h e m e ‘c o n tin g e n t.—
c o n t in g e n t— n e c e s s a ry ,’ lo g ic o p e r a te s fo r th e p o o r r a b b le fo llo w in g th e
54 Hegel's R abble

f o r m u la , ‘n e c e s s a ry — c o n tin g e n t.’ C o n tin g e n tly — th r o u g h an a r b itr a r y

s u b je c tiv e o p e r a t i o n — th e c o n d itio n s o f p o s s ib ility fo r th e p r o d u c tio n o f th e
r ic h r a b b le re s u lt; c o n tin g e n tly it w in s a t t h e g a m e ; a s a n e c e s s a r y c o n s e q u e n c e
o f th is t h e r ic h r a b b le w h o is g e n e r a t e d by th e c o n t in g e n t w in n in g s s u b o r d i­
n a te s h im s e lf to th e e g o is tic a l a r b it r a r in e s s o f h is w ill a n d t h is d r iv e s its to
p r o v e it p o w e r e x te r n a lly . T h e f o r m u la o f th e r ic h r a b b le is: G - C - N .7 H e r e it
is p r o d u c tiv e to r e a d th is f o r m u la to g e t h e r w ith th e p r e v io u s o n e : ‘S u b je c tiv e
a t titu d e ( in te r io r , c o n t in g e n t in th e s e n s e o f a r b itr a r y ) — c o n t in g e n t w in n in g s
( e x te r n a l, c o n t in g e n t ) — lo ss (n e c e ssa ry ).' It is i m p o r t a n t to th in k to g e th e r
b o th v a r ia n ts o f t h e f o r m u la ; in th is w ay it b e c o m e s c l e a r th a t, b e tw e e n th e
first a n d t h e s e c o n d p a r t s , a d if f e r e n c e a p p e a r s . T h e s u b je c tiv e o p e r a tio n th a t
g e n e r a te s th e e x is te n c e o f th e g a m b le r c a n b e id e n tif ie d w ith p a r ti c u la r i ty as
s u c h . T h e s e c o n d c o n tin g e n c y o f t h e w in n in g s is in c o n t r a s t a n e x t e r n a l o n e .
T h e r e f o r e t h e t h i r d p a r t , n a m e ly t h e n e c e s s a r y lo ss , is a ls o m a r k e d b y a sp lit,
b e i n g a t th e s a m e tim e in te r n a lly n e c e s s a ry (lo s in g s h a m e , h o n o r , e tc .) a n d
e x te r n a lly n e c e s s a r y ( b e in g d e p e n d e n t u p o n w e a lth a n d to d e m o n s tr a te it in
t h e f o rm o f lu x u r y ). T h e e x a c t lo g ic o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e r ic h r a b b le t h e r e ­
f o r e c a n b e w r itte n in its a b b r e v ia te d f o r m as: C - C c- N i/c.8
T h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e p o o r r a b b le fo llo w s a d i f f e r e n t lo g ic . It a p p e a r s to
b e c o n t i n g e n t a s to w h e t h e r t h e i n d i g n a t i o n a b o u t t h e n e c e s s a r y r e s u lt of
e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t, a s t h e f e e lin g o f a p r iv a t io n o f r ig h ts , e m e r g e s o r
n o t. I f o n e a g a in r e a d s t o g e t h e r t h e tw o f o r m u l a s , f o r t h e p o o r r a b b le th e
f o llo w in g r e s u lt c a n b e g iv e n : ‘L o s s /p o v e r t y ( n e c e s s a r y ) — s u b je c tiv e o p e r a ­
t io n ( c o n ti n g e n t) .’ T h e r e i n o n e c a n d e s c r ib e t h e n e c e s s a r y p r o d u c t i o n o f
p o o r m a s s e s a s a n e x t e r n a l n e c e s s ity t h a t d e r iv e s f r o m th e o b je c tiv e , e x t e ­
r i o r m o v e m e n t o f c iv il s o c ie ty (N .). T h e lo g ic o f e m e r g e n c e t h e r e f o r e c a n
b e g iv e n t h e f o llo w in g f o rm : N c- C . O r to p u t it d if f e r e n tly : d e p r a v ity is a
n e c e s s a r y r e s u lt o f th e h y p o s ta s is o f c o n t in g e n c y ( a n d o f th e s id e o f p a r t i c u ­
la rity ) in c iv il s o c ie ty ; i n d i g n a t i o n is a c o n t i n g e n t s u p p le m e n t to t h e n e c e s ­
s a r y d e v e lo p m e n t o f its u n h i n d e r e d e ffe c tiv ity . In th e lu x u r y - r a b b le c iv il
s o c ie ty fa c e s t h e c o u n t e n a n c e o f t h e c o u n t e r n a t u r a l h y p o s ta s is o f its o w n
c o n t in g e n c y (C.—C —N (, ); in t h e p o v e r ty - r a b b le , h o w e v e r, it f a c e s t h e c o n t i n ­
g e n t i n d i g n a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y p r o d u c t o f its o w n c o u n t e r n a t u r e
(N - C . ) . W h e r e f r o m o n e c a n d e riv e :
7. a d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n tw o concepts o f possibility t h a t c h a r a c t e r iz e t h e r ic h
a n d th e p o o r r a b b le . F or, i f t h e r e is a t a ll a c o n t in g e n t p o w e r o f w e a lth o u ts id e
t h e in s t itu ti o n s th e r ic h r a b b le h a s to a p p e a r : h is p o s s ib ility is in s e p a r a b le
f r o m its a c tu a lity ; it s ta n d s a n d f a lls w ith it. A s s o o n a s th r o u g h a n e x t e r io r
c o n tin g e n c y w e a lth is c o n c e n t r a t e d in th e h a n d s o f a p r iv a te p e r s o n , th e
r ic h r a b b le n e c e s s a r ily e m e r g e s . T h e p o s s ib ility o f th e p o o r r a b b le d e p e n d s
o n it m a k in g o r n o t m a k in g its e lf, i.e. its p o s s ib ility is a n d r e m a in s , a w a it­
i n g its a c tu a liz a tio n w h ic h is i n t r o d u c e d b y a s u b je c tiv e a c t, th e d is p o s itio n
o f m in d p e c u lia r to h im . T h is d if f e r e n c e n e e d s to b e f u r t h e r d if f e r e n tia te d :
 L u x u ry -R a b b le vs. P overty-R a b b le 55

t h e p o s s ib ility o f g e n e r a t i n g t h e r ic h r a b b le a t firs t s e e m s to b e , f o llo w in g its

p r in c i p le , s im ila rly g e n e r a l (o r u n iv e rs a l) a s th e o n e o f p o o r r a b b le , b e c a u s e
a n y in d iv id u a l as in d iv id u a l c a n b e c o m e a s u c c e s s fu l g a m b le r . H o w e v e r, th e
u n iv e rs a lity o f t h e p o s s ib ility o f t h e p o o r r a b b le d e p e n d s o n o b je c tiv e c o n d i­
tio n s . T h e e l a b o r a t e d logic o f double contingency c o n d i tio n s t h e p o s s ib ility o f th e
r ic h r a b b le . Its p o s s ib ility is a m e r e p o s s ib ility a s lo n g a s it is n o t c o n tin g e n tly
r e a liz e d ( in th e g a m e ) . T h e p o s s ib ility o f th e r ic h r a b b le alw ay s s ta n d s u n d e r
th e o b je c tiv e a n d e x t e r n a l c o n d i tio n s to w h ic h t h e g a m b le r h a s s u b o r d i n a t e d
h im s e lf . It s ta n d s in “th o r o u g h g o in g d e p e n d e n c e o n a r b i t r a r i n e s s a n d e x te r ­
n a l c o n tin g e n c y . . ." ( H O P R , 182). T h e ha p p y fe w d e p e n d o n t h e e x t e r n a li ty
o f th c fe x v happy m oments. T h e s t r u c t u r e o f th e p o s s ib ility o f th e p o o r r a b b le is
in c o n t r a s t d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e lo g ic o f d o u b le la te n c y s o t h a t w ith h is a p p e a r ­
a n c e th e r e tr o a c tiv e in s ig h t a r is e s to t h e e f f e c t t h a t a n y o n e c a n b e c o m e p o o r
a n d c o n s e q u e n tly a n y o n e c a n b e c o m e r a b b le . T h i s lo g ic m a k e s it c le a r th a t
t h e p o s s ib ility o f t h e p o o r r a b b le is n o t b o u n d to a n y o t h e r c o n d i tio n , i.e . first
a n d f o r e m o s t n o t to a n y o t h e r e x t e r n a l c o n d i tio n . R a t h e r t h e r e is a p e r m a ­
n e n t a n d u n iv e rs a l p o s s ib ility t h a t th e p o o r r a b b le is p r o d u c e d (p o v e rty ) a n d
th is p r o d u c ti o n d e p e n d s so le ly o n a subjective operation ( a ttitu d e ) . T o s p e a k
in m o r e d ia le c tic a l te rm s : th e sin g le , is o la te d a n d p a r t i c u l a r i z e d r e a lity o f
t h e r ic h r a b b le w ill alw ays h a v e b e e n r e ly in g u p o n a m e re , p u r e ly c o n t in g e n t
p o ssib ility , a n d t h e p o o r r a b b le o n a n e c e s s a r y p o s s ib ility t h a t is c o n s ta n tly
in s c r i b e d b y t h e d u r a t i o n o f civil so c iety .
T h e re a lity o f th e r ic h r a b b le is g r o u n d e d in a p o s s ib ility t h a t is alw ays
a lre a d y m a r k e d by t h e logic o f double contingency a n d alw ay s r e m a in s p a r ti c u ­
la r. T h e p o ssib ility o f th e r ic h r a b b le is in a d o u b le s e n s e a possibility o f p a r­
ticularization : 1. b e c a u s e it p a r ti c u la r i z e s a n d is o la te s th e o n e to w h o m th e
p o s s ib ility b e lo n g s a n d r e f e r s h im to m e r e c o n tin g e n c y a n d 2 . b e c a u s e it is
a s p o s s ib ility its e lf p a r ti c u la r i z e d , alw ays d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d o u b le c o n tin ­
g en c y . T h is m e a n s : N o t a n y o n e c a n b e c o m e a r ic h ra b b le . T h e r e a lity o f th e
lu x u r y - r a b b le is g r o u n d e d in a c o n d i tio n e d p o s s ib ility o f p a r ti c u la r i z a t io n th a t
th e r e f o r e r e m a in s p a r t i c u l a r e v e n w h ile s e e m in g u n iv e rs a l. T h e r e a lity o f th e
p o v e rty -ra b b le , in c o n t r a s t, is g r o u n d e d in a n u n c o n d i tio n a l p o s s ib ility o f u n i­
v e r s a liz a tio n t h a t r e m a in s u n iv e rs a l e v e n w h ile s e e m in g p a r ti c u la r . A n y o n e
c a n s in k in to p o v e r ty a n d c a n c o n s e q u e n tly b e c o m e r a b b le ; th e p o s s ib ility o f
t h e p o v e r ty - r a b b le d o e s n o t k n o w a n y (o b je c tiv e ) c o n d itio n s . T h e p o s s ib ility as
c o n d i tio n e d p o s s ib ility o f u n iv e r s a l is o la tio n a n d p a r ti c u la r i z a t io n o r th e p o s ­
sib ility a s u n c o n d i tio n e d p o s s ib ility o f a s in g u l a r u n iv e rs a lity , th is is w h a t f u n ­
d a m e n ta lly d is tin g u is h e s lu x u r y - r a b b le f r o m p o v e rty -ra b b le . T h e r e f o r e o n e
c a n c la im t h a t th e g e n e r a liz a tio n t h a t r e tr o a c tiv e ly r e s u lts f r o m th e e m e r g e n c e
o f th e r ic h r a b b le is n o t h i n g b u t a h y p o s ta s is o f th e m e r e p a r t i c u l a r i t y a n d its
m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r p o ssib ility . I n c o n tr a s t, t h e g e n e r a liz a tio n t h a t re tro a c tiv e ly
d e riv e s f r o m t h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e p o v e r ty - r a b b le a n d follow s th e logic o f double
latency is a u n iv e rs a l p o ssib ility .
56 Hegel's R abble

A m e r e p o s s ib ility o f p a r ti c u la r i z a t io n d if f e r s f r o m a n e c e s s a r y p o s s ib ility o f
u n iv e r s a liz a tio n .'1B u t b o t h c a n o n ly b e g r a s p e d re tro a c tiv e ly b e c a u s e o n ly t h e n
it d o e s b e c o m e c l e a r th a t v ia t h e r ic h r a b b le t h e r e w ill h a v e b e e n a p o ssib ility
o f p a r ti c u la r i z a t io n in civil so c ie ty , its “g e n e r a l p r in c ip le is t h a t o f is o la tio n .”10
S im ila rly , o n e c a n o n ly re tro a c tiv e ly d e t e r m i n e th a t v ia t h e p o v e r ty -ra b b le
t h e r e w ill h a v e b e e n a n e c e s s a r y a n d u n iv e rs a l p o s s ib ility th a t is g r a n t e d to
a n y o n e (a s la te n t r a b b le ). T h is
8. m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n conditioned a n d u n co n d itio n a l
possibility in s c r ib e s a d if f e r e n c e in to th e f o r m s o f a p p e a r a n c e th a t a g a in f u n ­
d a m e n ta lly d is t in g u is h e s b e tw e e n t h e d e g r e e s o f p r iv a tio n a n d u n b i n d i n g o f
t h e tw o ty p e s o f th e r a b b le . T h e r ic h r a b b le a p p e a r s in a n d a s lu x u r y ; th e p o o r
r a b b le a p p e a r s in a n d a s th e p o o r . T h e r ic h r a b b le th u s o w n s— in a tw o fo ld
s e n s e — a p e c u lia r m o d e o f a p p e a r i n g j u s t b e c a u s e it h a s p r o p e r ty . I n d e e d , th e
s u b s is te n c e o f th e lu x u r y - r a b b le is n o t p e r m a n e n tl y a s s u r e d b u t f o r th e few
happy m om ents in w h ic h h e is w ealth y . B e c a u s e th e ric h r a b b le o n ly a p p e a r s as
lo n g a s it is r ic h , i.e . b e c a u s e it o n ly a p p e a r s a t a ll a s lo n g a s it is a b le to d e m ­
o n s tr a t e h is su c c e ss e x te r n a lly , th is c o n d i tio n c o n s titu t e s h is p e c u lia r f o r m o f
a p p e a r a n c e . T h e r ic h r a b b le a p p e a r s as lo n g a s h e p o sse ss e s a n d a s lo n g a s it
a p p e a r s , it a p p e a r s a s p r o p r ie to r . T h e r e w ith it is c l e a r th a t t h e lu x u r y -r a b b le
f o r th o s e h a p p y m o m e n ts in w h ic h it c a n c a ll a c o n t in g e n t p r o p e r ty its o w n ,
s ta n d s o n th e le g a l g r o u n d o f t h e s ta te . B e c a u s e w ith th is p r o p e r ty it is still
a c c e s s ib le by t h e s ta te t h a t c a n d e m a n d s o m e th in g f ro m h im — lo r e x a m p le
ta x e s . T h e r a b b le is th e r e f o r e s u b je c t to H e g e l’s s ta te m e n t “t h a t th e s ta te lays
h o ld o f s o m e o n e o n ly b y t h a t w ith r e s p e c t to w h ic h h e is c a p a b le o f b e in g
h e l d ” (H G P R , 2 8 7 ). F o r th e r ic h r a b b le th is m e a n s t h a t it c a n b e la in h o ld o f
b y h is p r o p e r ty . F or, th e lu x u r y -r a b b le is in th o s e m o m e n ts in w h ic h it p o s ­
se sse s a p r o p r i e t o r a n d a s s u c h c a n d e m a n d s e c u r ity fo r t h is p r o p e r ty a n d h a s
a ll t h e r ig h ts o f a p r o p r ie to r . B ut th e s e r ig h ts a r e a c c o m p a n ie d b y d u tie s — in
r e la tio n to ta x fo r e x a m p le . It is p re c is e ly th is w h ic h m a rk s h is p a r a d o x ic a l
p o s itio n : o n o n e h a n d th e r a b b le u n d e r s t a n d s h im s e lf b y v ir tu e o f p r o p e r t y as
a n a ll- s u r m o u n tin g p o w e r, o n th e o t h e r s id e th is p o w e r is a p u r e ly e c o n o m i­
c a l o n e w h ic h a t th e s a m e tim e is s till s a f e g u a r d e d b y th e r ig h t th a t r e m a in s
e ffe c tiv e in th e s ta te . T h a t th e r ic h r a b b le c o n s ta n tly u n d e r m i n e s th e s e c u r ity
o f its p r o p e r ty , b c c a u s e it alw ays new ly p u ts it o n th e lin e , d o e s n o t c h a n g e th e
f a c t th a t it, a l th o u g h it fa lls o u t o f th e lo g ic o f r e c o g n itio n th a t in s t r u c ts civil
s o c ie ty a n d th e s ta te , is le g a lly r e c o g n iz e d a s p r o p r ie to r , a t le a s t fo r th e few
happy m om ents in w h ic h it is o n e . " It is t h is s t r u c t u r e t h a t c o n s titu te s th e p a r ­
t ic u la r d a n g e r o u s n e s s a n d th e p e c u lia r c o u n t e r n a t u r e o f th e lu x u r y -r a b b le : it
u n d e r m i n e s t h e s tr u c t u r e s o f r e c o g n itio n a n d n o n e th e le s s c a n in t h e h a p p y
m o m e n ts d e m a n d a t le a s t a b s tr a c t, le g a l r e c o g n itio n . H e r e it b e c o m e s in te l­
lig ib le t h a t t h e r ic h r a b b le is a n d c a n o n ly b e in a ta m e d in a w ay f o r m t h a t is
n o t f u lly u n b o u n d f ro m t h e s ta te a n d its in s titu tio n s . B e c a u s e a s lo n g a s it h a s
p o s s e s s io n s it r e m a in s a s a p e r s o n w ith in t h e le g a l a n d s ta tis t s p h e r e .1- T h e
 L u x u ry -R a b b le vs. P overty-R a b b le 57

lu x u r y - r a b b le is d u e to p r e c is e ly th is f a c t a r g u a b ly t h e m o s t r a d ic a l h y p o s ta s is
o f th e n e tw o r k o f a c tio n s contra n a lu ra m s u i generis, w h ic h is civil so c iety . I n c o n ­
tr a s t to th is s ta n d s t h e p o v e r ty - r a b b le g e n e r a te d b y t h e r e la tio n o f d e p r iv a tio n
t h a t is n e c e s s a r ily d w e llin g in civil so c iety . T h a t it d e riv e s f r o m a d e e p e n e d lo ss
m e a n s th a t its u n b in d in g d o e s n o t k n o w a n y f o rm o f ta m in g . F o r th e r a b b le
e v e n la c k s a n y m o d e o f (e x te rio r) a p p e a r a n c e . I f l u x u r y is th e s p e c if ic f o r m o f
a p p e a r a n c e o f th e r ic h r a b b le a n d i f it is a n e x t e r io r d e m o n s tr a ti o n o f p r o p ­
e r ty w h ic h d if f e r e n tia te s its e lf in d e te r m in a te ly , t h e n o n e c a n c la im th a t th e
p o o r r a b b le e v e n la c k s a p e c u lia r a p p e a r a n c e . B e c a u s e a lr e a d y t h e p o o r la ck
d u e to t h e firs t, e c o n o m ic lo ss, p r o p e r t y a n d a ll t h e a d v a n ta g e s o f civil so c iety ,
t h e r a b b le n o w is a d e e p e n i n g o f th is p r i m a r y lo ss. T h e c le a r e s t s ig n o f th is is
p r o b a b ly th a t t h e r a b b le is in d is tin g u is h a b le f r o m th e p o o r . W h a t c h a r a c te r ­
izes th e p o o r r a b b le is th e a t t i t u d e jo in e d to p o v e rty , w h ic h a t t h e s a m e tim e
d o c s n o t a p p e a r e x te r n a lly . W h a t a p p e a r s a r c so lely th e p o o r n o m a tte r i f it
is th e p o o r r a b b le o r n o t. T h e r e is n o e x t e r i o r c r it e r io n t h a t w o u ld e n a b le
u s to d e te c t w h e th e r t h e p o o r is a p o o r r a b b le o r a p o o r d e v il. T h e “m in im a l
d if f e r e n c e ,”15 w h ic h d is t in g u is h e s b o t h o f th e m , th a t is m a r k e d b y th e a t titu d e
j o i n e d to p o v e rty , g e n e r a te s n o p o s s ib ility o f e x t e r n a l d if f e r e n tia tio n .
 C h a p te r 7

T h e Form ula of Infinite U nbinding:

“T his is the Rabble,” or Resentment-Rabble
and Absolute Rabble

I f m a n o n a ny topic appeals to the n a tu re a n d concept o f the subject-matter, or a t least

to reasons, to intellectual universality, b u t to his fe e lin g , the only th in g to d o it to let
h im a h n e , because he thereby sp u rn s th e com m unity o f rationality, w ithdraw s in to his
isolated subjectivity, in to p a r tic u la rity .
( 0 . W. F. H egel)1

W hoever is o f the rabble w ants to live fo r fr e e . . .

(Friedrich Nietzsche)*

S o f a r 1 h a v e d e s c r ib e d s e v e ra l scissio n s: civil s o c ie ty s p lits in to th o s e w h o fin d

w o rk a n d a p la c e in a n e s ta te a n d th o s e w h o a r e m e r e p r iv a te p e r s o n s ; p r i­
v a te p e r s o n s s p lit in to p o o r a n d g a m b le r s ; th e p o o r s p lit in to p o o r a n d p o o r
r a b b le ; th e g a m b le r s s p lit in to g a m b le r s a n d r ic h r a b b le ; th e r a b b le sp lits
i n to r ic h a n d p o o r r a b b le .5 I h a v e r e c o n s tr u c te d th e d if f e r e n t lo g ic s o f e m e r ­
g e n c e o f th e ty p e s o f th e r a b b le a n d s h o w n h o w th e y a r e r e la te d to d if f e r e n t
n o tio n s o f p o ssib ility . T h e lu x u r y -r a b b le r e lie s o n a n alw ay s c o n d i tio n e d a n d
m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r p o ssib ility , th e p o s s ib ility o f t h e p o o r r a b b le is n e c e s s a r y a n d
u n iv e rs a l, u n c o n d itio n a l. T h e f o r m u la s o f th e s e e m e r g e n c e s s o f a r a r e : “in n e r
c o n tin g e n c y (su b jec tiv e o p e r a tio n /a ttit u d e ) — e x te r n a l c o n tin g e n c y ( c o n tin ­
g e n t w in n in g s ) — e x t e r n a l n e c e s s ity ( d e m o n s tr a tio n o f w e a lth ) / in te r n a l
n e c e s s ity (loss o f s h a m e , h o n o r , e tc .) ” ( C - C -N ^ , ) = lu x u r y -r a b b le ; “e x t e r n a l
n e c e s s ity (p o v e rty )— in te r n a l c o n tin g e n c y (su b je c tiv e o p e r a t i o n / a t t i t u d e ) ”;
(N r—C.) = p o v e rty -ra b b le . T h e r e w ith th e f o r m u la o f th e p o o r r a b b le s o f a r h a s
o n e e le m e n t less t h a n th a t o f th e r ic h ra b b le . I t is p re c ise ly t h e e le m e n t th a t
d e s c r ib e s h o w f o r t h e r ic h , w in n in g m o n e y is n e c e s s a r ily fo llo w e d by a lo ss o f
s h a m e a n d h o n o r , e tc . a n d a d e m o n s tr a ti o n o f w e a lth . O n e c a n c la im t h a t th e
t h i r d e le m e n t m a r k s in a n a b s tr a c t w ay th e sp e c ific ity o f th e lo ss. N ec essa rily ,
i t is s h o w n in th e la st s te p t h a t th e r ic h r a b b le w ill alw ay s h a v e b e e n a p r o d u c t
o f th e a b s o lu te h y p o s ta s is o f th e c o n tin g e n t. T h a t t h e r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e
 T h e F o rm u la o f I n fin ite U n b in d in g 59

p o o r ra b b le s o f a r e n d s w ith th e s e c o n d e le m e n t is d u e to th e f a c t th a t H e g e l
h im s e lf d o e s n o t d e s c r ib e th is m o m e n t o f h is g e n e s is in a n y f u r t h e r d e t a il . H e ,
o r s o I w a n t to c la im , s u s p e n d s th e t h i r d e le m e n t o f th e lo g ic o f e m e r g e n c e o f
t h e p o o r r a b b le b e c a u s e h e in te r p r e ts it solely a s a “n e g a tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g "
(IIO P R . 258). A lth o u g h H e g e l d e s c r ib e s th e m o m e n t o f e m e r g e n c e f r o m th e
r a b b le ’s su b je c tiv e a t t i t u d e w h ic h s u p p le m e n ts th e n e c e s s a r ily p r e s e n t p o s s ib il­
ity b u t h e d o e s n o t s p e c ify w h a t th e lo ss o f t h e p o v e r ty -ra b b le is. I Ie g e l d o e s n o t
d e s c r ib e th e la st e le m e n t o f th e lo g ic o f e m e r g e n c e o f t h e p o o r r a b b le b e c a u s e
f o r h im it is th e s a m e a s th e s e c o n d o n e . In th is o n e c a n s e e th e im p lic a tio n o f
w h a t th e p o o r r a b b le is la c k in g : it la c k s th e th ir d e le m e n t, w h ic h w o u ld e n a b le
to c o n c e iv e a d e q u a te ly o f h is p r iv a tio n . In th e fo llo w in g I w ill a tte m p t to tr a c e
t h e s o fa r la c k in g e le m e n t o f t h e f o r m u la of th e p o v e rty -ra b b le s o a s to b e a b le
t o sh o w in w h a t w ay w ith it t h e r e ig n ite s a n d u n b in d s a m o v e m e n t th a t H eg el
h im s e lf d o c s n o t m a k e e x p lic it, b u t t h a t is n o n e th e le s s in s c r ib e d in to h is c la im s
a b o u t th e first tw o lo g ic a l e le m e n ts o f th e p o o r ra b b le . I w ill th e re b y sh o w th a t
H e g e l d id n o t h im s e lf p r o c e e d d ia le c tic a lly e n o u g h w h e n s p e a k in g a b o u t th e
p o o r ra b b le . It is r a t h e r “a s th o u g h th e d ia le c tic h a d b e c o m e f rig h te n e d of
itself" (A T S , 8 0 ) a s s o o n a s it c a m e to o c lo se to th e p o o r ra b b le . T h e fo llo w in g
r e m a r k s w ill th e r e f o r e b e a n a t te m p t to c o m p le te th e lo g ic o f th e p o o r ra b b le .
T o s t a r t w ith th is , it is n e c e s s a r y to d e e p e n o n c e a g a in t h e d if f e r e n tia tio n
o f th e tw o ty p e s of ra b b le . O n e c e n tr a l c h a r a c t e r is ti c o f t h e r a b b le t h a t c a n
b e f o u n d in H e g e l is h is r e s e n tm e n t.4 I a m a w a re o f t h e fa c t th a t t h e n o tio n
o f “r e s e n tm e n t” c a n n o t— to th e b e s t o f m y k n o w le d g e — b e f o u n d e x p lic itly in
H e g e l’s o e u v r e . I n t h e fo llo w in g I w a n t to d e v e lo p a H e g e lia n th e o r y o f r e s e n t­
m e n t f r o m im p lic it h in ts th a t H e g e l h im s e lf a r tic u la te s . O n e o f th e m lies in
h is u s a g e o f t h e w o rd ‘in d ig n a tio n ’ [Em pörung]. F o r h e e m p lo y s it n o t j u s t in
a n (a ffe c tiv e ) d e s c r ip tio n o f th e a t titu d e o f t h e r a b b le b u t a ls o in t h e s e n s e o f
o u tr a g e , u p r is in g o r in s u r r e c tio n , a s f o r e x a m p le w h e n h e w rite s: “A r e b e llio n
in a p r o v in c e c o n q u e r e d in w a r is a d if f e r e n t t h i n g f r o m a r is in g [Empörung] in
a w e ll-o r g a n iz e d s ta te ” ( H O P R . 275). In th e fo llo w in g p a s s a g e , h e c la im s th a t
t h e la tte r is a “c r im e a g a in s t th e s ta te ” (Ib id .). O n e c a n th e r e f o r e firs t d e f in e
r e s e n tm e n t a s th a t w h ic h is d e s c r ib e d in b o th r a b b le - f o r m u la s a s i n n e r c o n tin ­
g e n c y ( C ) . It a p p e a r s a t a s ta g e in w h ic h fo r H c g c l th e s u b je c tiv e o p e r a tio n ,
n a m e ly t h e a t titu d e , c o n tin g e n tly le a d s to t h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e ra b b le . F or
t h e r ic h r a b b le th is m e a n s th a t its e m e r g e n c e b e g in s w ith r e s e n tm e n t. F o r th e
p o o r ra b b le th is m e a n s t h a t a l th o u g h it is a p r o d u c t o f r e s e n tm e n t, its r e s e n t­
m e n t 1. re lie s o n a n e c e s s a r ily g iv e n p o s s ib ility o f r e s e n tin g a n d 2 . t h a t fo r
H e g e l it d o e s n o t s e e m to b e a n y t h in g b u t r e s e n tm e n t, i.e . in d ig n a tio n , d is s a t­
is f a c tio n . F ro m t h e f o r m u la o f th e r ic h r a b b le ( C —C r- N . /f) it a lr e a d y b e c a m e
c le a r t h a t th e firs t s ta g e c o n s is ts in h y p o s ta tiz in g c o n tin g e n c y in its e lf a n d th a t
t h e o t h e r lo g ic a l s te p s ( fr o m th e c o n t in g e n t f o r its e lf to t h e n e c e s s a r y in a n d
f o r its e lf) a r e p r o d u c ts o f th e f ir s t h y p o s ta s is . T h e h i t h e r t o f o r m u la o f t h e p o o r
r a b b le (N —C.) in d ic a te s t h a t its r e s e n tm e n t is th e ( c o n tin g e n t) p r o d u c t o f a
60 Hegel's R abble

n e c e s s a r y p o ssib ility . T h e r a b b le b e g in s f r o m a n e c e s s a ry in its e lf a n d c o m e s

t o a c o n t in g e n t fo rm o f th e f o r itse lf, th a t is r e s e n tm e n t. B u t h o w to d e s c r ib e
r e s e n tm e n t m o r e p re c ise ly ? W h a t r e la te s a n d w h a t d is tin g u is h e s th e tw o ty p e s
o f t h e r a b b le w ith r e g a r d s to r e s e n tm e n t?
B o th a r e f ig u re s o f r e s e n tm e n t b e c a u s e b o th h a v e a p e c u l i a r a n d c o n tr a d ic ­
to r y a t titu d e . O n e c a n say th a t f o r b o th t h e i r a t t i t u d e le a d s to th e m “b e in g
u n b o u n d f r o m t h e r e s p e c t o f o t h e r s ’ r ig h ts ” (I IPRV, 2 2 2 ). T h e y r e f u s e n o t o n ly
t o g iv e o th e r s t h e i r r e c o g n itio n b u t a ls o to m a k e th e m s e lv e s a d d r e s s a b le in
te r m s o f r ig h ts a n d d u tie s f o r th e o th e r s . G o v e r n m e n t a p p e a r s to th e m o n ly as
a n ev il w ill; t h e i r “e x is te n c e [ . . . ] c o r r o d e s th e a c tu a l o r d e r ” ( II O P R , 25 2 ) a n d
“a s it w e re . . . h a n g [ s ] ” p o litic a l life “in m id - a ir" ( Ib id ., 2 9 2 ). H e r e it b e c o m e s
c le a r th e a t t i t u d e is a n e s s e n tia l p o in t o f c r y s ta lliz a tio n o f t h e ra b b le -p r o b le m .
B e c a u s e a s I Ie g e l s ta te s , “n o o n e c a n b r e a k u p t h is i n n e r c o n v ic tio n o f h u m a n ­
ity, n o v io le n c e c a n b e d o n e to i t . . . ” ( Ib id .. 110). It is, to q u o te J o a c h im R itte r,
" t h a t w h ic h allo w s n o v io le n t a c c e s s to it."5 H e g e l c o n s is te n tly d e d u c e s th a t
“m o r a lity a n d m o r a l c o m m a n d s [w h ich ] c o n c e r n th e w ill in its m o s t p e r s o n a l
s u b je c tiv ity a n d p a r ti c u la r i ty . . . c a n n o t b e a m a t t e r f o r p o sitiv e le g isla tio n "
( Ib id ., 2 0 2 ). B u t h o w c a n o n e u n d e r s t a n d r e s e n tm e n t b e s id e its r a t h e r a f fec tiv e
c o m p o n e n ts o f d is s a tis fa c tio n , d e p ra v ity , in d ig n a tio n ?
I f o n e c o n s id e r s t h e d e c isiv e r e m a r k c o n c e r n in g t h e r a b b le f ro m th e
Philosophy o f R ig h t th in g s b e c o m e c le a re r:

T h e low est s u b s is te n c e level, t h a t o f a r a b b le o f p a u p e r s , is fix e d a u to m a ti­

ca lly [m achtsich von selbst], b u t th e m in im u m v a r ie s c o n s id e r a b ly in d if f e r e n t
c o u n tr ie s . In E n g la n d , e v e n th e v e ry p o o r e s t b e lie v e t h a t th e y h a v e rig h ts ;
th is is d if f e r e n t fro m w h a t sa tis fie s t h e p o o r in o t h e r c o u n tr ie s . P o v e rty in
its e lf d o e s n o t t u r n p e o p le in to a r a b b le ; a r a b b le is c r e a te d o n ly w h e n t h e r e
is j o i n e d to p o v e r ty a d is p o s itio n o f m in d , a n i n n e r in d ig n a tio n a g a in s t th e
r ic h , a g a in s t so c iety , a g a in s t t h e g o v e r n m e n t, e tc . A f u r t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e o f
th is a t titu d e is th a t th r o u g h t h e i r d e p e n d e n c e o n c h a n c e p e o p le b e c o m e
friv o lo u s a n d id le , . . . la c k in g s u f fic ie n t h o n o u r to s e c u r e s u b s is te n c e by
t h e i r o w n la b o u r a n d y e t a t th e s a m e tim e o f c la im in g th e r ig h t to re c e iv e
s u b s is te n c e . A g a in s t n a t u r e a h u m a n b e in g c a n c la im n o r ig h t, b u t o n c e
so c ie ty is e s ta b lis h e d , p o v e r ty im m e d ia te ly ta k e s th e f o r m o f a w r o n g d o n e
to o n e c la ss [Klasse] by a n o t h e r . ( Ib id ., 221)

T h e r a b b le in d ig n a n tly a n d d is s a tis fie d ly a c c u s e s so c iety , g o v e r n m e n t, e tc . a n d

d e c la r e s th e s ta te o f civil s o c ie ty a n d s ta te o r d e r to b e a s ta te w ith o u t r ig h t. T h is
in d ig n a tio n is a n e x p r e s s io n o f a d e e p e r c o n tr a d ic tio n . F o r th e r a b b le a c c u s e s
e x is tin g c i r c u m s ta n c e s o f b e i n g w ith o u t r ig h t but h e g a in s his idea o f right fro m
them. I t th e r e f o r e a d o p t s , w ith o u t k n o w in g it. t h e e x is tin g c o n c e p t o f r ig h t in
o r d e r to b e a b le to d e t e r m i n e w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d to it a s a w ro n g . B u t th a t
t h is is a w ro n g c a n n o t b e d e r iv e d f r o m g iv e n d e t e r m in a tio n s o f r ig h t. R a th e r,
 T h e F o rm u la o f I n fin ite U n b in d in g 61

t h e p o o r is in a s ta te o f la c k t h a t h e h im s e lf ju d g e s to b e a w ro n g . “I n th is way
h is p o v e rty b e c o m e s a w ro n g [Unrecht], a n in s u lt to h is r ig h t, th is p r o d u c e s a
d is s a tis fa c tio n t h a t a t th e s a m e tim e ta k e s t h e f o r m o f r ig h t” (IIV O R L 4 , 60 9 ).
B e c a u s e , o n t h e o n e h a n d , h is la c k is n o t r e c o g n iz e d a s a w r o n g b y th e e x ist­
i n g r ig h t, a n d o n th e o t h e r h e h im s e lf j u d g e s it to b e a n in s u lt to h is r ig h t, a
w ro n g ; h e a t t h e s a m e tim e j u d g e s th a t th e g iv e n s ta te o f r ig h t is n o t a s ta te o f
r ig h t. A s th e r ig h t d o e s n o t s u p p o r t h is j u d g m e n t a b o u t th e w r o n g h e e x p e r i­
e n c e s it lo se s f o r h im th e f u n c tio n o f b e i n g a r ig h t, i.e . le g a lity a s su c h . T h is is
t h e r e a s o n f o r h is in d ig n a tio n . It is g e n e r a te d w ith in th e r a b b le w h e n it ju d g e s
its la c k a s a w ro n g a n d t h e e x is tin g r ig h t d o c s n o t s h a r e th is j u d g m e n t . In th e
r a b b le th e c o n d itio n o f p o s s ib ility fo r th e w r o n g a n d its c o n d itio n o f im p o s s i­
b ility c o in c id e . T h e p o o r r a b b le c la im s th a t a w r o n g h a s b e e n d o n e to it in civil
s o c ie ty (p o v e rty , la ck ); t h a t th is w r o n g is n o t c o n s id e r e d to b e o n e a n d d o e s n o t
g e t s u b la te d m a k e s c iv il s o c ie ty in to a s ta te o f l a c k o f r ig h t; f r o m t h is t h e r a b b le
fo llo w s a ( n o th e r ) r ig h t w h ic h g u a r a n t e e s t h a t th e r a b b le w ill b e p r o v id e d fo r
w ith o u t la b o r in g — a n d t h is is w hy th e p o s itio n o f th e r a b b le is c o n t r a d ic t o r y
f o r I le g e l. B e c a u s e a l ig h t to b e w ith o u t w o rk o p p o s e s th e (e x is tin g ) r a tio n a l
a n d g e n e r a l c o n c e p t o f r ig h t.
If e x is tin g r ig h t o p e r a t e s by th e o b je c tif ic a tio n a n d r e a liz a tio n o f a n alw ays
p a r t i c u l a r f r e e d o m t h e n th is c a n o n ly b e d o n e b y a c tio n a n d la b o r. A g a in s t
t h e r ig h t o f r e a s o n , w h ic h o r g a n iz e s civ il s o c ie ty a n d t h e s ta te , th e r a b b le
c la im s a r ig h t t h a t s u s p e n d s t h e m e d ia t io n b y w o rk a n d ac tiv ity . S in c e o n e ’s
o w n a c tiv ity is th e f o u n d a ti o n fo r t h e m e d ia tio n w ith in c iv il s o c ie ty o f e g o is tic
n e e d s a n d in te r e s ts w ith th e u n iv e r s a lity o f a ll in te r e s ts , i.e . fo r t h e in s c r ip ­
t io n o f a u n iv e rs a l in to e a c h o f t h e is o la te d s a tis f a c tio n s o f p a r t i c u l a r n e e d s ,
t h e r ig h t w h ic h t h e r a b b le o p p o s e s to t h e e x is tin g r ig h t is o n e t h a t is m e re ly
p a r ti c u la r , p a r ti c u la r i z e d : it is v a lid f o r th e r a b b le a n d f o r th e r a b b le a lo n e .
T o c la im a r ig h t th a t is n o t o n ly a r ig h t o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r b u t t h a t is m e re ly
p a r t i c u l a r a s a r ig h t m a r k s a c e n tr a l f e a tu r e in th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e r a b b le ’s
a t titu d e . T o c la im a r ig h t t h a t f u n d a m e n ta l ly d o e s n o t f u lfill th e c o n d i tio n s o f
p o s s ib ility o f b e in g a r ig h t— b y b e i n g m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r — b y b e i n g a rig h t w ith­
out right is t h e b a s ic s t r u c t u r e o f th a t w h ic h o n e c a n c a ll resentm ent in H eg e l.
T h e te r m right w ith o u t right n a m e s o n o n e s id e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r ig h t w h ic h
t h e r a b b le c la im s d o e s n o t c o n t a in th e n e c e s s a r y u n iv e r s a lity i n s c r i b e d in th e
n o tio n o f r ig h t a n d th e r e f o r e c a n b e r e a d a s a r ig h t w ith o u t le g itim a c y . B u t o n
t h e o t h e r s id e , b y n o t h a v in g le g itim a c y , th is ‘n o t i o n ’ o f r ig h t c a n n o t c la im a
r a ti o n a l r ig h t a g a in s t t h e e x is tin g r ig h t.
F u r t h e r m o r e a right w ith o u t right is th e p o in t to w h ic h t h e r a b b le r e f e r s in
o r d e r to in d ic a te th e w r o n g t h a t h a s b e f a lle n it. T h e r a b b le “p r e te n d s ” t h e r e ­
f o r e to “s u b s is t w ith o u t la b o r a n d a c tiv ity ” (H V O R L 4 , 7 0 3 ). T h is p r e te n s io n is
f o r H e g e l a m e r e p r e te n s io n t h a t c o n t r a d ic t s th e n o tio n o f r ig h t d e s p ite b e in g
c o n s ta n tly r e f e r r e d b a c k to it, a s it is its e n a b lin g p r in c ip le . I f r e s e n tm e n t r e f e r s
t o th e s t r u c t u r e o f a right w ithout right it b e c o m e s c le a r t h a t n o t o n ly o n e b u t
62 Hegel's R abble

b o t h ty p e s o f th e r a b b le f a ll u n d e r th is c a te g o ry . A lth o u g h b o t h a r e f ig u re s o f
r e s e n tm e n t, th e y r e m a in d if fe r e n t:
B e c a u s e f o r le g itim a ti n g h is w e a lth a t a ll a s 1. his w e a lth a n d 2 . a s h is wealth
t h e r ic h m a n , w ith o u t k n o w in g it, m u s t r e f e r to th e c a te g o r y o f p r o p e r ty a n d
t h e r e w ith to th e c a te g o r y o f t h e r ig h ts - p e r s o n a . l i e r e m a in s w ith in th e e x ist­
i n g r ig h t. T h e r ic h r a b b le c la im s a g a in s t th e (e x is tin g ) r ig h t a m e re ly p a r ti c u ­
l a r r ig h t ( th a t o f h is w e a lth ) w h ic h it ta k e s to ju stify its e x is te n c e a n d w h ic h
a s s u re s it o f a s u b s is te n c e w ith o u t w o rk . T h is r ig h t o f w e a lth is alw ay s a lr e a d y a
t r u e right w ith o u t right t h a t s ta n d s in c o n t r a s t w ith t h e e x is tin g r ig h t; a m e re ly
c o n tin g e n t, p a r t i c u l a r r e s e n tm e n t. In c o n t r a s t, t h e p o o r r a b b le a d h e r e n c e to
civil s o c ie ty th a t a s s u re s to a n y o n e t h e i r s u b s is te n c e th r o u g h la b o r in g . H o w ev er,
i t p r o d u c e s im p o v e r is h e d m a s s e s th a t c a n n o t e n s u r e t h e i r s u b s is te n c e . T h a t
t h e p o o r r a b b le is “la c k in g s u ffic ie n t h o n o u r to s e c u r e s u b s is te n c e b y h is ow n
la b o u r a n d y e t a t th e s a m e tim e o f c la im in g t h e r ig h t to r e c e iv e s u b s is te n c e "
I IIO P R , 221) m e a n s lo r t h e p o o r r a b b le th a t h e ta k e s civil s o c ie ty a t its w o rd .
A n y o n e h a s th e r ig h t to s u b s is t th e r e th r o u g h o n e 's o w n w o rk ; t h e m o v e m e n t
o f c iv il s o c ie ty its e lf m a k e s th is im p o s s ib le a n d p o v e rty re s u lts ; th e p o o r r a b b le
n o w c lin g s o n to t h e p r in c ip le o f civil s o c ie ty b y a d d r e s s in g th e s a m e r ig h t th a t
h a s d e p r iv e d it o f its r ig h t to d e c la r e th is d e p r iv a tio n a s a w ro n g . T h is w ro n g
is n e i t h e r r e c o g n iz e d a s o n e n o r is it s u b la te d . T h is le a d s to t h e d e c la r a tio n o f
a right w ith o u t right t h a t is a d e q u a t e to h is p o s itio n a s p o o r . T h e r ig h t t h e p o o r
r a b b le d e c la r e s is th e r ig h t o f p o v e rty , o f la ck th a t H e g e l s e e s a s m e r e r e s e n t­
m e n t. T h e r ic h r a b b le s u s p e n d s th e r ig h t b y r e f e r r i n g in a c o n t r a d ic t o r y w ay to
t h e s u p e r io r , o m n i p o t e n t r ig h t o f its w e a lth — u ltim a te ly to th e c o r r u p tib ility
o f r ig h t— b u t r e m a in s a s p r o p r i e t o r b o u n d to th e le g a l s tr u c t u r e s o f e th ic a l
c o m m u n ity . T h e p o o r r a b b le , h o w ev e r, r e f e r s o n ly to th e r ig h t o f civ il so c ie ty
a n d r e m a in s f a it h f u l to it a lth o u g h it h a s le ft it a lo n g tim e a g o . B o th r e f e r fo r
d if f e r e n t r e a s o n s to t h e e x is tin g r ig h t a n d o p p o s e a n o t h e r r ig h t to it. T h a t it is
“la c k in g s u f fic ie n t h o n o u r to s e c u r e s u b s is te n c e b y h is o w n l a b o u r a n d y e t at
t h e s a m e tim e c la im s th e r ig h t to re c e iv e s u b s is te n c e ” m e a n s fo r t h e r ic h r a b ­
b le to c la im its w e a lth a s th e o n ly v a lid rig h t; th is is w hy il th in k s a s a g a m b le r
th a t h e c o u ld s u s p e n d th e e x is tin g r ig h t a n d s u b s is t w ith o u t a c tiv ity a n d w o rk .
H e r e th e logic o f double contingency is s till v a lid . T h e r ic h r a b b le s till r e m a in s as
lo n g a s its p r o p e r t y e x is ts a r ig h ts - p e r s o n a b o u n d to th e e x is tin g o r d e r .
W ith in th e r e s e n tm e n t- c a te g o r y th e sc is s io n b e tw e e n r ic h a n d p o o r r a b b le
is r e p e a te d .6 A lth o u g h b o th a r e d e t e r m i n e d by th e c o n t r a d ic t o r y s t r u c t u r e o f
c la im in g a right w ith o u t right o n e c a n ea sily d is t in g u is h tw o f o rm s o f th is p h e ­
n o m e n o n . A lso in r e s e n tm e n t th e right w ithout right o f p o v e r ty s ta n d s a g a in s t
t h a t o f w ea lt h: a p r e te n d e d r ig h t o f la c k o p p o s in g a p r e t e n d e d r ig h t o f excess.
T h e r ic h r a b b le d e c la r e s a right w ith o u t right b e c a u s e it m a k e s c o n tin g e n c y in to
t h e o n ly fo rm o f r ig h t a n d w ith it th e r ig h t in to s o m e th in g c o n tin g e n t. T h is
r ig h t n e c e s s a r ily r e lie s o n b o th a n i n n e r a n d a n e x t e r n a l d e p e n d e n c e o n c o n ­
tin g e n c y itself; th is r ig h t is c o n tin g e n c y a n d c o n tin g e n c y is h e r e (th e ) rig h t.
 T h e F o rm u la o f I n fin ite U n b in d in g

I f o n e r e m e m b e r s th e lo g ic o f its e m e r g e n c e ( C - C t- N ), o n e c a n p re c ise ly
d e lin e a te t h e r e s e n tm e n t o f t h e r ic h r a b b le . O n e c a n s e e th a t in th e f ir s t s te p ,
r e s e n tm e n t is t h e su b je c tiv e o p e r a t i o n ( G ) . I f o n e n o w in s c r ib e s t h e r e i n th e
g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e o f r e s e n tm e n t— to c la im a r i g h t w ith o u t r ig h t— it b e c o m e s
c le a r th a t w ith th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r ic h r a b b le (w ith its la s t sta g e ) o n e c a n
r e m a r k th a t its r e s e n tm e n t w as alw ays a lre a d y b e e n p r e s e n t f r o m th e b e g in ­
n in g . T h is m e a n s t h a t t h e c la im o f a r ig h t o f w e a lth r e tr o a c tiv e ly c o n s titu te s
t h e r ic h r a b b le a s th a t w h ic h it w ill alw ays h a v e b e e n : a m e r e f ig u r e o f r e s e n t­
m e n t. T h e n e c e s s a r y lo s s o f s h a m e a n d h o n o r th a t le a d s it to w ill t h e in s titu ­
t io n o f a rig h t w ith o u t right in its d ia le c tic a l g e n e s is w ill alw ay s a lre a d y h a v e
b e e n n o t h i n g b u t t h e n e c e s s a r y r e s u lt o f a c o n t in g e n t a n d m e re ly su b je c tiv e
r e s e n tm e n t- a ttitu d e .
T h e p o o r r a b b le d e c la r e s a right w ith o u t right t h a t a ls o r e lie s u p o n c o n tin ­
g en c y . R u t t h is c o n tin g e n c y is p u r e ly in te r n a l a n d a d d s u p to a p r in c ip a l n e c e s ­
sity. T h e p o o r la c k s o m e th in g ; th is la c k is c o n s id e r e d to b e a w ro n g ; th e la ck is
n o t c o n s id e r e d to b e a w ro n g b y civil s o c ie ty a n d th e s ta te b u t is u n d e r s t o o d as
a m e r e la c k a n d th e r e f o r e is n o t s u b la te d . T h is e n c h a i n m e n t g e n e r a te s in d ig ­
n a tio n th a t in c lu d e s a d e c la r a tio n o f a right w ith o u t right. H e r e o n e c a n se e
t h e d e e p s t r u c t u r a l u n d e c id a b ility o f th is p la c e . F o r H e g e l it is im p o s s ib le to
d e c id e by m e a n s o f t h e d ia le c tic a l d e v e lo p m e n t w h e th e r o n e is h e r e d e a lin g
w ith a la c k o r w ith a w ro n g . B e c a u s e if t h e p o o r w e re in a s ta te of la c k h e c o u ld
n o t c o m p la in a b o u t it. W hy? B e c a u s e H e g e l d e f in e s la ck a s fo llo w s: “If th a t
w h ic h la c k s s o m e th in g [M angel] d o e s n o t a t th e s a m e tim e s ta n d a b o v e its
la c k , t h e la c k is n o t fo r it a la c k . A n a n i m a l is la c k in g fro m o u r p o in t o f view,
n o t f r o m its o w n ” ( H O P R , 33 , tr a n s . m o d .). L a c k is a c a te g o r y o f th e n a tu r a l.
T h e a n im a l w h ic h is la c k in g s o m e th in g f r o m o u r p o i n t o f v ie w d o e s n o t h a v e
t h e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f its o w n la ck . I f th e la c k t h a t p o v e rty p r e s e n ts w e re a la ck
i n th is n a t u r a l s e n s e , t h e r e w o u ld n o t b e a p o s s ib ility o f c o m p la in in g a b o u t it.
T h e n t h e p r o b le m o f th e p o o r r a b b le w o u ld n o l o n g e r b e H e g e l's p r o b le m .
B u t th e p r o b le m n o te d h e r e d o e s n o t r e s id e in th e d o m a in o f n a t u r e . R a th e r
it r e s id e s in c iv il so c iety , i.e. in a d o m a in o f c u l tu r a l p r o d u c tio n . P o v e rty 's la ck
is n o t n a t u r a lly b u t c u ltu r a lly p r o d u c e d . H e r e , a f u r t h e r level o f th e p r o b le m
b e c o m e s visib le: a t th e s ta g e o f e th ic a lity a n d civil so c ie ty , a n y p r o d u c e d la ck
is by definition a w ro n g . B u t a ls o t h is p r o b le m c o u ld re c e iv e a s o lu t io n if H e g e l
c o u ld c la im th a t p o v e r ty m a te r ia liz e s d u e to in d iv id u a l f a ilu re s o r n e g lig e n c e s .
T h e n h e c o u ld c la im th a t p o v e rty is th e r e s u lt o f u n la w f u l a c tio n s — a w ro n g
c o m m itt e d b y o n e s e lf a g a in s t o n e s e lf . B ut h e r e H e g e l's in s ig h t r e a c h e s f u r th e r ,
s in c e civil s o c ie ty in e v ita b ly p r o d u c e s p o v e rty .
T h e d e c is iv e c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is in s ig h t is t h a t civil s o c ie ty its e lf c o n s ta n tly
p r o d u c e s in ju s tic e . B u t H e g e l c a n n o t d r a w th is c o n s e q u e n c e , s in c e civil so c ie ty
is a p a r t o f th e r a t i o n a l o r g a n iz a ti o n o f th e e th ic a l, a n d e v e n c o n s titu te s its
p e c u l i a r " world o f appearance" ( Ib id ., 180), a n d th e r e f o r e c a n n o t c o n s titu tiv e ly
b e a c o n c a t e n a tio n o f in ju s tic e s . T h e d ile m m a o f t h e p o o r r a b b le 's p o s itio n is
61 Hegel's R abble

t h a t it s ta n d s in th e p o s itio n o f a n a rtific ia lly p r o d u c e d la c k w h ic h c a n n o t b e

r e c o g n iz e d a s s u c h b y I l e g e l . T h e H e g e lia n p h ilo s o p h y o f r ig h t is h e r e c o n ­
f r o n te d w ith a p r o b le m o f c a te g o r iz a tio n , o f in d is tin g u is h a b ility . T h e r e is la ck
a t a s ta g e o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f f r e e d o m w h e r e la c k c a n o n ly b e a w ro n g a n d a t
t h e s a m e tim e th is w r o n g c a n n o t b e r e c o g n iz e d , a lth o u g h it is c o n s ta n tly r e c ­
o g n iz e d a s la c k . A s a r e s u lt o f t h is th e p o s itio n o f t h e p o o r r a b b le is u n iq u e in
I le g c l’s p h ilo s o p h y b e c a u s e it m a r k s a p o i n t o f in d is tin g u is h a b ility a n d im p o s ­
sib ility o f c a te g o r iz a tio n f o r w h ic h H e g e l d o c s n o t k n o w a n y s o lu tio n .7 O n e
h a s to c le a rly s ta te w h a t th is m e a n s : th e p r o b le m th a t th e p o o r r a b b le d isp la y s
e x c e e d s H e g e l’s c o n c e p t u a l a n d p h ilo s o p h ic a l c a te g o r iz a tio n .
O n e c a n c la im t h a t th e p o o r r a b b le d ra w s c o n t r a d ic t o r y c o n s e q u e n c e s fro m
H e g e l’s o w n in s ig h t in to th is in d is tin g u is h a b ility a n d im p o s s ib le c a te g o r iz a ­
tio n . A s P e te r L a n d a u r ig h tly r e m a r k s , “o n ly if th e in d iv id u a l is g iv e n t h e p o s ­
sib ility to a c q u ir e r ig h ts in t h e w o rld o f th in g s th a t a r e r e c o g n iz e d b y o th e r s
is th e u n iv e r s a l c a p a c ity fo r r ig h ts m o r e t h a n a n e m p ty f ic tio n .”8 B e c a u s e civil
s o c ie ty is c o n s ta n tly h a u n t e d b y th e im p o s s ib ility o f s u s t a in in g th is p o s sib il­
ity, t h e p o o r r a b b le is le d to c o n d e m n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h is c a p a c ity as
a n e m p ty f ic tio n w ith o u t r ig h t. T h is le a d s it in to r e s e n tm e n t: to c la im a r ig h t
w h ic h is v a lid fo r its e lf a n d o n ly fo r itself , a r ig h t to s u b s is t w ith o u t w o rk . T h is
is a r ig h t w h ic h n o lo n g e r a im s a t a c q u i r i n g r ig h ts in t h e w o rld o f t h i n g s a n d
t h is m e a n s it is a r ig h t w h ic h is d e t a c h e d f ro m t h e “f u n d a m e n t a l c o n d i tio n o f
. . . p r o s p e r ity ” ( H O P R , 215) o f a n y s ta te : t h e p o s s ib ility o f f r e e p r o p e r ty . If
o n e c o n s id e r s th e lo g ic o f e m e r g e n c e o f t h e p o o r r a b b le (N . - C ) tw o th in g s
b e c o m e c le a r. R e s e n tm e n t a p p e a r s a s th e c o n t in g e n t , s u b je c tiv e p r o d u c t o f
a n e c e s s a r y p o s s ib ility a n d h a s to b e u n d e r s t o o d in lig h t o f th is fa c t. T h e
r ig h t w ith o u t r ig h t o f t h e p o o r r a b b le is a s p a r t i c u l a r a n d c o n t in g e n t a s th a t
o f t h e r ic h r a b b le b e c a u s e it r e s u lts f r o m t h e s u b je c tiv e a t t i t u d e t h a t s u p p le ­
m e n ts t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i tio n . B u t th is c o n tin g e n c y is f u n d a m e n ta l ly d if f e r ­
e n t. H e r e o n e c a n s e e th e s c o p e o f t h e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n th e logic o f double
conlingency a n d t h e logic o f double latency.
O n e c a n s ta te : right w ithout right = r e s e n tm e n t. B u t o n o n e s id e t h is r ig h t is
p a r t i c u l a r i z e d by a logic o f double contingency in a w ay th a t t h e lu x u r y -r a b b le
u p h o ld s t h e c la im o f a r ig h t to s u b s is t w ith o u t w o rk a s long as it a c tu a lly s u b ­
sists w ith o u t w o rk . A s lo n g a s t h e r e is th e r ic h r a b b le its right w ithout a right is
n o t o n ly a c o u n t e r n a t u r a l c la im b u t r a t h e r a lre a d y a c tu a liz e d . It d e c la r e s th e
r ig h t to s u b s is t w ith o u t w o rk because h e s u b sists w ith o u t w o rk . T h e r ig h t w ith o u t
r ig h t o f th e r ic h r a b b le is th e r e f o r e tw ic e p a r ti c u la r i z e d , fo llo w in g th e logic o f
double contingency. It is d o u b ly p a r t i c u l a r 1. in r e la tio n to th e b e a r e r o f r ig h ts
(th e in d iv id u a l w h ic h h e h im s e lf is) a n d 2 . in r e la tio n to th e p e r io d o f v a lid ity
a n d th e g e n e s is o f r ig h t ( th a t r e s u lts fro m th e e x t e r n a l c o n tin g e n c y o f h a p p y
m o m e n ts ) . It is a m e r e m o m e n t o f th e in d iv id u a l. T h e r ic h r a b b le a p p e a r s
t h e r e f o r e a s th a t w h ic h h e alw ays a lre a d y w ill h a v e b e e n : a s r e s e n tm e n t-r a b b le .
O r b e t t e r s a id : a s s o o n a s th e r ic h r a b b le e x ists, th e p o s itio n o f t h e g a m b le r
 T h e F o rm u la o f I n fin ite U n b in d in g 65

w ill n e v e r h a v e b e e n a n y t h in g o t h e r t h a n m e r e r e s e n tm e n t. W ith th is it is a ls o
s ta te d t h a t th e lo ss of s h a m e a n d h o n o r t h a t n e c e s s a r ily a p p e a r s in th e la s t of
t h e t h r e e s te p s o n ly in d ic a te s t h a t h o n o r a n d s h a m e w ill alw ay s a lr e a d y h a v e
b e e n lo st w ith th e g a m b le r ’s e x is te n c e . T h is n e c e s s ity r e s u lts n e c e s s a rily fro m
t h e la st ste p . I n s h o r t: t h e r ic h r a b b le is d u e to th e lo g ic o f d o u b le c o n tin g e n c y
a r a b b le o f a m e r e p a r t i c u l a r r e s e n tm e n t: r e s e n tm e n t-r a b b le .
T h e p o o r r a b b le , h o w ev e r, is th e p r o d u c t o f a m o r e p r o f o u n d lo s s a n d d is ­
p la y s t h e logic o f double latency. T h is m e a n s o n o n e s id e th a t t h e r ig h t to s u b sist
w ith o u t w o rk th a t it c la im s is a ls o a right w ith o u t right a n d m e re ly p a r tic u la r .
R u t o n th e o t h e r s id e it d o e s n o t rely o n a n a lr e a d y p r e s e n t a s s u r a n c e of its
v a lid ity . T h e r ig h t t h e p o o r r a b b le c la im s is n o n e t h a t is a lre a d y c o u n t e r n a tu -
r a lly a c tu a liz e d . It is r a t h e r th e c a s e t h a t th e p o o r r a b b le ’s r ig h t w ith o u t rig h t
is c la im e d fro m a p o s itio n t h a t h a s lo st e v e n t h e s e c u r ity o f s u b s is te n c e . If
t h e logic o f double latency r e f e r s to th e fa c t th a t a n y o n e in th e s ta te is (o r m o r e
p re c ise ly , w ill h a v e b e e n ) la te n tly r a b b le , th e n o n e c a n r e m a r k a f u n d a m e n ta l
d if f e r e n c e f r o m t h e r e s e n tm e n t- s tr u c tu r e o f th e r ic h r a b b le . T h e p o o r r a b b le ’s
right w ithout a right a ls o k n o w s th e p o o r r a b b le o n ly a s a b e a r e r o f th is r ig h t. B ut
t h e logic o f double latency sh o w s t h a t a n y o n e in t h e s ta te is la te n tly r a b b le a n d
t h e r e f o r e la te n tly a ‘b e a r e r ’ o f th is p a r t i c u l a r r ig h t of th e p o o r ra b b le . T h e poor
rabble declares therefore a right w ith o u t a right th a t is v a lid only fo r h im b u t nonetheless
(latently) fo r anyone. O r to p u t it d if fe r e n tly : th e p o o r r a b b le a d d r e s s e s a r ig h t
a s its r ig h t t h a t is m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r a n d n o n e th e le s s a t th e s a m e tim e la te n tly
u n iv e rs a l. T h e right w ith o u t right o f th e r ic h r a b b le is a m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r o n e;
t h a t b e lo n g in g to th e p o o r r a b b le is a s a p a r t i c u l a r r i g h t its e lf u n iv e rs a l. A n
in te r e s tin g a m b iv a le n c e s h o u ld b e c le a r h e r e , f o r t h e c o m p le te m e d ia t io n o f
p a r ti c u la r i ty a n d u n iv e rs a lity f o r H e g e l d e s c r ib e s th e e s s e n tia l t r a i t o f th e
s p h e r e o f e th ic a lity .
T h e tw o ty p e s o f t h e r a b b le a r e d is t in g u is h e d b y th e a p p e a r a n c e o n o n e
s id e o f a m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r r e s e n tm e n t, a n d o n t h e o t h e r o f a p a r t i c u l a r r e s e n t­
m e n t w h ic h is la te n tly t h e r e s e n t m e n t o f a n y c itiz e n . N ow , it b e c o m e s p o s s ib le
t o in d ic a t e a n o t h e r s c is s io n : n o t o n ly h a s t h e r a b b le s p lii in to r ic h a n d p o o r,
b u t a lso , w ith in t h e s t r u c t u r a l s im ila rity — in r e s e n tm e n t— s o m e t h i n g a p p e a r s
w h ic h s u r m o u n t s th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e s im ila rity . O n e c a n c la im t h a t w ith th e
f o r m a tio n o f th e r ic h r a b b le it n e c e s s a r ily b e c o m e s c l e a r t h a t it is in a n d fo r
itse lf n o t h i n g b u t m e r e c o n tin g e n c y . F o llo w in g t h e lo g ic o f h is e m e r g e n c e (G
—C —N ..r) it is in its e lf c o n t in g e n t , t h e n fo r itse lf c o n t i n g e n t a n d w ill th e r e f o r e
n e c e s s a r ily n e v e r h a v e b e e n a n y t h in g b u t t h e h y p o s ta s is o f c o n tin g e n c y as
su c h .
H e r e t h e q u e s tio n a ris e s : w h a t is t h e p o o r r a b b le in a n d fo r itself? I a lre a d y
in d ic a t e d b o th th e r ic h a n d th e p o o r a r e g u id e d b y r e s e n tm e n t a n d b e c o m e
s h a m e le s s , h o n o r le s s , e tc . (C ). T h e y c o n s e q u e n tly th r o w o f f “th e su b je c tiv e
b a s e s o f s o c ie ty ” ( H O P R , 222). B u t th e lu x u r y - r a b b le fe e ls r e s e n tm e n t a g a in s t
a ll s o c ia l a n d co lle c tiv e in s titu tio n s o f civil s o c ie ty d u e to a m o m e n ta r y w e a lth ,
66 Hegel's R abble

w h ile t h e s a m e d o e s n o t g o f o r th e p o v e rty -ra b b le . T h e lu x u r y - r a b b le h a s

s o m e th in g a n d lo s e s ( s h a m e , h o n o r , e tc .) a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h is h a v in g ; th e
p o v e r ty -ra b b le h a s n o t h i n g a n d lo s e s n o n e t h e le s s e v e n m o r e . W h a t th is m e a n s
c a n b e c o m e c l e a r w h e n lin k e d to th e q u e s tio n o f h o w t h e r a b b le u n b in d s h im ­
s e lf f r o m r ig h ts a n d d u tie s . I n d o in g t h is it u n b in d s its e lf f r o m th e first a n d
f u n d a m e n t a l im p e r a tiv e o f th e Philosophy o f R ight: “H e n c e t h e im p e r a tiv e o f
r ig h t is: ‘B e a p e r s o n a n d r e s p e c t th e o t h e r s a s p e r s o n s ’” ( Ib id ., 5 5 ). W h a t is
r e m a r k a b le is th e f a c t th a t th is im p e r a tiv e ta k e s th e fo rm o f a n im p e r a tiv e at
all s in c e th is im p lie s t h e p o s s ib ility o f n o t b e i n g a p e r s o n a n d n o t r e s p e c tin g
o th e r s a s p e r s o n s . A n d w h a t th is m e a n s is a ls o c le a r: th e r a b b le w ith d ra w s
f r o m th is im p e r a tiv e b y lo s in g h is r e s p e c t f o r o t h e r s a n d c a ta p u lts itself in th e
s a m e m o v e m e n t o u t o f t h e s ta tu s o f a r ig h ts - p e r s o n a . It lo se s its r e s p e c t fo r th e
o th e r s b e c a u s e it is a r e s e n tm e n t- f ig u r e th a t c la im s a g a in s t t h e e x is tin g r ig h t
a right w ith o u t right a n d j u d g e s e x is tin g c ir c u m s ta n c e s a s b e i n g w ith o u t rig h t.
A s H e g e l lik e s to c la im , q u o tin g R o u s se a u ’s Social Contract: “N o t to b e f r e e is
t h e r e f o r e a r e n u n c ia ti o n o f a m a n ’s r ig h ts a s a h u m a n b e in g , a n d e v e n o f h is
d u tie s ” ( H L H P 3 , ‘2 73). T h is d e lin e a te s th e h o r iz o n o f w h a t h a p p e n s w ith th e
r a b b le . T o w ith d r a w f r o m th e im p e r a tiv e o f r ig h t s ig n ifie s lo s in g t h e s ta tu s of
a p e r s o n . I f p e r s o n a lity in its a b s tr a c t fo rm is u n d e r s to o d a s a f r e e w ill g iv in g
i ts e lf e x t e r n a l e x is te n c e , i.e. a s a w ill t h a t in its m o s t o r ig in a l f o r m o b je c tifie s
its e lf th r o u g h p r o p e r ty , t h e r a b b le is f o r H e g e l th e n e g a tio n o f p e rs o n a lity .
It is im p e r a tiv e n o t to lo s e tr a c k o f w h a t th is m e a n s fo r t h e d is tin c tio n
b e tw e e n l u x u r y - a n d p o v e r ty - r a b b le . T h e lu x u r y - r a b b le is o s te n s ib ly a ls o w ith ­
o u t r ig h ts a n d d u tie s j u s t a s t h e p o o r r a b b le is. B u t it c a n o n ly u n b i n d its e lf
b y d e c l a r i n g a right w ith o u t rig h t t h a t o r ig in a te s in its w e a lth . O n ly b e c a u s e it
r e m a in s b o u n d to t h e e x is tin g r i g h t a s a p e r s o n , c a n it g e n e r a te r e s e n tm e n t at
a ll, i.e. c la im a rig h t w ith o u t right. T h e p o o r r a b b le in c o n t r a s t is e v e n u n b o u n d
f r o m th e p o s s ib ility o f a p p e a r i n g e x te r n a lly . O n ly t h e p o o r r a b b le f u n d a m e n ­
ta lly lo se s e v e n th e p o s s ib ility o f a c c u m u la t in g p r o p e r ty a n d th e r e f o r e th e
p o s s ib ility o f g iv in g its e lf a n e x t e r io r e x is te n c e in a n y w ay. T h e luxury-rabble
is only because it has; the poverty-rabble has n o th in g because it is (present). F o r th e
l u x u r y - r a b b le h is p r o p e r t y as property is s u b je c t to th e s a m e le g a l p r o te c tio n ,
i.e . j u r i s d i c t i o n , a s a n y o n e e ls c 's ( p r o p e r ty ) . “T h is w o rld o u ts id e h im ” alw ays
“h a s its th r e a d s in h im ” s o t h a t h e “c o n s is ts o f th e s e t h r e a d s ” (H P M , 9 6 ) a n d
a t t h e s a m e tim e th is w o rld a s s u re s h im h is c o u n t c r n a t u r a l m a i n t e n a n c e a n d
t h e v a lid ity o f h is right w ith o u t a right. B ut t h e p o o r r a b b le lo se s e v e n th is
m in i m a l s e c u r ity a n d th e f o r m o f f u n d a m e n t a l i n t e g r a t i o n b e c a u s e it f o rm s
its e lf f ro m th e p e n n i le s s , th e p o o r . I f p e r s o n a lity is in th is in itia lly a b s tr a c t
f o r m th e c o n d itio n o f le g a l c a p a c ity , t h is m e a n s a t t h e s a m e tim e t h a t th e
p o v e r ty - r a b b le is n o t a p e r s o n a n d a ls o in a m o r e r a d ic a l w ay w ith o u t r ig h ts .
“I f a h u m a n b e i n g m a k e s h im s e lf , i f m a n m a k e s h im s e lf b e w ith o u t r ig h ts a n d
a ls o k e e p s h im s e lf u n b o u n d f r o m d u tie s . . . t h e n th is is th e r a b b le " (H PR V ,
2 2 2 , m y e m p h a s is ). T h is H e g e lia n ju d g m e n t a im s o n ly a n d ex c lu siv e ly a t th e
 T h e F o rm u la o f I n fin ite U n b in d in g 67

p o v e r ty - r a b b le b e c a u s e th e r ic h r a b b le r e m a in s p e r m a n e n tl y b o u n d to a f o r m
of p e r s o n a lity , h o w e v e r r e s id u a l, a n d re c e iv e s f r o m it th e le g a l s e c u r ity o f h is
p r o p e r ty . T h e r e w ith it a ls o u n b i n d s its e lf f r o m a f u n d a m e n t a l d u ty th a t th e
r ic h r a b b le h a s u n c o n s c io u s ly alw ays f u lf ille d : “It is a d u ty to p o s s e s s th in g s as
p r o p e r ty , i.e . to b e a p e r s o n ” ( IIP M , 218).
O n ly th e p o o r r a b b le is f u lly u n b o u n d f r o m r ig h t a n d d u ty b e c a u s e it is a ls o
u n b o u n d f r o m th e “f r e e d o m o f t h e f r e e a s ‘p e r s o n ’ p r o v id e d in r ig h t.”8 O nly the
poor rabble is rabble in the f u l l sense o f the word b e c a u s e it is t h e a b s o lu te u n b i n d i n g
f r o m r ig h t a n d d u ty . A lso th is r a d ic a l u n b i n d i n g o n ly g o e s f o r th e p o v erty -
r a b b le b e c a u s e it, b e in g sh y o f w o rk a n d w ith o u t h o n o r , w ith o u t p e r f o r m in g
a n y a c tio n s d o e s n o t e n t e r in to th e e x te r n a l r e a lity in w h ic h th e lu x u ry -ra b b le ,
b y d is p la y in g “external evidences” ( II O P R , 225) o f its su c c e s s, h a s alw ays a lre a d y
ta k e n h is p la c e . T h e p o o r ra b b le , h o w ev e r, r e m a in s s tu c k in h is c la im to a r ig h t
w ith o u t r ig h t a n d fo r H e g e l it th u s r e m a in s in a m e re ly a b s tr a c t in te r io rity ,
in m e r e " n e g a tiv e u n d e r s t a n d i n g ” ( H O P R , 2 5 8 ). C o n s e q u e n tly it n e g a te s its
p e r s o n a lity a n d p r e s e n ts th e e ffe c tiv e a n d r e a l n e g a tio n o f th e le g a l c a p a c ­
ity: "capitis dim inutio" ( II O P R , 57) m a x im a . A p r e te n d e d , u ltim a te ly p a r ti c u la r
u n b i n d i n g is g e n e r a t e d o n o n e h a n d a s t h e n e c e s s a r y p r o d u c t o f a c o n tin g e n t
w e a lth (lu x u ry - r a b b le ); a r e a l a n d u ltim a te ly c o m p le te u n b in d in g is o n th e
o t h e r h a n d g e n e r a t e d a s t h e c o n t in g e n t a n d d e e p e n i n g p r o d u c t of a n e c e s ­
sa ry a n d p r io r p r iv a tio n (p o v e rty -ra b b le ). T h e o p p o s itio n of t h e tw o ty p e s of
r a b b le is th e o p p o s it io n b e tw e e n a p a r ti a l a n d a c o m p le te ef fe c t o f u n b in d in g .
H e r e a ls o a d is t in c t io n w ith in th e te m p o r a l s t r u c t u r e b e c o m e s v isib le. T h e
te m p o r a lity o f t h e p a r ti a l u n b i n d i n g o f th e lu x u r y - r a b b le fo llo w s a lo g ic o f th e
m o m e n t b e c a u s e 1. in e a c h m o m e n t t h e g iv e n w e a lth c a n , d u e to t h e c o n tin ­
g e n t g a m e o f c iv il so c iety , b e lo st a g a in a n d 2 . in e a c h m o m e n t t h e r e c a n b e
a h a r m d o n e to h is p r o p e r ty , w h ic h le a d s to t h e im m e d ia te d e m a n d fo r le g a l
s e c u r ity a n d th e r e w ith to t h e r e - e n tr y in to a la w su it. T h e r e f o r e its right w ithout
right e x ists o n ly a s lo n g a s its w e a lth d o e s ; it is its e lf o n ly a s lo n g a s its f o r tu n e is.
Its tim e , a s th e tim e o f h is ( p r e te n d e d ) u n b i n d i n g is t h e tim e o f t h e kairos. By
c o n tr a s t, t h e te m p o r a lit y o f t h e r e a l u n b i n d i n g o f th e p o v e r ty -ra b b le fo llo w s a
logic o f eternity, b e c a u s e a t n o tim e c a n th e p o o r r a b b le r e - e n t e r le g a l a n d s ta tis t
c o n te x ts , if th e p o s s ib ility o f a c c u m u la t in g p r o p e r ty h a s a ls o b e e n lo st. O n ly
f o r th e p o o r r a b b le c a n it b e s a id t h a t its tim e is eternity because only the poverty-
rabble presents the paradigm o f absolute a n d complete unbinding.
T h is m o v e m e n t is r e m a r k a b ly d e s c r ib e d in H e g e l's p o s th u m o u s ly p u b ­
lis h e d le c tu r e s u n d e r th e title o f “P a u p e r iz a tio n a s a c h a n c e fo r th e c a p ita l­
is t” (H V O R L 4 . 6 0 9 ). B u t H e g e l c la im s a lr e a d y in t h e Philosophy o f R ight th a t
t h e " c r e a tio n o f a rabble o f paupers . . . b r in g s w ith it . . . c o n d itio n s w h ic h
g r e a tly f a c ilita te th e c o n c e n t r a tio n o f d is p r o p o r t i o n a t e w e a lth in a few h a n d s ”
(H O P R , 221). O n th e o n e h a n d , t h e p o o r r a b b le e n c o u r a g e s a n in c r e a s e d c o n ­
c e n tr a ti o n o f w e a lth in t h e h a n d s o f t h e few. T h e m o r e t h e p o o r in s is ts o n
h is right w ithout right a n d th e r e b y e v e n lo se s th e p o s s ib ility o f a c c u m u la tin g
68 Hegel's R abble

p r o p e r ty f o r e te r n ity , t h e m o r e p r o p e r t y is a c q u ir e d o n th e o t h e r sid e . D u e to
h is r e s e n tm e n t, t h e r a b b le a ls o lo se s h is r e c titu d e , b e c a u s e t h e r e is n o " c o n ­
f o rm ity w ith th e d u tie s o f t h e c i r c u m s ta n c e s to w h ic h h e b e l o n g s . . (IIO P R ,
192, tra ils , m o d .). T h e m e r e ‘p r e s e n c e ’ o f t h e p o o r r a b b le in te n s ifie s th is lo g ic.
T h e c o n c e n t r a tio n le a d s to a r e c ip r o c a l d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t th e o t h e r e n d . T h e
w e a lth c o n c e n t r a te d in s u c h a w ay o n c e a g a in g a in s w h a t it s h o u ld lo s e in th e
c o r p o r a ti o n , n a m e ly th e “p r id e o r e n v y ” ( II O P R . 2 2 6 ) it c a n in s p ire . In s h o rt:
th e ‘p r e s e n c e ’ o f t h e p o o r r a b b le r e c ip r o c a lly p r o d u c e s th e p r e s e n c e a n d s u b ­
s is te n c e o f th e r ic h : reciprocal becoming-rabble. T h e h a n d s o f th e few in w h ic h
t h e w e a lth is c o n c e n t r a te d th e r e f o r e a r c n o l o n g e r th e n o n - u p r ig h t h a n d s th a t
alw ays a lre a d y k n o w w e a lth o n ly a s th e w e a lth of th e few a n d d e r iv e fro m it th e
right w ith o u t right o f t h e few . W ith th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r a b b le th e m o v e m e n t
o f civil s o c ie ty b e c o m e s m o r e a n d m o r e ra b b le -lik e . C iv il s o c ie ty b e c o m e s th e
s o c ie ty o f t h e r e s e n tm e n t- r a b b lc in w h ic h p o o r a n d r ic h r a b b le u n b in d th e m ­
selv es in d if f e r e n t w ays fro m th e e th ic a l c o m m u n ity b y c la im in g t h e i r right
w ithout right. B o th s tic k le ss a n d less to c u s to m s a n d m o r e a n d m o r e “c l in g to ”
th e m s e lv e s a n d a r e le d in to th e “e m p tin e s s o f f a n c ie s ” ( H A , 711) a b o u t w h at
th e y c a n c la im d e jure.

Excursus: T h e R abble as Social Pathology?

O n Axel H o n n e th

C a n t h e r e s e n tm e n t- r a b b le b e d e s c r ib e d a s a " s o c ia l p a th o lo g y ” (H P IF , 40) in
t h e s e n s e in te n d e d by A x el H o n n e th ? H o n n e t h ’s r e c o n s tr u c tio n is a n a tte m p t
t o c o n c e iv e o f H e g e l's P h ilo s o p h y o f R ig h t a s th e o u tli n e o f a s o c ia l o n to lo g y ,
a n d to d e v e lo p f r o m it a th e o r y o f j u s t ic e w h ic h is v a lid fo r a n y so c ia l c o m m u ­
nity. S o: w h a t to d o w ith H e g e l’s ra b b le , M r. H o n n e th ? T h e p r e te n s io n o f h is
t h e o r y is to d e s c r ib e a ll f ig u re s o f n e g a tiv ity t h a t a p p e a r o n th e d if f e r e n t sta g e s
o f th e d ia le c tic a l u n f o ld in g o f th e id e a o f f r e e d o m in H e g e l— th e c r im in a l, th e
ir o n is t— a s s o c ia l p a th o lo g ie s . It is r e m a r k a b le t h a t in h is r e - a c tu a liz a tio n o f
H e g e l h e s p e a k s n o t o n c e a b o u t th e r a b b le . T h e r e f o r e I w ill sh o w w hy th e r a b ­
b le is a p r o b le m th a t is a ls o n o t s o lu b le by m e a n s o f H o n n c t h 's r e c o n s tr u c tio n .
Is th e r a b b le a so c ia l p a th o lo g y ?
T o u s e H o n n c t h ’s te r m in o lo g y , it c o m e s , " to a h a lt in h is ‘e t h i c a l ’ e v e ry ­
d a y lif e ” ( I b id ., 4 0 ) a n d o u t o f th is “m o m e n t o f c r is is ” ( Ib id .) t h e r a tio n a lity
o f th e n o r m a t iv e g u id e lin e s o f th e a lr e a d y in s t itu ti o n a liz e d s o c ia l p r a c tic e s
b r e a k s u p . T h i s le a d s t h e r a b b le , if o n e fo llo w s H o n n e t h , e i t h e r to r e tr e a t
t o th e m e r e c o n s c io u s n e s s o f b e i n g a b e a r e r o f r ig h ts a n d to a p a th o lo g ic a l
" f ix a tio n o n le g a l f r e e d o m ” ( I b id ., 3 5 ) t h a t r e n d e r s it in c a p a b le o f p a r ti c ip a t­
i n g in s o c ia l life . It w o u ld s o a c tu a liz e " t h e p o s s ib ility o f w ith d r a w a l b e h i n d
a ll n o r m s ” i n h e r e n t to f o r m a l r ig h t " w ith in t h e s p h e r e o f e t h ic a l lif e . . .”
(Ib id ., 3 6 ). T h is w o u ld b r in g it to "a p a i n f u l c o n d i tio n o f u n f u l f i l m e n t a n d
 T h e F o rm u la o f I n fin ite U n b in d in g 69

i n d e t e r m i n a c y ” ( I b id ., 4 5 ). O r th e r e s e n tm e n t- r a b b le w o u ld d is t a n c e its e lf
f r o m a ll e x i s tin g s o c ia l n o r m s a n d g e t lo st in s o m e t h i n g t h a t is alw a y s in c lu d e d
i n th e m o r a l s t a n d p o i n t : t h e te n d e n c y o f “lo s in g o n e s e l f i n a b o tto m le s s p it
o f s e lf - q u e s tio n in g ” ( I b id ., 41) w h ic h w o u ld b r i n g h im to n o t a c t a t a ll a n y ­
m o r e a n d to t h e p o i n t o f “s u f f e r i n g f r o m i n d e te r m in a c y " ( I b id ., 2 3 ). H e n c e
H o n n e t h h a s to c la im t h a t t h e u n b i n d i n g a n d p r iv a tio n o f th e r e s e n tm e n t-
r a b b le is a n e f f e c t th a t r e s u lts f r o m a to ta liz a t io n o f e i t h e r t h e f o r m a lly le g a l
o r th e m o r a l s t a n d p o i n t i n t o t h e o n ly s t a n d p o i n t t h a t h a s u n iv e r s a l v a lid ity .
B o th s t a n d p o i n t s o f f r e e d o m a r e n e c e s s a r ily p a s s e d th r o u g h in o r d e r to r e a c h
a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f in d iv i d u a l f r e e d o m a n d fre e ly a s s u r e d s e lf - r e a liz a tio n ,
i.e. to s u b je c tiv e c o n s c io u s n e s s . T h is m e a n s t h a t a n y f r e e a c tio n is t h e r e s u lt
o f a r a t i o n a l s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n o f a r ig h ts - p c r s o n a t h a t u n d e r s t a n d s h im s e lf
a s s u c h . B u t b o th s t a n d p o in ts , if to ta liz e d a s t h e o n ly v a lid d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f
f r e e d o m , b e c o m e p r o b le m a tic in t h e i r a p p l ic a tio n to s o c ia l re a lity .
I f o n e follow s I l o n n e t h in th is d ia g n o s is , o n e h a s to j u d g e t h a t th e re s e n tm e n t-
r a b b le is th e p r o b le m a tic r e s u lt o f a to ta liz in g e x te n s io n o f a m o r a l a n d / o r
le g a l c o n c e p tio n o f f r e e d o m in to th e to ta lity o f e x is tin g p r a c tic e s . T h e n th e
‘s u f f e r in g f r o m in d e te r m in a c y ' w h ic h th e r e s e n tm e n t- r a b b le p r e s u m a b ly e x p e ­
r ie n c e s w o u ld b e t h e r e s u lt o f a “c o n c e p t u a l c o n f u s io n ” w h ic h h a s “b e c o m e
t h e f o u n d a tio n o f p r a c tic a l a t titu d e s in life . . . ” ( Ib id ., 4 5 ).10T o g o a g a in s t th is ,
H o n n e th s e e s lim ite d m e a n s ; w h a t h e lp s is “a c o n s tr u c tiv e t h e r a p e u t i c c r itiq u e
t h a t s tim u la te s a lib e r a tin g s e lf-re fle c tio n ” (Ib id .). H o w ev er, if o n e lo o k s clo sely
a t t h e H e g e lia n te x t o n e c a n s e e a s lig h tly d if f e r e n t s o lu tio n to t h e ra b b le -
p r o b le m . I f o n e s h a r e s H o n n e t h ’s r e a d in g th e r a b b le c a n b e c o n c e iv e d o f as
a fig u re o f w h a t H e g e l c a lls “e r r i n g c o n s c ie n c e [irrendes Gewissen] ” (H G P R ,
2 5 7 ). T h is p o s itio n H e g e l d e f in e s a s fo llow s: “1 o n ly ta k e w h a t I f in d in m y c o n ­
s c ie n c e ; n o o t h e r s o u r c e . . .” H e a ls o c la im s th a t w ith it c o m e s a lo ss o f “a b s o ­
lu te h o n o r .” B u t h e p r o p o s e s f o r th e c o n f u s io n o f p r a c tic a l a ltitu d e s in life a
d if f e r e n t s o lu tio n to H o n n e th . T h e r a b b le s o u n d e r s t o o d w o u ld be:

lik e a d is g r a c e f u l a n im a l w h o s e n a t u r e is n o th in g b u t ev il, d e s tr u c tiv e , to b e

b e a te n to d e a th ,— o r a t le a s t to b e e je c te d f r o m so c ie ty — th o s e it d o e s n o t
n e e d .— Y ou s h o u ld n o t n e e d m e ; 1 a m fo r m y se lf, m y o w n e n d — G o o d , s o b e
it— b u t f o r y o u — to b e needed, i.e . to s ta n d in le g a l, e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity . . .
r e q u ir e s t r u s t . . . I f 1 w o u ld h a v e to a s s u m e th e y a r e e r r i n g c o n s c ie n c e ,
r e c o g n iz e o n ly t h a t a s a r ig h t w h ic h th e y f in d o n ly in t h e i r s u b je c tiv e c o n ­
s c ie n c e , s o th a t t h e r e i n is th e o p p o s ite o f e v e r y th in g w h ic h is le g a l, e th ic a l, I
w o u ld b e in a w o rs e s itu a tio n t h a n b e i n g a m o n g s t r o b b e r s b e c a u s e o f th e m
I k n o w th e y a r e r o b b e r s . . . (H G P R , 258)

F o r H e g e l it is u n a m b ig u o u s th a t a t le a s t th e a p p lic a tio n o f th e c o n c e p t io n o f
f r e e d o m th a t fo llo w s f r o m th e m o r a l s t a n d p o i n t is n o t o n ly p r o b le m a tic , it is
s im p ly d e s tru c tiv e . A n e f f e c t ea sily d e te c ta b le in th e in te n s if y in g m o v e m e n t
70 Hegel's R abble

w h ic h is p r o d u c e d by t h e d e c la r a tio n o f th e p o o r r a b b le ’s right w ith o u t right.

T h e s e d e s tr u c tiv e e ffe c ts — t h a t c a n n o t o n ly b e u n d e r s to o d a s r e s u ltin g fro m
a “r o m a n tic in d iv id u a lis m ” o r “p r e c r itic a l r e lig io n ” (I IP IF , 4 2 ) — a tta c k th e
c o n s is te n c y o f e th ic a l c o m m u n ity . A c c o rd in g ly t h e H e g e lia n m e a n s is n o t th e
s tim u la tio n w h ic h r e f e r s to t h e e x is tin g in te r s u b je c tiv e r e la tio n s a n d m a k e s
it r e a s o n a b le th a t th e y p r e s e n t t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e c o n d itio n s o f e a c h f r e e (a n d
th e r e b y c o m m u n ic a tiv e ) s e lf-re a liz a tio n . H e h a s r a t h e r s e e n th a t t h e r e c a n n o t
b e a n y c o n s tr u c tiv e m e a n s b y w h ic h to o p p o s e t h e e r r i n g c o n s c ie n c e th a t 1
h e r e r e a d a s th e H o n n e th i a n - H e g e l ia n p a r a d ig m o f t h e r a b b le - p r o b le m . H e
w h o h a s lo st h is h o n o r is fro m th is p e r s p e c tiv e n o b e t t e r t h a n a d is g r a c e f u l a n i­
m a l; as a n a n i m a l w h ic h , d u e to h is a n im a lity , c a u s e s p e r m a n e n t d a m a g e a n d
h a s to b e m e t w ith e x c lu s io n a n d fin a lly e x t e r m in a tio n . H e g e l k n o w s: t h e r e is
n o p a t h s ti m u la tin g s c lf-rc fle c tio n th a t le a d s to th e r a b b le w h o w ill h a v e b e e n
fo re v e r u n b o u n d f r o m e th ic a l c o m m u n ity a n d n o n e t h e le s s p e r s is ts a s a th r e a t
w ith in it. T h a t I l o n n e t h c o m e s to a d if f e r e n t s o lu tio n is a r e s u lt o f t h e fa c t th a t
h is r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f H e g e l’s a r g u m e n t m is s e s o n e e s s e n tia l p o in t. S in c e h e
d ia g n o s e s s o c ia l p a th o lo g ie s f r o m a c r itic a l p e r s p e c tiv e a n d lo r th e m t h e r a ­
p e u tic o p e r a tio n s e x ists, h e n e g le c ts to c o n s id e r s o m e th in g t h a t is o f h u g e
im p o r ta n c e lo r th e r a b b le f r o m a H e g e lia n s ta n d p o in t: evil.
E vil is d e f in e d b y I le g e l a s t h e c o m p le te h a n d i n g o v e r o f t h e s u b je c t to c o n t in ­
g e n c y (o f h is d riv e s a n d d e s ire s ). T h is h a n d i n g o v e r h e d e s c r ib e s a s a d e fic ie n t,
b e c a u s e h e te r o n o m o u s , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f o n e ’s o w n fre e d o m : “T h e n a t u r a l . . .
w h e n it is d r a w n in to t h e o r b it o f th e w ill w h ic h is f r e e a n d k n o w s th a t it is fre e ,
a c q u ir e s th e c h a r a c t e r o f n o t b e in g f r e e a n d is th e r e f o r e e v il” ( H O P R , 138).
In th is h e t e r o n o m o u s d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e w ill t h e in d iv id u a l d o e s n o t s e t an
a r b it r a r y c o n t e n t o v e r a g a in s t a n e x is tin g u n iv e rs a l b u t c o n tin g e n c y as such
a g a in s t u n iv e rs a lity as such: s u b je c tiv ity b e c o m e s t h e in c o r p o r a t i o n o f c h a n c e .
A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , “subjectivity . . . t h e n is eo ipso fo r itself, it r e ta in s its s e p a r a te
in d iv id u a lity , a n d is its e lf th is a r b it r a r y w ill” ( Ib id ., 136). T h a t th is f o r m o f
su b je c tiv ity ta k e s sid e s w ith a r b it r a r in e s s a g a in s t u n iv e rs a lity is a c o n s e q u e n c e
th a t H o n n e t h m isses. T h is “d i r e m p t i o n [ . . . ] d is tin g u is h e s h u m a n b e i n g fro m
u n r e a s o n i n g a n i m a l” (Ib id .), a l th o u g h H e g e l is c le a r t h a t o n ly h u m a n b e in g s
a r e c a p a b le o f g o o d a n d b a d . H o w ev er, in a c e r t a i n s e n s e — a s th e la te r in v e sti­
g a tio n o f th e n o tio n o f h a b it w ill sh o w — th e r a b b le is fo r H e g e l— a s “in n o c e n t
p e o p l e ”— “w 'orse t h a n ev il" (H G P R . 263). R u t it s h o u ld b e c le a r h e r e th a t th e
q u o te d p a s s a g e is e x p lic it: th e r a b b le d e g e n e r a t e s in to a n a n i m a l b e c a u s e h e
is e v il. F o r H e g e l it is th e i n c a r n a t i o n o f a r b it r a r in e s s — th e h y p o s ta s is o f h et-
e r o n o m o u s d e t e r m i n a t i o n — a n d o f fe rs n o r e s o n a tin g s p a c e f o r t h e v o ic e th a t
w a n ts to c o n s tru c tiv e ly s tim u la te t h e u n iv e rs a l in h im . T h e h u m a n b e i n g w h ic h
m a d e h im s e lf in to a n u n r e a s o n i n g a n im a l is ‘to b e b e a te n to d e a t h ,’ h e h a s
b e c o m e k illa b le lif e .11 H e g e l g o e s f a r t h e r t h a n H o n n e th b e c a u s e h e c o n s id e r s
t h e t h r e a t o f a r a d ic a l u n b in d in g f r o m a n y u n iv e rs a l, t h a t h e c a lls ev il, a n d th e
r a n g e o f its e ffe c ts to b e u n tr e a ta b l e . O n e c a n c la im t h a t H o n n e t h d e v e lo p s a
 T h e F o rm u la o f I n fin ite U n b in d in g 71

t h e o r y o f j u s t ic e th a t h a s n o p la c e f o r th e H e g e lia n c o n c e p tio n o f ev il, o f th e

ev il r a b b le . H o n n e t h o n ly k n o w s to ta liz a tio n s o f w ro n g a n d o n e - s id e d c o n c e p ­
tio n s o f f r e e d o m th a t c a n b e t r e a t e d b e c a u s e th e y a r e sim p ly p a th o lo g ic a l.12
W ith t h is H o n n e t h s e e m s to ra s h ly id e n tify civil s o c ie ty e x c lu siv ely w ith th e
s ta n d p o in t o f m o r a lity a n d th e r e f o r e to f o r g e t th e d e p r iv a tio n o f r ig h t a n d its
c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t o c c u r in th e s in g u l a r ity o f th e r a b b le - p r o b le m . H e d isc u ss e s
s o c ia l p a th o lo g ie s o n ly w ith r e g a r d to th e s u b je c t a n d n o t a s p a th o lo g ie s o f th e
s o c ia l itse lf, w h ic h ta k e p la c e in th e d y n a m ic in te r d e p e n d e n c e o f s u b je c tiv e
p o s itio n a n d o b je c tiv e c o n d itio n s . A lth o u g h h e n o te s th a t H e g e l s e e s in civil
s o c ie ty c e r ta in “te n d e n c ie s o f s o c ia l d is i n te g r a t io n ”, h e (falsely ) b e lie v e s o n th e
o n e h a n d t h a t H e g e l w o u ld o n ly c o u n t e r th e m w ith t h e c o r p o r a ti o n (w ith o u t
a ls o in v o k in g t h e p o lic e , e tc .). O n th e o t h e r h a n d , h e p re c is e ly c a n n o t c o n c e iv e
o f th e s e d is i n te g r a t in g te n d e n c ie s in t h e i r sp e cific ity , t h a t is, h e o n ly d is c e r n s
in th e m t h e e f f e c t o f a s o c ia l p a th o lo g y t h a t p r e s e n ts its e lf in a p u r e ly s u b je c ­
tiv e m a n n e r a n d is t h e r e s u lt o f th e to ta liz a tio n o f e i t h e r th e m o r a l o r t h e leg al
s ta n d p o in t— th is w o u ld b e v a lid , i f a t a ll, o n ly f o r t h e lu x u r y - r a b b le . T h e o n ly
r a b b le th a t H o n n e th c a n t h i n k a n d k n o w is th e r ic h ra b b le . H e fa ils to d isc u ss
t h e d is i n te g r a t in g te n d e n c y a s a p o s s ib le (su b je c tiv e a n d o b je c tiv e ) r e s u lt o f
t h e e c o n o m ic m o v e m e n t its e lf a n d to lin k it w ith th e p r o b le m w h ic h is th e m o st
r a d ic a l p r o d u c t o f th is d is in te g r a tio n : th e p o v e rty -ra b b le . H o n n e t h ’s th e o r y is
a H e g e lia n th e o r y o f ju s t ic e , w h ic h a lth o u g h it m ig h t b e a b le to p r o b le m a tiz e
lu x u r y a s a g e n u in e ly su b je c tiv e p r o d u c t, d o e s n o t d o j u s t ic e to th e n e c e s s a r y
p r o d u c ti o n o f p o v e rty a n d th e r e b y to th e p o o r r a b b le . H o n n e t h ’s th e o r y o f
j u s t i c e is a th e o r y w ith n o p la c e f o r th e p o o r.

I h e r e w a n t to r e t u r n to t h e q u e s tio n o f th e t h i r d e le m e n t in th e lo g ic o f th e
e m e r g e n c e o f t h e p o v e r ty - r a b b le . B o th ty p e s o f r a b b le s h a r e t h e r e s e n tm e n t
s t r u c t u r e o f c la im in g a rig h t w ith o u t a right. B ut t h e i r sc is s io n r e p e a ts its e lf o n
d if f e r e n t levels: a m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r r e s e n tm e n t a g a in s t a p a r tic u la r - u n iv e r s a l
o n e ; a p a r t i c u l a r u n b i n d i n g o f r ig h ts a n d d u tie s a g a in s t a c o m p le te o n e ; a
p e c u l i a r w ay o f a p p e a r in g in lu x u r y a g a in s t th e lo ss o f th e fo rm o f a p p e a r a n c e .
A g a in s t th is b a c k g r o u n d I w a n t to ta k e se rio u s ly th e c la im t h a t H e g e l d o e s
ta k e th e d e t e r m in a tio n o f th e r a b b le to its lo g ic a l c o n c lu s io n . I f th e r a b b le is
d e f in e d o n ly a s f a r a s t h e su b je c tiv e a t t i t u d e w h ic h c o n tin g e n tly s u p p le m e n ts
t h e n e c e s s a r ily p r e s e n t p o ssib ility , t h e n H e g e l c o m p re s s e s o n t h e s e c o n d lo g i­
c a l s ta g e o f t h e f o r m u la I h a v e d e v e lo p e d s o f a r (N r- C .) th e a t titu d e a n d th e
p e c u lia r f o r m o f p r iv a tio n th a t th e r a b b le is m a r k e d by. H e id e n tif ie s a t titu d e
a n d p riv a tio n , c o n v ic tio n a n d d e e p e n i n g loss. I f o n e c a n r e a d th e f o r m u la o f
t h e r ic h r a b b le (C .—C —N . ) a s th e d ia le c tic a l m o v e m e n t f r o m a c o n t in g e n t in
its e lf v ia a c o n t in g e n t f o r its e lf to a n e c e s s a ry in a n d fo r itse lf, a g a in th e q u e s ­
t io n a ris e s : w h a t is t h e p o o r r a b b le in a n d f o r itself?
O n e c a n c la im t h a t th e ‘p r e s e n c e ’ o f th e r a b b le d is r u p ts e v e n th e lo g ic a l m o v e­
m e n t o f t h e Philosophy o f R ight. T h e r a b b le m o b iz e s [verpöbeln] th e c o n s iste n c y
72 Hegel's R abble

o f I l e g e l ’s o w n lo g ic a l d e d u c tio n . I le g e l s e e m s to m a r k th e f a c t th a t th e r a b b le
e v e n lack s t h e in a n d fo r its e lf o f th e d ia le c tic a l m o v e m e n t. T h e r a b b le th e re b y
r e m a in s in a b s tr a c t in te r io r ity a n d m e r e “n e g a tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g ” (IIO P R ,
2 5 8 ) a n d th e d ia le c tic s f a lte r s in th e c o n t in g e n t f o r its e lf o f th e a t titu d e . T o
s p e a k w ith A d o rn o : w h e n H e g e l s p e a k s a b o u t th e r a b b le “w h e n h e m e e ts w ith
s o m e th in g c o n tra ry , th in g s a r e n o t th a t d ia le c tic a l." 1’’ F o r th e d if f e r e n tia tio n
i n to m e r e p a r ti c u la r (ric h ra b b le ) a n d p a r tic u la r - u n iv e r s a l r e s e n tm e n t ( p o o r
r a b b le ) d e lin e a te s t h a t t h e p o o r r a b b le w ill n o t alw ay s h a v e b e e n m e r e r e s e n t­
m e n t. E v en in r e s e n tm e n t a n d its in n e r - p a r tic u la r c o n s titu tio n s o m e th in g
a p p e a r s th a t is n o t a m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r r e s e n tm e n t. S in c e th e right w ithout right
o f th e p o o r r a b b le is t h e im p o s s ib le r ig h t o f a n y o n e a n d d o e s n o t k n o w a n y lim ­
itin g c o n d itio n . B u t h o w c a n th e p o o r r a b b le b e u n iv e rs a l a s a p a r tic u la rity ?
I f o n e r e m e m b e r s t h e p e c u lia r f o r m o f u n b i n d i n g t h a t t h e p o o r r a b b le
d isp la y s, a n a n s w e r to t h i s q u e s tio n s e e m s p o ssib le . A g a in s t t h e p a r ti c u la r
u n b i n d i n g o f t h e r ic h r a b b le t h e p o o r r a b b le in tr o d u c e s a n a b s o lu te o n e . T h a t
w h ic h a p p e a r s v ia th e logic o f double latency a s u n iv e rs a l is n o t h i n g b u t th is a b s o ­
lu te u n b in d in g . T h e u n iv e rs a l in th e p a r ti c u la r i ty o f th e p o o r r a b b le is th e
u n b i n d in g , t h e p r iv a tio n p e c u l i a r to it, a n d th is c o n s e q u e n c e H e g e l rig h tly
a n d in th e n a m e o f t h e r ig h t a tte m p ts to a v o id in d e f in i n g t h e p o o r ra b b le . B ut
e v e n t h e la st e le m e n t of th e p o o r r a b b le ’s lo g ic o f e m e r g e n c e is fo llo w e d by a n
e x t e r n a l n e c e s sity (N r ), a l th o u g h w e h a v e y e t to d e t e r m i n e it m o r e p re c ise ly :
t h e p o o r r a b b le la c k s e v e n t h e s p e c ific w ay o f a p p e a r in g . R a th e r a n e c e s sa ry
c o n s e q u e n c e is t h a t d u e to h is r e s e n tm e n t- s ta n c e , i.e. d u e to its r e f u s a l to w o rk ,
it d o e s n o t a p p e a r e x te r n a lly a t a ll. O n ly t h e p o o r a p p e a r a n d th e p o o r ra b b le
is a n d r e m a in s in d is tin g u is h a b le f r o m th e m . B u t w ith t h is t h e r a b b le u n b in d s
h im s e lf c o m p le te ly f r o m t h e lo g ic o f r e c o g n itio n , th u s : “I f m a n m a k e s h im s e lf
b e w ith o u t r ig h ts a n d a ls o k e e p s h im s e lf un b o u n d fro m d u tie s . . . t h e n th is is
t h e r a b b le ” (H P R V , 2 2 2 , m y e m p h a s is ). A t th e s a m e tim e its s u b je c tiv e a t ti­
t u d e is d e t e r m i n e d to b e u n b o u n d f r o m a n y f o r m o f s h a m e , h o n o r , h a b it, etc.
A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o n e c a n d e d u c e th a t t h e p o o r r a b b le a ls o h a s n o in te r io r
d e t e r m in a tio n s . T h e a b s tr a c t in te r io r ity th a t H e g e l r e p r o a c h e s th e p o o r r a b ­
b le f o r d o e s n o t h a v e a n y d e t e r m in a tio n . H e g e l n e i th e r k n o w s w h y t h e r a b b le
a p p e a r s (it m a k e s its e lf) n o r w h e th e r it h a s e m e r g e d o r w ill e m e r g e ( b e c a u s e
o n ly th e p o o r a p p e a r ) . T h e r e f o r e , H e g e l c a lls th e in d ig n a tio n a n e s s e n tia l r e a ­
s o n o f h is g e n e s is . B u t th a t H e g e l u s e s ‘in d ig n a tio n ’ a s a c a te g o r y o f a f f e c ts a n d
i n s tin c ts a n d — a lth o u g h th is is e ty m o lo g ic a lly fa lse — in t h e s e n s e o f re v o lt,
r e b e llio n , p o in ts to w a rd a s u b s ta n tia l a m b iv a le n c e . F o r th e in d ig n a tio n o f th e
r a b b le , a l th o u g h it s e e m s to b e m e re ly a n d a b s tra c tly in te r io r , c o n ta in s th e
a d d itio n a l c o m p o n e n t t h a t th e r a b b le p r o d u c e s e ffe c ts w h ic h a t ta c k t h e s ta te
a n d e th ic a l c o m m u n ity . T h is b e c o m e s c le a r w h e n H e g e l w rite s : “A r e b e llio n
i n a p r o v in c e c o n q u e r e d in w a r is a d if f e r e n t th in g f r o m a r is in g [Empörung]
i n a w e ll-o r g a n iz e d s ta te . It is n o t a g a in s t t h e i r p r in c e t h a t t h e c o n q u e r e d a r e
i n r e b e llio n , a n d th e y a r e c o m m itt in g n o c r im e a g a in s t th e s ta te . . .” (H O P R ,
 T h e F o rm u la o f I n fin ite U n b in d in g 73

2 7 5 ). T h is p a s s a g e im p lic itly in d ic a te s t h a t w ith in a n e x is tin g s ta tis t a s so c ia ­

tio n , in d ig n a tio n a b o u t a n d a g a in s t t h e s ta te is th e g r e a te s t c r im e . A t t h e s a m e
t im e th e r a b b le d o e s n o t a p p e a r in t h e f o r m o f a c r im in a l b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t
a p p e a r a t a ll. T h e p r o b le m o f th e r a b b le ’s in d ig n a tio n is th e re b y m a d e c le a re r:
t h e r a b b le is a ffe c tiv e ly i n d i g n a n t a b o u t th e s ta te a n d t h e e x is tin g o r d e r . T h is
le a d s it in to r e s e n tm e n t, c la im in g a r ig h t w ith o u t a r ig h t, w h ic h p r e s e n ts o n e
m o m e n t o f a n a b s o lu te a n d c o m p le te m o v e m e n t o f u n b i n d i n g a n d in t h e la s t
i n s ta n c e le a d s f r o m a n 'in d i g n a t i o n a b o u t ’ to a n ‘in d ig n a tio n a g a in s t.’ In th is
w ay o n e c a n r e s u m e H e g e l’s tw o fo ld u s a g e o f in d ig n a tio n in t h e fo llo w in g
w ay: T h e tru e rebellion o f the rabble is the unbinding. T h e r e f o r e , fo llo w in g t h e logic
o f double latency, a f u r t h e r sc is s io n b e c o m e s th in k a b le . It b e c o m e s p o s s ib le to
t h i n k th a t f r o m th e s ta te o f (o b je c tiv e ) la c k in w h ic h th e p o o r r e s id e s , a d e e p ­
e n i n g (su b jec tiv e ) p r iv a tio n a n d u n b i n d i n g is g e n e r a te d , s u c h t h a t it b e c o m e s
c le a r re tr o a c tiv e ly th a t th is p r iv a tio n w ill h a v e b e e n th e p e c u lia r (o b je c tiv e a n d
s u b je c tiv e ) u n iv e rs a l o f t h e p o o r r a b b le a n d th e r e w ith o f a n y o n e . T h e tr u ly
u n iv e rs a l, w h ic h a p p e a r s in th e d e e p e n i n g p r iv a tio n o f t h e p o o r r a b b le a n d
m a k e s th e logic o f double latency th in k a b le , is th a t a n y o n e in t h e s ta te (lo g ically )
p r i o r to a n y c o n c r e te d e t e r m i n a t i o n w ill h a v e b e e n n o th in g , o r b e tte r : N o th in g
but rabble.
T h e r e f o r e o n e c a n d e r iv e f r o m th e p o o r r a b b le a s r e s e n tm e n t- r a b b le a n o t h e r
c o n s e q u e n c e w h ic h d e lin e a te s th e in a n d lo r its e lf o f th e ra b b le . A r a b b le th a t
is d ia le c tic a lly u n b o u n d e v e n f r o m th e s u b je c tiv e - in te rio r lim ita tio n o f th e
s ta g e o f t h e fo r itself, i.e . o f r e s e n tm e n t. H e n c e th e in a n d fo r its e lf o f th e
p o o r r a b b le is w h a t I w a n t to c a ll th e absolute rabble." T h e re p ly to t h e q u e s ­
tio n a b o u t th e in a n d fo r its e lf o f t h e r a b b le — a b o u t th e t h i r d e le m e n t o f its
lo g ic o f e m e r g e n c e — le a d s to t h is c o n s e q u e n c e d e t e r m i n e d b y th e d ia le c tic a l
lo g ic . T h e la st e le m e n t d o e s n o t d e s c r ib e a n e c e s s a rily p r o d u c e d s ta te o f la ck
(p o v e rty ) n o r a n ( e x te r n a l) la ck o f s o m e th in g (la b o r , c a p ita l, r e p r e s e n ta t io n ,
etc .), n o r d o e s it in v o lv e a f u r t h e r lo s s w h ic h w o u ld c o m e in th r o u g h th e a tti­
tu d e th a t s u p p le m e n ts p o v e r ty a n d w h ic h c o u ld b e d e s c r ib e d so le ly a s a n in n e r
la c k ( o f s h a m e , h o n o r , h a b it, e tc .). R a th e r, o n e c a n d e d u c e f r o m th e lo g ic o f
d o u b le la te n c y t h a t th e la st e le m e n t o f th e p o o r r a b b le 's lo g ic o f e m e r g e n c e is
a b o u t la ck a s su c h , a b o u t u n b i n d i n g o r p r iv a tio n in a n d f o r itse lf. T h is is n o t to
say th a t th e r e s e n tm e n t- r a b b le , w h ic h d e lin e a te s t h e d ia le c tic a l s ta g e in w h ic h
H e g e l e n d s w ith th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e r a b b le , w o u ld a s s u c h b e th e absolute
rabble. B u t f ro m it, th a n k s to t h e r e tr o a c tiv e in s ig h t t h a t a n y o n e in th e s ta te is
la te n tly r a b b le , a r is e s th e th in k a b ility ir’ o f a m o r e r a d ic a l u n b in d in g . T h e in
a n d f o r itself, th e t h i r d s ta g e o f t h e p o o r r a b b le r e f e r s to th e th in k a b ility o f a n
a b s o lu te u n b in d in g , o f a p r iv a tio n a b s o lu te ly p u r if i e d o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s . It
r e f e r s to th e absolute rabble a n d t h e in a n d f o r its e lf o f p r iv a tio n ; w h a t M a rx w ill
c a ll " a b s o lu te p o v e rty '' (M E P M , 107). H e r e it b e c o m e s c l e a r w hy H e g e l c o m ­
p o u n d s th e la s t s ta g e o f th e lo g ic o f th e p o o r r a b b le t o g e t h e r w ith th e s e c o n d .
H e te n d s to d e s c r ib e th e p riva tio n in a n d fo r itself as p r iv a tio n o f th e in a n d fo r
74 Hegel's R abble

itse lf, i.e. a s a lo ss o f t h e t h i r d s ta g e w h ic h w o u ld m a k e it im p o s s ib le to th in k o f

p r iv a tio n a s th e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l u n iv e rs a l. N o w th e f o r m u la o f th e lo g ic o f
e m e r g e n c e o f th e p o o r r a b b le c a n b e c o m p le te d ( ‘N - C - N iA.’).
T h e n e c e s s a r y p o s s ib ility o f p o v e rty d e l in e a te s th e c o n d itio n o f a c o n tin ­
g e n tly s u p p le m e n tin g a t titu d e , o f a subjective operation w h ic h allo w s u s to in f e r
th a t th e w h o le m o v e m e n t w ill h a v e b e e n n o th in g b u t t h e m o v e m e n t o f p riv a ­
tio n . lo ss o r a b s o lu te p o v e rty a s su c h . T h e u n iv e r s a l w h ic h m a rk s h is p a r ti c u ­
la r ity is a b s o lu te p r iv a tio n , a b s o lu te p o v e rty , c o m p le te v o id o f d e t e r m in a tio n s ,
r a d ic a l u n - d if f c r e n tia tio n . It w ill th e r e f o r e b e , w ill alw ay s a lre a d y h a v e b e e n , as
th is N o th in g , t h e u n iv e rs a l w h ic h la te n tly m a r k s a n y o n e . T h e u n iv e r s a l o f th e
u n b i n d i n g o f th e r a b b le is th e v o id ( o f d e t e r m in a tio n s , e tc .) itself. T h e p a r ti c u ­
la r ity a s a n y “p a r ti c u la r i ty b y itself is m e a s u r e le s s c x c c s s , a n d t h e f o rm s o f th is
e x c e s s a r e th e m s e lv e s m e a s u r e le s s ” ( II O P R . 183). R u t th e r a b b le -p a i tic u la rity
is m a r k e d b y t h e fa c t t h a t it is in a n d fo r itself, a s th e “n o m a d ic life ” ( Ib id ., 194).
t h e a b s o lu te v o id o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n t h a t w ill alw ay s a lr e a d y h a v e d e t e r m i n e d
a n y o n e . ‘N c- C - N ’ is th e f o r m u la o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n a b s o lu te p r iv a tio n ,
o f th e c o m p le te v o id o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w h o s e n a m e is absolute rabble. O n ly now
d o e s it b e c o m e a p p a r e n t th a t a n y o n e is a n d r e m a in s (la te n tly ) absolute rabble
b e c a u s e a n y o n e w ill alw ays a lr e a d y h a v e b e e n it.16 ‘N r- C - N ’ is t h e f o r m u la
o f a n in f in ite lo ss a n d of its f a r - r e a c h in g c o n s e q u e n c e s . A n d “t h e n th is is the
[absolute] r a b b le ” (H P R V , 2 2 2 , m y e m p h a s is ). T h is (h y p o -) th e s is c a n o n ly b e
v e rifie d in c o m p r e h e n d in g t h e u n b in d in g s w ith in th e lo g ic o f th e Philosophy o f
R ight. F o r o n ly w h e n o n e d e m o n s tr a te s w h a t th e r a b b le is d e d u c e d f r o m c a n
o n e sh o w in w h a t w ay th e a b s o lu te r a b b le is a f u n d a m e n ta l p r o b le m fo r H e g e l
w h ic h a t t h e s a m e t im e c a n s till b e th o u g h t. I w a n t to c la im in t h e fo llo w in g
t h a t t h is a b s o lu te p r iv a tio n a n d a b s o lu te u n b i n d i n g is n o t a p u r e ly a b s tr a c t,
s p e c u la tiv e c o n s tr u c tio n w h ic h w o u ld n o t b r i n g a b o u t e f f e c ts w ith in t h e r e a l­
ity o f t h e s ta te a n d w o u ld , a s m e r e a b s tr a c t in te r io rity , b e sim p ly in s ig n ific a n t.
It is n o t a lo g ic t h a t w o u ld c o n s tr u c t a n " e m p ty s tr iv in g to w a r d s th e (a b s tra c t)
i n f in it e ” ( H O P R . 148); it is n o t a b o u t f a llin g b a c k in to th e p o s itio n o f m e r e
n e g a tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g . F o r t h e absolute rabble is ‘p r e s e n t.’ It is t h e r e , a lth o u g h
f o r H e g e l it is d e d u c e d f r o m le g itim a te e x is te n c e (in civil so c ie ty , s ta te , h is­
to ry , e tc .). I n th e fo llo w in g I w ill follow ' th is p e c u l i a r ‘p r e s e n c e ’ o f u n b in d in g ,
t h is a b s o lu te p r iv a tio n o f t h e a b s o lu te r a b b le a n d its e ffe c ts f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e
o f th e Philosophy o f R ig h t to show , o n o n e s id e t h a t th e n a m e 'r a b b le ' in H e g e l
is a sy n o n y m fo r u n b i n d i n g a n d p r iv a tio n a n d to answ 'cr. o n t h e o t h e r sid e , a
q u e s tio n t h a t H e g e l p o s e s in a d if f e r e n t c o n te x t: “B u t h o w c a n s o m e th in g b e
p r e s e n t a n d y e t n o t e x is t? ” ( H P N , 155).
 C h a p te r 8

T he Lost Habit: Elem ents o f a Hegelian

T heory o f Laziness/Foulness

B u t idU th in k in g cannot be a t a ll
(G. W. F. Hegel) 1

A n e s s e n tia l e le m e n t o f th e p r o b le m o f t h e r a b b le is, a s H e g e l r e m a r k s , th a t it
b e c o m e s “sh y o f w o rk ” ( H O P R , 22 1 , tr a n s . m o d .) b e c a u s e " it la c k s . . . th e h o n o r
t o s e c u r e s u b s is te n c e by h is o w n la b o r . . (Ib id .). H e g e l m a rk s t h e p r o b le m
r e s u lt in g fro m th is e v e n m o r e c le a rly in h is la te r le c tu r e s w h e n h e n o te s t h a t in
t h e r a b b le g e n e r a lly “th e h a b it o f la b o r in g , t h e n e e d f o r in d u s tr io u s n e s s d is a p ­
p ea rs . . (H V O R L 4 , 6 0 9 ). O n e m a y e n c a p s u la te H e g e l's d ia g n o s is by sa y in g
th a t t h e r a b b le lo se s th e h a b it o f b e i n g ac tiv e . T h is lo ss m e a n s a t f ir s t g la n c e
t h a t t h e r a b b le d o e s n o t e n d e a v o r to f in d w o rk in civil s o c ie ty a n d w ith d ra w s
f r o m its m e d ia tin g r e la tio n s . I f o n e k e e p s in m in d th a t th e ( r a tio n a l) a c tiv ity
n a m e s th e d e c isiv e f e a tu r e o f s p ir it th a t f o r H e g e l e n t e r s t h e w o rld a n d h is­
to r y w ith t h e r e f o r m a tio n , t h e n to lo s e t h e h a b it o f w o r k in g m e a n s n o t o n ly to
r e n o u n c e so c ia l la b o r b u t m o r e o v e r a n y f o r m o f a c tiv ity a n d th e r e f o r e to s ta n d
a g a in s t t h e m e d ia t in g m o v e m e n t o f s p ir it itse lf. T h e r a b b le is n o t m e re ly u n e m ­
p lo y e d ; it lo s e s , a s I w a n t to c la im , in a m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l r e s p e c t th e h a b it2 o f
b e i n g a c tiv e a n d th e r e b y p o s e s a p r o b le m t h a t h a s f a r - r e a c h in g c o n s e q u e n c e s
i n H e g e l's p h ilo s o p h y .
H e g e l r e m a r k s in th e Philosophy oj R ight th a t “practical education [B ildung] ,
a c q u ir e d th r o u g h w o rk in g , c o n s is ts firs t in th e s e lf - p e r p e tu a tin g n e e d fo r
s o m e th in g to d o a n d th e h a b it o f sim p ly b e in g b u sy . . . ” (H O P R , 191). O n c e th is
f o u n d a tio n is b u ilt it c a n b e f u r t h e r sp e c ifie d . P ra c tic a l e d u c a tio n th r o u g h w o rk
p r o d u c e s th e h a b it o f w o rk in g — o f th is p r a c tic e . H e r e it is a lre a d y c le a r th a t it
is th is p r o d u c t o f p r a c tic a l e d u c a tio n t h a t th e r a b b le lo ses w h e n h e lo se s th e
h a b it. T h e e v a p o r a tio n o f t h e r e s u lts o f p r a c tic a l e d u c a tio n , i.e . o f th e h a b it to
p a r ta k e o f a c tiv ity a s su c h , r e f e r s to a n e f f e c t o f d e - e d u c a tio n o r u n - e d u c a tio n .
T h e s e a r e e s s e n tia lly lin k e d to t h e p r a c tic e t h a t g e ts lo st, w h ic h is a fo rm a tiv e
p r a c tic e , a n d w h a t is f o r m e d a r e habits. F o r if o n e ta k e s in to a c c o u n t a n o t h e r
f u n d a m e n ta l r e m a r k f r o m H e g e l's Philosophy o f R ig h t, t h e n e d u c a tio n is alw ays
76 Hegel's R abble

“lea rning a n d getting used to s o m e th in g th r o u g h d is c ip lin e . . .” (H G P R , 249).

E d u c a tio n m e a n s to g e t u s e d to , d e v e lo p h a b its , a n d e d u c a tio n is th e re b y alw ays
m e d ia te d v ia f o rm a tiv e activity. “[P Jra c tic a l e d u c a tio n is p re c ise ly e d u c a t io n in
t h e h a b i t o f b e i n g b u sy ” ( II O P R . 191). It c o n s is ts in th e p r o d u c tio n o f h a b it, th e
h a b it o f th is ( e d u c a tin g ) activ ity . I o n ly to u c h o n t h e H e g e lia n n o tio n o f e d u c a ­
tio n b e c a u s e th e c ite d p a s s a g e s c a n b e in s tru c tiv e in h e lp in g to u n d e r s ta n d th e
r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n a c tiv ity a n d h a b it. E d u c a tio n I ta k e to b e th e c o n n e c tio n
o f p r a c tic a l activ ity , fo r e x a m p le w o rk , a n d th e f o r m a tio n o f th e h a b it o f su c h
p r a c tic a l activity. A ctivity a n d h a b it a r e th e r e f o r e f r o m th e b e g i n n in g closely
r e la te d . A ctiv e e d u c a tio n f o rm s h a b i t a n d m o r e p re c ise ly th e h a b it o f activity,
o f b u s y n e s s a s su c h . B u t th is , a s it m ig h t s e e m , m e re ly te m p o r a l d e te r m in a tio n
(first t h e r e is activ ity , th e n t h e h a b i t o f it) a lre a d y c o n ta in s th e lo g ic a l s tr u c ­
t u r e a n d th e u n iv e rs a l o f th e ir r e la tio n . O n e c a n s e e t h a t in th is s e n s e h a b it
a ls o p la y s a c e n tr a l ro le in th e s ta tis t c o m m u n ity . O n ly th r o u g h th e p r o d u c ­
tio n o f “t h e h a b it o f sim p ly b e in g b u sy ” c a n t h e r e b e “a h a b it, p r o d u c e d b y th is
d is c ip lin e , o f o b je c tiv e a c tiv ity a n d u n iv e rs a lly a p p lic a b le sk ills" (Ib id .). O n ly
th r o u g h a c tiv ity is t h e r e th e f o r m a tio n o f h a b its , a n d th is e d u c a tio n c o n s is ts in
a f u n d a m e n ta l s e n s e in t h e f o r m a tio n o f t h e h a b it o f a c tiv ity in general. O n ly as
a c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is h a b it- fo r m in g , a h a b it c a n b e g e n e r a te d w h ic h e n a b le s us
to w o rk objectively, i.e. in m e d ia tin g r e la tio n s w ith o th e r s a n d fo llo w in g th e laws
o f o b je c tiv e w o rld . A ll th is is n e e d e d in o r d e r to d e v e lo p sk ills th a t allo w o n e
to a s s u m e a p la c e in a n e s ta te o r a c o r p o r a tio n . H a b it in H e g e l d o e s n o t o n ly
h a v e t h e f u n c tio n o f e d u c a tin g t h e s u b je c t, it is a ls o e s s e n tia l fo r th e o b je c tiv e
c o n s titu tio n o f (e th ic a l) in s titu tio n s .
T h e r e f o r e H e g e l c a n d e c la r e t h a t th e firs t h u m a n n a t u r e is tr a n s f o r m e d
“in to a s e c o n d , s p ir itu a l n a t u r e , a n d m a k e s th is s p ir itu a l level h a b itu a l to
t h e m . . . T o th is e x te n t, h a b it is p a r t o f e th ic a l life . . . ” ( H O P R . 1 5 9 ).3 It th e re b y
b e lo n g s to th e s ta b ility a n d p e r p e t u a t e d c o n s titu t io n o f t h e s ta te . T h a t s o m e ­
t h i n g b e c o m e s h a b itu a l m e a n s fo r H e g e l th a t it b e c o m e s s e c o n d n a t u r e . In th is
c o n te x t, th is m e a n s th a t o b je c tiv e ac tiv ity , w o rk , b e c o m e s h a b i tu a l a n d th e re b y
t h e s e c o n d n a t u r e o f m a n . T o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t it c a n m e a n to lo s e th is s e c o n d
n a t u r e — c a n t h e r e b e a r e t u r n to a firs t n a tu r e ? — it is n e c e s s a r y to c o n c e iv e o f
t h e n o tio n o f h a b it in m o r e p r e c is e te rm s .
In t h e a n th r o p o lo g y , t h e f ir s t s y s te m a tic p a r t o f s u b je c tiv e s p ir it, w h ic h
d e a ls w ith t h e f o r m a tio n o f th e s o u l— th e s p ir it in its i m m e d ia te a n d n a t u r a l
s ta te — o n e c a n f in d , in H e g e l's Encyclopedia, a d e f in i tio n o f h a b it. H e t h e r e
d e t e r m in e s it in a n a m b iv a le n t w ay: it is, o n o n e h a n d , “t h e m e c h a n is m o f self­
f e e lin g " (H P M , 131), w h ic h is s u p p o s e d to m e a n th a t h a b it le a d s to a d e a d e n ­
i n g o f th e in te n s ity o f t h e ac tiv ity , to a m e c h a n iz a tio n a n d u ltim a te ly to f o rm s
o f u n c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d la c k o f in te r e s t. T h e in te n s ity a n d v ita lity o f a n a c tiv ­
ity o f life is lo st in th e m o m e n t a t w h ic h it b e c o m e s h a b i tu a l , b e c o m e s a p u r e
m e c h a n ic a l " r e p e tit io n ”— a r e p e titio n w ith o u t c o n s c io u s n e s s o f r e p e titio n . In
t h is w ay, m a n a p p e a r s a s “u n f r e e ” in h a b i t b e c a u s e h e is " n o l o n g e r in te r e s te d ,
 Ί li e L o st H a b it 77

e n g a g e d , o r d e p e n d e n t w ith r e s p e c t to ” ( Ib id .) its s e n s a tio n s . I l a b i t a p p e a r s

i n th is firs t p e r s p e c tiv e a s th e c o n v e r s e o f f r e e d o m . I n th is firs t f u n c tio n a l
d e t e r m i n a t i o n it is: “(a) T h e im m ediate s e n s a tio n a s n e g a te d , a s in d if f e r e n t.”
T h e r e b y it is “ [ h ] a r d e n i n g a g a in s t e x t e r n a l s e n s a tio n s ” a n d “p r o t e c t i n g us
f r o m m is f o r tu n e . . .” ( Ib id ., 132). F r o m t h is it fo llo w s th a t: “( b ) I n d if f e r e n c e
to w a r d s s a tis f a c tio n ; d e s ir e s , u r g e s a r e d u lle d by h a b i t” a n d th e r e b y it a c h ie v e s
a r a t i o n a l lib e r a tio n f r o m th e m w h ic h is to b e d is t in g u is h e d f r o m a n i r r a ­
tio n a l r e n u n c i a t i o n a n d a s c e tic is m .' F in a lly “h a b i t a s dexterity" is p r o d u c e d .
T h e r e f o r e o n e c a n c la im th a t “h a b i t is a f o r m t h a t e m b r a c e s a ll k in d s a n d
s ta g e s o f m i n d ’s a c tiv ity ” (Ib id .), f o r e x a m p le s t a n d in g , s e e in g a n d u ltim a te ly
t h i n k i n g . T o a c t a t a ll in t h e e x i s tin g o b je c tiv e w o rld — a n d d e x t e r ity n a m e s
t h e g e n e r a l m a n n e r o f s u c h a n a c tio n — o n e h a s to b e h a b i t u a t e d to th e law s
w h ic h s u c h a n a c tio n is s u b o r d i n a t e d to . T h is is v a lid , a s H e g e l a r ti c u la te s in
t h e Philosophy o f Right', “s in c c a c tio n is a n a l te r a t io n w h ic h is to ta k e p la c e in
a n a c tu a l w o rld a n d s o s e e k s r e c o g n itio n ,” it th e r e f o r e m u s t b e “in g e n e r a l
a c c o r d w ith w h a t h a s v a lid ity t h e r e ” ( H O P R , 128).
O n e h a s to b e h a b i t u a t e d to th e o b je c tiv e c ir c u m s ta n c e s in o r d e r to b e
r e c o g n iz e d . T h e r e f o r e m e n w h o a r e h a b i t u a t e d in t h e s e n s e o f a c q u i r i n g d e x ­
te r ity a r e “t h o s e w h o . . . c a n d o w h a t o t h e r s d o ” ( Ib id ., 186). F o r o n ly h a b it
c a n “s u p p ly t h e in d iv id u a l a c tiv ity w ith p a r ti c ip a tio n a n d r e c o g n itio n [in th e
o b je c tiv e w o rld ],” i.e. g iv e it a n o b je c tiv e f o r m a n d a v a lid c o n t e n t. W ith th is
t h r e e f o l d d e t e r m i n a t i o n of h a b it— a s h a r d e n in g , in d if f e r e n c e , a n d d e x t e r i­
ty— is a lr e a d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t it is n o t r e d u c ib le o n ly to m e c h a n ic a l r e p e titio n .
It in te r n a lly a n d n e c e s s a r ily c h a n g e s in to a n o t h e r fo rm . By d e a d e n i n g th e
in te n s ity o f a n a c tiv ity it le a d s to th e p o s s ib ility to p e r f o r m d if f e r e n t a c tiv itie s
a t o n c e . T h e r e b y it in c r e a s e s t h e d e g r e e o f u n iv e r s a lity o f t h e activ ity . It is its
p e c u l i a r a m b iv a le n c e t h a t it is n o t o n ly th e c o n v e r s e o f f r e e d o m b u t a t th e
s a m e t im e t h e c o n d i tio n o f f r e e d o m . T h e r e is, a n d th is is h o w o n e c a n c o n ­
c e iv e o f H e g e l's r e p e a t e d a n d in s is te n t e m p h a s is o n th is p o in t, n o f r e e d o m at
a ll w ith o u t h a b it. T h is c a n b e m a d e c l e a r b y r e f e r r i n g to a n e x a m p le f r o m th e
Encyclopedia: w r i tin g .' T o le a r n w r i tin g o n e in itia lly n e e d s to r e h e a r s e c e r ta in
p r o c e d u r e s a n d te c h n iq u e s , to le a r n t h e r u le s o f th e p r a c tic e , a n d o n e h a s
to b e in a s ta te in w h ic h t h e r e is a b lin d a n d m e c h a n ic a l a p p l ic a tio n o f th e
r u le s . I n itia lly “w e m u s t d i r e c t o u r a t t e n t i o n to e v e r y in d iv id u a l d e t a il , to a
v a s t n u m b e r o f m e d ia tio n s ” (H P M , 136); o n ly b y b e c o m in g h a b i t u a t e d to th e
r u le s a n d b y r e h e a r s i n g is it p o s s ib le to b e c o m e ufr e e f r o m th e m " ( Ib id ., 131)
a n d to r e a liz e o n e ’s o w n f r e e d o m in w ritin g . T h is a m b iv a le n t s t r u c t u r e o f
h a b it n o t o n ly p la y s a d e c isiv e r o le w h e n it c o m e s to a c tiv itie s lik e w r itin g , b u t
f o r a n y ac tiv ity . H a b it in te n s if ie s t h e v ita lity o f e a c h a n d e v e r y in d iv id u a l—
a n d c o n s e q u e n tly a ls o u n iv e r s a l— life . T o b e a b le to g e n e r a t e t h is in c re a s e ,
t h e r e is a c o n s ta n t n e c e s s ity fo r u n c o n s c io u s r e p e t i t i o n a s o n e p a r t o f h a b it.
N o w o n d e r H e g e l c a n c la im t h a t "w e a r e e th ic a lfly ] u n c o n s c io u s o f o u r s e lv e s ”
(H O P R , 15 4 , t r a n s . m o d .).
78 Hegel's R abble

A g a in s t t h is b a c k g r o u n d h e c a n in s is t t h a t h a b it d e s c r ib e s a f u n d a m e n ­
ta l p r o c e s s o f “e m b o d im e n t” ( II P M , 132). E m b o d im e n t m e a n s th a t it is o n ly
t h r o u g h h a b it th a t m a n is c a p a b le o f tr a n s f o r m in g h is b o d y in to a v e rs a tile
i n s t r u m e n t o f th e s o u l. A s A la in h a s a lr e a d y r e m a r k e d c o n c e r n in g H e g e l:

11è r e th e b o d y is n o l o n g e r a f o re ig n b e in g , r e a c tin g b e llig e r e n tly a g a in s t m e;

r a t h e r it is p e r v a d e d b y s o u l a n d h a s b e c o m e s o u l’s i n s t r u m e n t a n d m e a n s ;
y e t a t t h e s a m e tim e , in h a b i t th e c o r p o r e a l s e lf is u n d e r s t o o d a s it tr u ly is;
b o d y is r e n d e r e d s o m e th in g m o b ile a n d f lu id , a b le to e x p r e s s d ir e c tly th e
i n n e r m o v e m e n ts o f th o u g h t w ith o u t n e e d in g to in v o lv e th e r e b y th e r o le o f
c o n s c io u s n e s s o r r e f le c tio n . . /'

H e r e it b e c o m e s c le a r th a t h a b it d o c s n o t d e s c r ib e a s in g u l a r s ta te b u t r a t h e r
ta k e s its n e c e s s a r y p la c e a t e a c h s ta g e in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e a c tiv itie s o f
s p ir it. In th is way, o n ly w ith th e m a r ita l b o n d c a n t h e r e b e “u n ity w ith s o m e ­
o n e . . . i.e. h a b it" (H G P R , 3 2 8 ). B e c a u s e o n ly in th is uethical r o o t o f t h e s ta te . . .
[d o es] a s u b s ta n tia l u n i t y . . . o f su b je c tiv e p a r ti c u la r i ty a n d o b je c tiv e u n iv e rs a l­
ity ” (I IO P R , 2 2 6 ) b e c o m e s h a b itu a l. In love, th e h a b i t o f t h e s e n s e d s u b s ta n tia l
u n ity w ith a n o t h e r h u m a n b e in g a ls o s tr u c t u r a lly im p lie s th e h a b it o f in te r s u b ­
je c tiv ity to u t c o u r t. T h is b r in g s a l o n g w ith it th e d e s ir e fo r u n ity w ith s o m e o n e
w ith o u t w h o m ‘‘I w o u ld fe e l d e fe c tiv e a n d in c o m p le te ” b e c a u s e o n ly in r e la tio n
t o h im c a n "I f in d m y se lf in a n o t h e r p e r s o n . . . ” ( Ib id ., 162). W ith o u t th is h a b it,
o n e o f th e r o o ts o f t h e s ta te is lo st, th e r o o t o f so c iality .
H a b it a ls o tr a n s f o r m s t h e b o d ily o r g a n iz a tio n , th e s e n s a tio n s , a n d n e e d s . I f
p r a c tic a l e d u c a tio n c o n s is ts “in th e s e lf - p e r p e tu a t in g n e e d ” ( Ib id ., 191), th e n
it b e c o m e s c l e a r in w h a t w ay th e n a t u r a l o r g a n iz a ti o n o f m a n is c h a n g e d by
la b o r. A lso , o n a m o r e u n iv e rs a l level, th e c o n s titu t io n o f a n e s ta te — a n d o f
t h e c o r p o r a t i o n — in th e s ta te d e p e n d s o n t h e in te g r a tio n w h ic h tr a n s f o r m s
t h e d e x te r ity o f e a c h in d iv id u a l f o r m e d by h a b it in to t h e m e d ia t e d u n iv e rs a lity
o f a ll w h o a r e e q u i p p e d w ith it. T h r o u g h h a b it a n e e d fo r o th e r s is g e n e r a te d .
T h e e s ta te is a so i l o f “in s t itu ti o n a l p la c e w h e r e o n e sa tisfie s o n e ’s o w n n e e d
c o lle c tiv e ly in a h a b itu a l a n d s ty liz e d m a n n e r .”7 P ra c tic a l e d u c a tio n — th a t is,
i.e . a c tiv ity — p r o d u c e s th e h a b it— o f la b o r in g a n d a s d e x te r ity — w h o se m o re
u n iv e rs a l f o r m m a te r ia liz e s in a n e s ta te . T h u s , o n th is m o r e u n iv e r s a l s ta g e
t h e h a b it o f c o lle c tiv e ly s a tis fy in g o n e ’s n e e d s is g e n e r a te d . T h e lin k a g e o f a
r e p e titiv e a s p e c t b e c o m in g m e c h a n ic a l o n th e o n e h a n d a n d th e r e a liz a tio n o f
f r e e d o m in a n in c re a s in g ly u n iv e rs a l w ay o n th e o t h e r is a n in te g r a l a n d e s s e n ­
tia l c o m p o n e n t o f th e c o n s ta n t b i r t h a n d th e p e r p e t u a l g r o w th o f th e e th ic a l
f r o m o u t o f th e f r e e w ill. I n th is way, in th e u n iv e rs a l a c tiv ity in th e e s ta te , a
n e c e s s a r y r e la tio n to o th e r s is p r o d u c e d w h ic h a t t h e s a m e tim e is c o n c r e te ly
d e t e r m i n e d by th e in d iv id u a l e s ta te a n d b e c o m e s h a b i t u a l /
N o a c tiv ity w ith o u t h a b it (o f activ ity ) a n d w ith o u t h a b i t n o ( m o r e u n iv e rs a l)
activ ity . T h is is t h e d ia le c tic a l f o r m u la f o r th e n o tio n o f h a b it its e lf. A p p lie d
 Ί h e L o st l la b il 79

to t h e c o n te x t o f e th ic a lity o n e c a n a lre a d y c o n c lu d e t h e fo llo w in g : w ith o u t

t h e h a b it (o f w o rk ) t h e r e w o u ld b e n o e th ic a lity a n d n o u n iv e rsa lity . O n ly
t h r o u g h s ta b le m e c h a n ic a l r e p e titio n d o e s it b e c o m e p o s s ib le to in tr o d u c e
d if f e r e n c e s w h ic h in c r e a s e th e d e g r e e o f t h e r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m . H a b it
i n th is s e n s e d e s c r ib e s a p r o d u c tiv e a n d p r o d u c in g r e la tio n o f difference a n d
repetition', w h e r e in m e r e r e p e titio n a n d p r o d u c tiv e r e p e titio n d e t e r m i n e th e m ­
selv es a s b e i n g in v o lv e d in a r e c ip r o c a l d ia le c tic . A s c a n b e sh o w n , H e g e l’s
n o tio n o f h a b i t alw ays f u lfills t h e s a m e f u n c tio n : th e f o r m in g o f a n e w a n d
m o r e u n iv e rs a l n a t u r e . T h is m e a n s th a t a c tiv itie s h a v e c o m e to b e r e p e a te d
in a m e re ly m e c h a n ic a l, u n c o n s c io u s w ay s o th a t th e y n e c e s s a r ily a p p e a r to
m e a s b e lo n g in g to m y s e lf-fe e lin g — fo r e x a m p le t h a t s ta n d in g a n d b r e a th in g
b e lo n g to m e , a n d th is h a b it, th is “s o u l o f c u s to m ” ( Ib id ., 159), e n a b le s m e to
p e r f o r m m o r e u n iv e rs a l a c tiv itie s . S in c e in th is w ay th e n a t u r a l o r g a n iz a ti o n is
c h a n g e d , I le g e l c a n alw ays c o n c e iv e o f t h e r e s p e c tiv e d e g r e e s o f h a b it in te r m s
o f s e c o n d n a t u r e 9 a n d r e f e r to th e fa c t th a t in it a n y s u b je c t h a s t h e p o ss ib ility
o f o w n in g its e lf in a u n iv e r s a l— a n d n o t o n ly a n is o la te d — m a n n e r .10 H a b it
n a m e s a t o n e a n d th e s a m e tim e th e m e c h a n ic a l c h a r a c t e r o f s e lf-fe e lin g a n d
t h e “v ita lity a n d p e r s is te n c e o f s u b je c tiv ity ”11
T h a t t h e e th ic a l “a p p e a r s a s a g e n e r a l m o d e o f c o n d u c t, i.e. a s custom [Sitte]"
a n d th a t th e r e b y th e “h a b itu a l p r a c tic e o f e t h ic a l liv in g ” is “p u t in t h e p la c e
o f th e in itia l, p u re ly n a t u r a l w ill" (H O P R , 159) m e a n s th a t c u s to m a p p e a r s to
t h e p a r t i c u l a r in d iv id u a l a s h is o w n — s e c o n d — n a t u r e . T h e in d iv id u a ls r e p r o ­
d u c e it m e c h a n ic a lly — w h ic h a ls o im p lie s th a t th e y c a n n o t c o n c e iv e o f th e ir
o w n n a t u r e w ith o u t it— a n d th r o u g h it a lo n e c a n th e y r e a liz e t h e i r f re e d o m
in a s ta b le way. O n ly th r o u g h c u s to m s b e c o m in g h a b itu a l d o e s a p a r ti c u la r
a n d alw ays s in g u l a r r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m b e c o m e th in k a b le fo r H e g e l. T h e
r a n g e o f th is d e t e r m i n a t i o n b e c o m e s e v e n c l e a r e r if o n e ta k e s i n t o c o n s id ­
e r a tio n th e fa c t t h a t e th ic a lity is a t th e s a m e tim e th e s u b la tio n o f th e firs t
tw o p a r ts o f th e Philosophy o f R ight— “t h e p r e - p o litic a l e x is te n c e o f m a n ,”12 o f
a b s tr a c t r ig h t a n d m o ra lity . A s it d e s c r ib e s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e n o tio n o f
f r e e d o m , it in itia lly b e g in s a s o n e - s id e d ly o b je c tiv e in t h e g u is e o f a b s tr a c t
r ig h t, a n d c o n t in u e s o n e - s id e d ly su b je c tiv e a s p u r e m o r a l c o n s c io u s n e s s — th e
m e r e su b je c tiv e ‘r i g h t ’ o f m o ra lity . H a b it h e r e m e a n s t h a t m a n g e ts u s e d to
t h e m e d ia tio n o f th e tw o o n e - s id e d p o s itio n s : t h e m e r e e x t e r n a l r ig h t o f e x ist­
i n g law s a n d t h e m e r e i n t e r n a l r ig h t o f su b je c tiv e c o n v ic tio n s a r e r e s h a p e d in
t h e m e d ia t in g p r o c e s s o f h a b it a n d in th is w ay m a n is c o n s ta n tly r e b o r n in a
s e c o n d n a t u r e .15
I f th e r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m is su b je c tiv e ly a tte s te d in a c tin g a n d in th e
re s p e c tiv e w o rk s o f t h e in d iv id u a ls , a s w ell a s o b je c tiv e ly in th e law s, t h e n e t h i­
c a lity is th e h a b it o f m e d ia tin g th e tw o . M a n ’s n a t u r e n o lo n g e r a p p e a r s to h im
e i t h e r a s th e d o m in a n c e o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s d r iv e s to w h ic h h e is s u b o r d in a t e d
o r a s th e d o m in a n c e o f e x t e r n a l law s w h ic h o p p o s e to th is n a t u r a l u n f r e e ­
d o m a s e c o n d a r y u n f r e e d o m o f p r o h ib itio n s . R a th e r in h a b it th e o b je c tiv ity
80 Hegel's R abble

o f e ffe c tiv e law s a n d th e s u b je c tiv ity o f o n e ’s o w n c o n v ic tio n r e g a r d i n g h o w

t o r e a liz e o n e ’s o w n f r e e d o m a r e m e d ia t e d w ith o n e a n o t h e r . M o r e p rec isely :
o n ly v ia th e m e c h a n ic a l r e p e t i t i o n o f th e o b je c tiv e law s t h a t s ta b iliz e s e th ic a l­
ity c a n t h e r e b e — in d if f e r e n t s in g u l a r f o r m s — c r e a tiv e r e a liz a tio n s o f o n e ’s
o w n f r e e d o m . H a b it is alw ays th e h a b i t o f t h e in d iv id u a l th a t in t h e s ta te
m e c h a n ic a lly r e p r o d u c e s th e s a m e b y w ay o f h is u n iv e rs a l a c tiv ity — o r g a n iz e d
in th e e s ta te a n d t h e c o r p o r a t i o n — a n d th e re b y — a n d o n ly th e re b y — is it a b le
t o r e a liz e h is f r e e d o m in a r a d ic a lly p a r t i c u l a r f o rm a n d to sa tisfy h is n e e d s
t h a t h a v e b e c o m e s o c ia l " “T h e f o r m a tio n o f h a b i t r e f e r s a t th e s a m e tim e to a n
in te r io r i z a tio n o f e th ic a lity .”15 I f a n y in d iv id u a l e d u c a t e d b y h a b it “w ill[s] th a t
h e h i m s e l f s h a ll b e in e v e r y th in g h e d o c s ” ( II O P R , 110) b e c a u s e it is o n ly in
t h is w ay t h a t h e c a n r e a liz e h is o w n f r e e d o m , w h a t c a n it m e a n to lo s e a h a b it?
O n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d H e g e l h e r e in tw o w ays: o n t h e o n e h a n d in t h e s e n s e o f
a n (a lr e a d y c o n c r e tiz e d ) h a b i t o f c o n c r e te la b o r in civil so c ie ty , o n t h e o th e r
in t h e s e n s e o f a ( s tr u c tu r a l) h a b i t o f a c tiv ity a s s u c h w h ic h c o n c e r n s th e w h o le
e d u c a tio n o f th e s u b je c t a n d h a s th e r e b y m e d ia te d t h e c o n s titu tio n o f e th ic a l­
ity. T o lo se t h e h a b i t o f w o r k in g p r e s u p p o s e s th a t th e id le n e s s t h a t r e s u lts fro m
it r e f e r s to a c o m p le te lo s s o f h a b it o r o f ac tiv ity . B u t is it a t a ll p o s s ib le to lo se
h a b it in s u c h a w ay th a t o n e is e s s e n tia lly in a c tiv e ? Is s u c h a lo ss o f h a b it a t all
th in k a b le fo r H eg e l?
T o a n s w e r th e s e q u e s tio n s I w ill fo llo w o n e d e c isiv e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t fo r
H e g e l is im p lie d in th e lo ss o f t h e h a b i t (o f w o rk ). A s h e e x p lic itly c la im s ,
w ith o u t t h e h a b i t o f a c tiv ity “t h e r e is la z in e s s /f o u ln e s s [Faulheit]" (H V O R L 4 ,
6 0 9 ) a n d la z in e s s is o n e o f t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e “c r e a tio n o f a p e n u r io u s r a b b le ”
( H O P R , 2 2 2 ). T h a t la z in e s s is o n e o f t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e r a b b le m e a n s n o t o n ly
t h a t it is o n e o f two s o u rc e s , a lo n g w ith e x tr a v a g a n c e , b u t a ls o t h a t la z in e s s is
m e re ly o ne o f tw o , w h ic h is to say, o n ly th e o b je c tiv e , e x t e r n a l s o u r c e b u t n o t
t h e su b je c tiv e , i n t e r n a l o n e . L a z in e s s a n d a t t i t u d e a r e n e e d e d . I f o n e r e a d s th e
c ite d p a s s a g e a g a in s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f th e d is c u s s io n o f h a b i t th e im p o r ­
t a n c e o f th is w ill sw iftly b e c o m e a p p a r e n t b e c a u s e it d e s c r ib e s w h a t h a p p e n s
i f th e e th ic a l, m e d ia tin g p r o c e s s o f su b je c tiv e a n d o b je c tiv e sid e s, i.e . h a b it, is
lo st: t h e r e is la z in e s s /f o u ln e s s . L a z in e s s a n d t h e lo ss o f t h e h a b it o f w o rk in g
a r e — o n b o th o f th e d e s c r ib e d levels— s tr u c t u r a lly h o m o lo g o u s . T h e r e f o r e , in
o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d th e lo ss o f h a b it, o n e s h o u ld ask : H o w d o e s H e g e l d e f in e
la z in e s s /fo u ln e s s ?
In th e f o llo w in g I w ill u n c o v e r elements o f a H egelian theory o f laziness/foulness
In th e Philosophy o f R ight H e g e l w rite s o f la z in e s s /f o u ln e s s [Faulheit], r o ttin g
[Verfaulen], d e c a y [Fäulnis]— a ll o f th e s e n o tio n s ta k e n lite ra lly r e f e r to th e
s a m e s e m a n tic fie ld th a t is in d ic a te d b y th e G e r m a n w o rd f a u l w h ic h m e a n s
la zy b u t a ls o r o t t e n . T h e firs t im p o r ta n t p a s s a g e r e a d s lik e th is : “th e b o d y is th e
re a lity , w h ile t h e s o u l is th e c o n c e p t; b u t s o u l a n d b o d y o u g h t to b e a d e q u a te
to o n e a n o th e r . T h e r e f o r e a c o r p s e is s till a n e x is te n t, b u t its e x is te n c e is n o
t r u e e x is te n c e ; th e c o n c e p t h a s le ft it; a n d f o r t h is r e a s o n a d e a d b o d y p u tr e f ie s
 The L o st H a b it 81

[verfault]” ( Ib id ., 42). If t h e b o d y is n o lo n g e r a d e q u a t e to th e s o u l, o r m o r e
a b s tra c tly , if th e r e a lity is n o t a d e q u a t e to th e c o n c e p t, t h e n th is in a d e q u a te
r e la tio n s h i p p r o d u c e s th e fo u lin g , p u tr e f a c tio n o f re a lity . A d e a d m a n is s till—
a n d th is ‘s till’ is d e c isiv e — a n e x is te n c e , b u t o n ly a s lo n g a s th e n o lo n g e r tr u e
r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n c o n c e p t a n d r e a lity le a d s to th e p u tr e f a c tio n o f t h e d e a d
b o d y . P u tr e f a c tio n , Verfaulen, is th e r e f o r e d e f in e d a s a p r o c e s s th a t is in a u g u ­
r a t e d a s th e r e s u lt o f a n in a d e q u a te r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n c o n c e p t a n d re a l­
ity. A n y u n t r u e a n d c o n c e p tle s s e x is te n c e p u tr e f ie s a n d b e c o m e s a p u tr e f y in g
e x is te n c e . T h is firs t d e f in itio n o f Verfaulen c a n b e a p p lie d to t h e r a b b le . T h a t
it is n o t a d e q u a t e to th e c o n c e p t o f th e f r e e w ill— in its d if f e r e n t o r g a n iz a ­
tio n s a s c itiz e n , b o u r g e o is , m o r a l c o n s c io u s , etc.— is t h e r e a s o n , fo llo w in g th e
H e g e lia n lo g ic , th a t it p u tr e f ie s , th a t it b e c o m e s a n d is fo u l, la zy , f a u l It is th e
u n t r u e , c o n c e p tle s s e x is te n c e in t h e sta te . It s e e m s a s i f t h e r a b b le p u tr e f ie s ,
verfault, b u t la z in e ss, Faulheit, is o n e o f h is v e ry s o u r c e s a n d n o t a n e f f e c t p r o ­
d u c e d b y h is e m e r g e n c e . T h is m e a n s th a t it is n o t firs t th e r a b b le th a t p u tr e ­
fies. If la z in e ss, Faulheit, is o n e o f t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e r a b b le th is m e a n s t h a t th e
n o n a d e q u a c y o f c o n c e p t a n d r e a lity h a s a lr e a d y to b e p r e s e n t b e f o r e h is e m e r ­
g e n c e . L a z in e s s is a lr e a d y g iv e n w ith t h e p o o r. B u t o n e c a n a ls o c o n c lu d e th a t
i f p o v e rty is a s o c ia l p r o d u c t t h e n th is la z in e ss, Faulheit, is a ls o o n e . It b e c o m e s
c le a r fo r th e q u e s tio n o f th e lo s s o f h a b it th a t t h e p o o r is r e d u c e d to o n e o f th e
tw o d e t e r m in a tio n s o f h a b it. W h a t d o e s t h a t m e a n ?
T h a t p o v e rty is s o c ia lly p r o d u c e d m e a n s t h a t it “is in e v ita b le t h a t m a n y p e o ­
p le n o t o f a c r im in a l d is p o s itio n a r e c u t o f f f r o m th e g r e e n t r e e o f m o r a lity ”17
a n d e x c lu d e d fro m a n y p o s s ib ility o f so c ia l, p r a c tic a l ac tiv ity . I f t h e tw o fo ld
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h a b it is to d e a d e n t h e in te n s ity o f a n a c tiv ity a n d o f th e life
r e la te d to it a n d th e r e f o r e a ls o to b e t h e c o n d i tio n o f p o s s ib ility f o r t h e r e a liz a ­
t io n o f f r e e d o m o n a u n iv e rs a l level, th is m e a n s t h a t th e p o o r a r e c u t o f f fro m
o n e o f th e tw o sid e s. T h e y lo s e a ll th e a d v a n ta g e s o f civil s o c ie ty b u t a t th e s a m e
tim e t h e n e e d s t h a t b e c a m e h a b i tu a l— a n d w e re a c q u ir e d in civil so c ie ty —
p e r s is t. T h u s t h e p o o r a r c left w ith o n ly th e m e re ly m e c h a n ic r e p e titio n . T h e y
r e p e a t w ith o u t r e a liz in g t h e i r f r e e d o m . T h e y g e t u s e d to t h e m e r e r e p e titio n
o f t h e i r o w n n e e d s . H a b it b e c o m e s p o sitiv e . B u t if th is m e c h a n ic a l s id e o f h a b it
is b o u n d to n o tio n s o f d e v ita liz a tio n , th e p o o r is r c d u c c d to a d e v ita liz e d life,
a life w ith o u t in te n s ity . T h is is t h e r e a s o n f o r th e n o n a d e q u a c y o f c o n c e p t a n d
r e a lity in h is c a s e a n d th e r e f o r e h e b e c o m e s lazy, h e p u tr e f ie s , verfault.
F o llo w in g th is lo g ic , fo r th e p o o r g o e s : “L ife d o c s n o t liv e”18 a n d , o n e c a n
a d d , th e r e f o r e it p u tr e f ie s . T h e a p p lic a tio n o f t h is lo g ic to th e r e la tio n s h ip
b e tw e e n r a b b le a n d p o v e r ty p r o d u c e s a n u n a m b ig u o u s r e s u lt: th e p r o d u c tio n
o f p o v e rty c a u s e s a n o n a d e q u a c y o f c o n c e p t— f r e e w ill— a n d r e a lity (p o v e rty ),
a n d t h is in itia te s a p ro c e s s o f p u tr e f a c tio n , Verfaulen, a t w h o se ‘e n d ’ s ta n d s
t h e p u tr e f ie d , f o u le d ra b b le . H e g e l r e m a r k s a lre a d y in h is e a rly H e id e lb e rg
l e c tu r e s t h a t p o v e rty “u s u a lly b r in g s in its t r a i n . . . id le n e s s . . H e d e v e lo p s
e ls e w h e re th e w ay in w h ic h s u c h a n o n a d e q u a c y o f c o n c e p t a n d re a lity c o m e s
82 Hegel's R abble

a b o u t a n d w h a t r e s u lts f r o m it. It h a p p e n s , a c c o r d in g to h is e x a m p le , w h e n
o r g a n s a r c c u t o f f f r o m th e o r g a n is m a n d th e r e f o r e f r o m t h e i r o w n c o n c e p t.
C u t o ff, th e y a r e in a n o n a d e q u a t e r e la tio n to t h e i r c o n c e p t. A s I le g e l p a r a d ig -
m a tic a lly f o r m u la te s : “th e h a n d , w h e n s e p a r a te d f r o m th e b o d y , p u tr e f ie s . . . "
(IIP N , 18). In th is c o n te x t it is a ls o in te r e s ti n g to r e a d th a t “a h a n d , i f se v e re d ,
lo se s its i n d e p e n d e n t s u b s is te n c e ; it d o e s n o t r e m a in w h a t it w as in t h e o r g a n ­
ism ; its m o b ility , a g ility , s h a p e , c o lo u r, etc., a r e c h a n g e d ; in d e e d it d e c o m p o s e s
[Fäulnis] a n d its w h o le e x is te n c e p e r is h e s a lto g e th e r . It w a s s u s t a in e d in e x ist­
e n c e o n ly a s a m e m b e r o f a n o r g a n is m , a n d h a d r e a lity o n ly a s c o n tin u a lly
b r o u g h t b a c k in to th e id e a l u n ity ” (M A I, 121, tr a n s . m o d .).
T h e n o n a d e q u a c y o f r e a lity a n d c o n c e p t d iss o lv e s t h e r e a lity w h ic h w ith o u t
a c o n c e p t is n o th in g b u t m e r e re a lity , w ith o u t p a r ti c ip a tin g in th e n e c e s s a rily
o r g a n ic u n ity o f th e id e a . P u t d if fe r e n tly : d e c o m p o s itio n , F äulnis, a n d p u tr é ­
f a c tio n . Verfaulen— H e g e l u s e s t h e tw o te r m s sy n o n y m o u s ly — o c c u r a s s o o n
a s r e a lity is a s c u t o f f f r o m its c o n c e p t a s th e h a n d is f r o m th e o r g a n is m in
I le g e l’s e x a m p le . T h i s m e a n s t h a t th e p o o r w h o b e c o m e s lazy, fo u l a n d b e g in s
t o p e r is h b e c o m e s r a b b le . T h e p o o r ’s e x is te n c e is in a n in a d e q u a te r e la tio n to
h is c o n c e p t. T h is r e la tio n s h i p its e lf r e f le c ts t h is la c k a n d t h e p o o r f in d s h im ­
self-— b y n o t b e i n g r e p r e s e n te d in a n d by it— c u t o f f f r o m th e o r g a n is m o f th e
s ta te a n d h is id e a l u n ity . T h is (n e c e ssa rily ) h a p p e n s b e c a u s e h e e v e n lo se s th e
r e s id u a l f o rm o f a c tiv ity w h ic h c o u ld b e s u s ta in e d b y b e g g in g a n d w ith d ra w s
i n to a rig h t w ith o u t right. T h is p r o c e s s is a c c o m p a n ie d b y a s im ila r tr a n s f o r m a ­
t io n o f h is m o b ility , a g ility , s h a p e . A ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f t h e p o o r c h a n g e . I f
a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s o f th e e x is te n c e o f t h e p o o r p e r is h , o n e m ig h t sa y th a t th e
p o o r sim p ly c r o a k s a n d d is a p p e a r s , a l th o u g h th is s e e m s to b e th e o n ly im m e ­
d ia te c o n s e q u e n c e . B u t t h e p o o r w h o s e d e t e r m in a tio n s a r e f u lly tr a n s f o r m e d ,
t h e p o o r w h o e n t e r in to d e c o m p o s itio n , F äulnis, a n d w h o s e w h o le e x is te n c e
is d is s o lv in g a r e t h e r a b b le i f t h e a t t i t u d e b e l o n g in g to h im a d d s u p . In itia lly
t h e p o o r s e e m s to d ie a p o litic a l a n d r e p r e s e n ta tiv e d e a th b y b e i n g r e d u c e d
t o th e m e c h a n ic a l r e p e titiv e s id e o f h a b it. T h is is w h y h e is d is s o lv in g socially.
F o llo w in g t h e p o litic a l d e a th is th e s e c o n d , so c ia l, r e a l d e a t h a n d th e p o o r
s h o u ld b e s u b la te d b y th e m o v e m e n t o f h is to ry . B u t th e d iss o lv e d p o o r w h o
h a s c r o a k e d d e lin e a te th e s tr u c t u r a l p la c e in w h ic h th e r a b b le c a n e m e rg e .
In th is w ay o n e c a n d ra w th e c o n s e q u e n c e th a t H e g e l h a s d is s o lv e d th e e x ist­
e n c e o f w h a t I h a v e n a m e d t h e absolute rabble. T h e absolute ra b b le s th e c o m p le te
n e g a tio n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s — e v e n th a t o f e x is te n c e . T h e w ay in w h ic h o n e
a r r iv e s a t it is b y w a y o f th e p r o c e s s e s o f p u tr e f a c tio n a n d d e c o m p o s itio n .
H e n c e t h e p r o c e s s o f p u tr e f a c tio n u ltim a te ly sig n ifie s: th e c o m p le te d is s o lu ­
t io n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s a n d w ith it o f th e e n t i r e e x is te n c e . O n e c a n c la im
t h a t th e r a b b le is a p u tr e f ie d e x is te n c e — a n d in th is s e n s e n o t e v e n a m e r e
e x is te n c e . B u t o n e s h o u ld n o t ta k e th e lo g ic o f p u tr e f a c tio n , a s d e s c r ib e d by
H e g e l, to b e th e s o le r e a s o n fo r th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e r a b b le . It is n o t o n ly th e
r e s u lt o f a n o b je c tiv e p u tr e f y in g p ro c e s s w h ic h s ta r t s w ith t h e p o o r . R a th e r o n e
 Ί h e L o st H a b it 83

h a s to s tr e s s th a t th e n o tio n o f la z in e s s , Faulheit, h a s to h a v e a d if f e r e n t s ta tu s
w h e n it c o m e s to th e r a b b le 01 th e p o o r . I f th e r a b b le o n ly e m e r g e s ‘a f t e r ’ th e
p u tr e f a c tio n , th e la z in e s s o f th e r a b b le h a s to h a v e a d if f e r e n t d e t e r m in a tio n
t h a n th e o n e d e l in e a te d so far. It w ill b e m y a i m in th e f o llo w in g to d is tin g u is h
b e tw e e n th e p u tr e f y in g ( p o o r) a n d th e p u tr e f ie d ( ra b b le ), b e tw e e n t h e fo u l­
n e s s o f t h e p o o r a n d th e f o u ln e s s o f th e r a b b le . F o r th e r a b b le , a lth o u g h d is ­
s o lv e d , d o e s n o t sim p ly d is a p p e a r , r a t h e r it in s is ts in a p r o b le m a tic o r a r o tte n
w ay in I l e g c l ’s p h ilo s o p h y . T h e c o m p le te ly d iss o lv e d p o o r is th e ra b b le : th e
r a b b le is a c o m p le te ly d is s o lv e d e x is te n c e . It h a s a n e x is te n c e w h ic h is n o t o n e .
B u t th is d is s o lu tio n o f t h e w h o le e x is te n c e d o e s n o t le a d to th e d is a p p e a r a n c e
o f t h e r a b b le p r o b le m ; r a t h e r it s e e m s in itia lly to c o n s titu te it in a p e c u l i a r way.
F or t h e ra b b le , e v e n w h e n d iss o lv e d , is ‘p r e s e n t,’ t h e r e — o n e m ig h t say t h a t it
is p r e s e n t a s ‘in e x is te n t.’ T h e r a b b le in -c x is ts .20
A lr e a d y a s u p e rf ic ia l o b s e r v a tio n is s u f fic ie n t to in d ic a te t h a t it is n o c o n tin ­
g e n t m a tte r th a t I Ieg el ta k e s th e d e t a c h e d o r g a n a s t h e p a r a d ig m o f p u tr e f a c ­
tio n . R a th e r, th is p a r a d ig m c la r if ie s a s p e c ific p o in t in th e i n a d e q u a t e r e la tio n
b e tw e e n c o n c e p t a n d re a lity . W h a t th e e x a m p le c la r if ie s is th a t th e h a n d c a n
p e r s is t o n ly a s a n e le m e n t of th e r a tio n a lly o r g a n iz e d o r g a n is m a n d o n ly in
t h is w ay c a n it a s s u m e f u n c tio n s a n d ta sk s in t h e o r g a n is m . T h e im p lic a tio n s
o f th is p a r a d ig m a r e f a r -r e a c h in g . F o r t h e h a n d is c h a r a c t e r iz e d a s t h e s p e ­
c ific a lly h u m a n o r g a n . T h e “h a n d [is] th a t m a g n if ic e n t to o l w h ic h n o a n im a l
p o s se sse s” ( H O P R , (58) a n d b e c a u s e “n o a n im a l h a s s u c h a fle x ib le to o l fo r
e x t e r n a l a c tiv ity ” t h e h a n d is t h e “tool o f tools" t h a t “is s u ite d to a n e n d le s s m u l­
tit u d e o f e x p r e s s io n s o f t h e w ill” (H P M , 110).
T h e h a n d is the to o l o f m a n b e c a u s e it m a te r ia liz e s p a r a d ig m a tic a lly b o th
t h e p o te n tia l in f in ity o f e x p r e s s io n s o f t h e w ill a n d a t t h e first s ta g e it is th e
i n s t r u m e n t o f th e c o n s c io u s r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m . F o r th is r e a liz a tio n alw ays
a p p e a r s a s s e lf- r e a liz in g activ ity . T h e h a n d is a ls o c a p a b le o f g r a s p in g th in g s ;
p e r f o r m i n g c o m p le x g e s tu r e s s u c h a s ta k in g h o ld o f s o m e th in g in s u c h a way
a s to m a k e it in to a to o l— d e l in e a tin g in a b a s a l f o r m th e s t r u c t u r e o f la b o r.
T h e h a n d is a to o l b e c a u s e it allo w s m a n to r e la te to o b je c ts in th e o b je c ­
tiv e w o rld th r o u g h la b o r. T h e r e f o r e H y p p o litc is f u lly ju s tifie d in w r itin g th a t
“th e h a n d is th e o r g a n o f la b o r, b u t it c a n a ls o b e c o n s id e r e d a s p r e s e n tin g
w ith in its e lf th e s t r u c t u r e o f la b o r, th e in d iv id u a l tr a its t h a t c o r r e s p o n d to
in n a t e d is p o s itio n s o r a c q u ir e d h a b its .”21 T h e h a n d p r e s e n ts th e b o d ily q u a s i­
a to m o f th e m e d ia tio n o f s u b je c t a n d o b je c t, o f p a r t i c u l a r a n d u n iv e rs a l, o f th e
p r im a r y n a t u r e o f th e in d iv id u a l a n d th e s e c o n d n a t u r e o f th e — p ra c tic a lly
e d u c a te d — e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity . T h is is w h y b e s id e s th e e r e c t G e s ta lt, to h u m a n
e x p r e s s io n b e lo n g s “t h e f o r m a tio n o f th e h a n d esp e c ia lly , a s th e a b s o lu te to o l"
(H P M . 109), s in c e it m a k e s p o s s ib le w h a t r e m a in s im p o s s ib le fo r a n y a n im a l.
“T h r o u g h t h e u se o f th e to o l m a n b r e a k s o f f h is liv in g r e la tio n to liv in g n a t u r e
a n d p la c e s a r e la tio n o r ie n t e d to h is g o a ls in its p la c e .”22 T h e h a n d m a k e s m a n
in to m a n b e c a u s e it allo w s h im to r e la te to th e o b je c tiv e w o rld in a d if fe r e n t,
84 Hegel's R abble

a n d n a m e ly a p r a c tic a l way. It is th e p a r a d ig m a tic o r g a n o f p r a c tic a l activity.

T h r o u g h th e h a n d th e w o rld b e c o m e s in a f u n d a m e n ta l w ay t h e p la c e o f th e
e x p r e s s io n o f h u m a n w ill a n d th e r e b y th e s ite o f h is p r a c tic a l in te r v e n tio n . It
is th e o r g a n th a t d is tin g u is h e s m a n fro m th e a n i m a l a lre a d y in h is b o d ily c o n ­
s titu tio n b e c a u s e it e n a b le s h i m to express h is w ill in a b a s a l f o r m a n d th e re b y
it r e f le c ts th e h is to r ic o - p r a c tic a l p r o c e s s o f th e e d u c a t io n o f m a n . F ro m th is , it
b e c o m e s c le a r th a t n o t o n ly d o th e n o tio n s o f m a n a n d o f th e h u m a n o r g a n is m
d e t e r m in e th e n o tio n o f t h e h a n d b u t t h a t th e n o tio n o f th e h a n d a ls o d e t e r ­
m in e s t h e n o tio n o f m a n a n d o f h is o r g a n ic d e t e r m in a tio n . T h e in d iv id u a l
o r g a n d e t e r m in e s t h e o r g a n is m j u s t a s m u c h a s it b e c o m e s in t h is d e t e r m in a ­
tio n a n e le m e n t o f th e o r g a n is m th a t d e t e r m in e s it. T h e h a n d is H e g e l’s p r e ­
f e r r e d o r g a n b e c a u s e it p a r ti c ip a te s in a s p e c ific a lly h u m a n e x p r e s s io n . It is a
p a r a d ig m o f th e h u m a n .
B u t if t h e h a n d is c u t o f f f ro m th e b o d y , th is o r g a n ic a lly r e la te d r e la tio n s h ip
o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n is lo st. T h e h a n d lo se s its r e la tio n to th e w ill, th e w o rld a n d
t h e p o s s ib ility o f e x p r e s s io n a n d activ ity . It lo se s t h e o r g a n is m a n d b e c a u s e th is
o r g a n is m w ill alw ays h a v e b e e n a h u m a n o r g a n is m it lo se s m a n a s s u c h . I f it
lo se s th e r e la tio n to th e h u m a n o r g a n is m , it lo se s in a c e r t a i n s e n s e itse lf. It is
im p o s s ib le fo r it to b e a m e d iu m o f e x p r e s s io n b e c a u s e it is d e t a c h e d f r o m th e
f r e e w ill w h ic h e n a b le s it to d o so. O n ly a s th e o r g a n o f a n o r g a n is m c a n th e
h a n d a s h a n d r e a liz e a c tio n s [//« n r flu n g e n ] .2:,T h e c o n c e p t o f t h e h a n d im p lie s
t h e p o s s ib ility o f h u m a n ac tiv ity . A d e t a c h e d h a n d is a h a n d w ith o u t w ill a n d
p o s s ib ilitie s o f a c tin g , a h a n d w ith o u t m a n , o r : a n in h u m a n h a n d . A d e ta c h e d
h a n d t h a t th e r e f o r e b e c a m e in h u m a n h a s o n ly a n e x t e r n a l, i.e. in e s s e n tia l
r e a lity a n d d o e s n o t s t a n d in a n a d e q u a t e r e la tio n s h ip to its c o n c e p t. F o r th is
r e a s o n its w h o le e x is te n c e is d is s o lv e d a n d it p u tr e f ie s . T h e H e g e lia n p a r a d ig m
o f th e d e t a c h e d h a n d e x p la in s th e p r o b le m o f o r g a n ic s e p a r a ti o n o n d if f e r e n t
levels: ii— lite ra lly — r e f e r s to a s ta te o f d is o r g a n iz a tio n , to a s ta te o f d e h u m a n i­
z a tio n , o f u n - c o n c e p tu a lity a n d in -e s s e n tia lity . H e r e it a g a in b e c o m e s c le a r
th a t th e d e t a c h m e n t o f a n o r g a n fro m a n o r g a n is m alw ays h a s tw o a s p e c ts :
t h e o r g a n is firs t d e t a c h e d f r o m th e o r g a n is m a n d t h e n f r o m its o w n c o n c e p t.
It is ( c o n c e p tu a lly ) n o lo n g e r a n o r g a n . T h is c o n c lu s io n e x p la in s th e d ia le c ti­
c a l v o lte -fa c e th a t th e c o n c e p t, f o r e x a m p le t h e c o n c e p t o f a n o r g a n , is alw ays
r a tio n a lly o r g a n iz e d . E v en t h e c o n c e p t o f p u tr e f a c tio n is its e lf o r g a n ic , s in c e
it d e s c r ib e s th e s u b la tio n o f th e in a d e q u a c y o f r e a lity a n d c o n c e p t. It n e g a te s
t h e r e w ith th e n e g a tio n w h ic h th e in a d e q u a c y im p lie s a n d tr a n s p o s e s it in to
a n o r g a n ic s ta te . T h e p u tr e f a c tio n a s th e n e g a tio n o f n e g a tio n (o f a n in a d ­
e q u a c y ) d e f in e s th e o r g a n ic m o v e m e n t w h ic h is a lre a d y im p lie d in th e n o tio n
o f p u tr e f a c tio n . B u t w h a t d o e s th e d e t a c h m e n t o f a n o r g a n s ig n ify f o r th e
o r g a n is m ? A p a s s a g e f r o m th e Philosophy o f R ight in w h ic h H e g e l p r e s e n ts a n
a n a lo g y b e tw e e n th e h u m a n a n d th e p o litic a l o r g a n is m is in te r e s tin g in th is
c o n te x t: “B u t th e u g lie s t p e r s o n , o r a c r im in a l, o r a n in v a lid , o r a c r ip p le , is
s till alw ays a liv in g h u m a n b e in g . T h e a ffirm a tiv e , life , s u b sists d e s p ite su c h
 Ί h e L o st H a b it 85

d e f e c ts , a n d it is th is a f f ir m a tiv e f a c to r w h ic h is o u r th e m e h e r e ” ( II O P R . 23 4 ).
W h a t h a p p e n s to t h e d e t a c h e d o r g a n d o e s n o t b e f a ll th e o r g a n is m f r o m w h ic h
it w as d e t a c h e d . T h e o r g a n is m r e m a in s o n e , e v e n a s c r ip p le d . A c r ip p le d s ta te
i n w h ic h p o v e rty e x is ts is s till a d e q u a t e to its c o n c e p t.
II th e d e t a c h e d o r g a n n e g a te s its o w n c o n c e p t, w h ic h is n e c e s s a r ily im p lie d
i n t h e o r g a n is m , t h e n t h e c r ip p l e d , f a u lty o r g a n is m b y n o m e a n s n e g a te s th e
c o n c e p t. T h u s it b e c o m e s a g a in c l e a r th a t o n ly t h e in a d e q u a c y o f r e a lity to its
c o n c e p t d e s c r ib e s a n e g a tio n . T h e s ta te d o e s n o t s t a r t to p u tr e f y w h e n o r g a n s
d e t a c h e d f r o m it b e g i n to p u tr e f y . F o r d e c o m p o s itio n a n d p u tr e f a c tio n n a m e
p r o c e s s e s o f tr a n s i tio n , i n a u g u r a t e d b y a n i n a d e q u a t e r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n
r e a lity a n d c o n c e p t, a t w h o s e e n d s ta n d s t h e d is s o lu tio n o f th e c o n c c p tle s s
re a lity . F o r th e d is c u s s io n o f th e r a b b le t h is m e a n s t h a t th e in a d e q u a c y o f
c o n c e p t a n d r e a lity w h ic h p r e v a ils in p o v e rty p r o d u c e s d e c o m p o s itio n , Fäulnis,
a n d a c tu a te s a p r o c e s s o f p u tr e f a c tio n , Verfaulen. w h o s e m o s t r a d ic a l r e s u lt is
t h e ra b b le . T h e r a b b le is t h a t w h ic h e m e r g e s fro m p u tr e f a c tio n . T h e r a b b le
is fo llo w in g th is lo g ic th e f u lly d e c o m p o s e d p o o r ’1; t h e p o o r w h o se e x is te n c e
is to ta lly d is s o lv e d . T h e p o o r is th e s e v e re d h a n d o f so c ie ty 25 w h o s e e x is te n c e
d isso lv es.
O n e c a n n o te t h a t t h e ra b b le n a m e s a Ver-Weseri*6 in a d o u b le s e n s e . B e in g
w ith o u t a c o n c e p t m e a n s to p u tre fy , to d e c o m p o s e , a n d th e p u tr e f a c tio n ,
Verwesen, is o n ly a n e x p r e s s io n o f w h a t a lre a d y is in re a lity : t h e d e t a c h m e n t
f r o m th e c o n c e p t, i.e. c o n c e p t - a n d e s s e n c e le s s n e s s . T h e p u tr e f a c tio n . Verwesen,
as a process is t h e r e s u lt o f t h is e s s e n c e le s s n e s s ; b u t th e p u tr e f a c tio n , a s state o f
t h e in a d e q u a c y b e tw e e n c o n c e p t a n d r e a lity a ls o n a m e s th e e s s e n c e le s s n e s s o f
r e a lity a s Ver-Wesen. Ver-Wesen n a m e s th e c o u p le o f p r o c e s s a n d s ta te , o f e s se n c e -
less r e a lity a n d p u tr e f a c tio n o f it. S in c e th e h a n d g a i n s a p e r s is te n t a u to n o m y
o n ly if it is, a s a n o r g a n , a m e m b e r o f a n o r g a n is m , t h e p a r t i c u l a r f r e e will
c a n o n ly r e a liz e its e lf if it is, a s o r g a n ic p a r t , in a r a tio n a l r e la tio n s h i p w ith
th e s ta te — a n d th is m e a n s w ith its e lf a n d its o w n c o n c e p t. A b io lo g ic a l a s w ell
a s a p o lit ic a l o r g a n w ith o u t o r g a n is m is a c o n c e p tle s s a n d th e r e b y e s s e n c e le ss
o r g a n ; a d is s o lv in g a n d p u tr e f y in g o r g a n ; o n e th a t is c o n s u m e d by d e c o m p o ­
s itio n a n d p u tr e f a c tio n — b e c a u s e it is a lr e a d y a Ver-Wesen. T h e r e is in itia lly
“w o rth le s s [faute] e x is te n c e ” ( H P H , 36) w h ic h th e n d isso lv e s e v e n a s e x is te n c e .
W h a t c o n s e q u e n c e s c a n b e d r a w n f r o m this?
H e g e l d e s c r ib e s o r g a n ic life in h is Encyclopedia a s a p e r p e t u a l s e lf-re s to ra tio n
“in t h e p r o c e s s o f its o w n d e s tr u c tio n .” O r g a n ic life h a s to a s s e r t its e lf o v e r
a g a in s t t h e o b je c tiv e w o rld w h ic h it fa c e s a t f ir s t e x te r n a lly a n d w ith w h ic h
it h a s to q u a r r e l. A n y o r g a n ic life is “in c o n f lic t w ith a i r ” a n d “a w o u n d , fo r
e x a m p le , o n ly b e c o m e s d a n g e r o u s th r o u g h e x p o s u r e to a i r ” ( H P N , 109).
T h e r e i n it is a g a in h a b it t h a t d e lin e a te s th e d e c is iv e m o m e n t in w h ic h th is
c o n f lic t b e c o m e s p a r t o f s e lf-fe e lin g a n d is r e p e a te d m e c h a n ic a lly , a n d is a t
t h e s a m e tim e th e c o n d itio n o f p o s s ib ility f o r th e r e a liz a tio n o f o n e ’s f re e d o m .
O n e le a r n s to b r e a th e , w h ic h m a k e s o u t o f th e c o n s ta n t c o n f lic t w ith a i r a
86 Hegel's R abble

m o m e n t o f p r a c tic a l e d u c a tio n a n d is a b le to q u a r r e l w ith th e w o rld o n a m o r e

u n iv e rs a l le v e l a n d r e a liz e o n e ’s f r e e d o m th e r e in . T h e c a p a c ity o f a c tiv e — a n d
h e r e i n lies t h e e m p h a s is — s e lf- r e s to ra tio n d is tin g u is h e s o r g a n ic life f r o m th e
i n o r g a n ic . O r g a n ic life k n o w s p r a c tic a l e d u c a t io n a n d th e r e f o r e it a ls o k n o w s
t h e h a b its t h a t a r e in v o lv e d in it. It is a b le to r e s to r e its e lf r e c u r r e n tly . It is
a b le to r e c r e a t e its e lf in d is s o lu tio n .27 T h e in o r g a n i c h o w e v e r “w h ic h c a n n o t
w ith s ta n d th e s tr u g g le m u s t f a ll in to d e c a y [verfaulen] . . ( H P N , 10 9 ). T h is
p a s s a g e is t h e o n ly o n e in H e g e l’s o e u v r e w h e r e h e s ta te s a d i r e c t c o n n e c tio n
b e tw e e n t h e in o r g a n i c a n d d e c a y , verfaulen, a n d th is is i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e q u e s ­
tio n b e i n g d is c u s s e d h e r e . I f o n e r e la te s th is p a s s a g e to t h o s e I h a v e p re v io u sly
b e e n d is c u s s in g o n e m a y c o n c lu d e th a t t h e in o r g a n ic d e c a y s b y d e f in itio n .
T h is r e a d in g is v a lid i f o n e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e in o r g a n i c a s th a t w h ic h d o c s n o t
a c c o r d w ith a n y o r g a n ic o r g a n iz a ti o n a n d w h o s e r e a lity is d e t a c h e d fro m its
o w n o r g a n ic c o n c e p t. T h e in o r g a n ic c a n (in itia lly ) h a v e c o n s is te n c y a n d e x ist­
e n c e b u t it c a n n o t b e a c tiv e a n d t h is m e a n s th a t it c a n n o t h a v e lif e b e c a u s e life
is d e t e r m i n e d b y its b e i n g ac tiv e . T h e in o r g a n ic n a m e s , in th is r e a d in g , th e
f u n d a m e n ta l s t r u c t u r e o f a n in a d e q u a c y b e tw e e n c o n c e p t a n d re a lity .28 T h e
in o r g a n ic is th e r e f o r e th a t w h ic h p re v io u s ly s to o d in a n o r g a n ic r e la tio n fro m
w h ic h it w as s u b s e q u e n tly d e t a c h e d . O n e c a n c o n c lu d e t h a t th e in o r g a n ic is
s e p tic , i.e. e n g e n d e r in g p u tr e f a c tio n , F äulnis. I f t h e r e is s o m e th in g in o r g a n ic ,
it e n g e n d e r s p u tr e f a c tio n a n d th is is o n ly a n e x p r e s s io n o f t h e in o r g a n ic . T h e
s e p tic is th e in o r g a n ic ; th e in o r g a n i c is t h e se p tic .
S u c h a n e x t r a p o l a t e d d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e in o r g a n i c c la r if ie s w h y fo r
H e g e l th e o r g a n d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e b o d y , th e h a n d , is th e p a r a d ig m o f d ecay .
It b e c a m e a c o n c e p t less o r g a n b e c a u s e it b e c a m e in o r g a n i c , i.e . it lo st its a c tiv ­
ity, its life, its m e m b e r s h ip o f t h e o r g a n is m . T h e o r g a n d e t a c h e d f r o m th e
o r g a n ic o r g a n iz a ti o n w ith in a n o r g a n is m a r o u s e s p u t r e f a c t i o n a n d it p u t r e ­
fies b e c a u s e it b e c a m e a n un-organ. T h e p r e f ix ‘in ’ o f th e ‘in o r g a n i c ’ th e r e in
d e lin e a te s t h e n e g a tio n o f t h e o r g a n ic r e la tio n w h ic h c a n o n ly b e s u b la te d
b y t h e n e g a tio n o f th is n e g a tio n . T h e e x is te n c e o f th e in o r g a n i c a s o f th e
u n -o rgan h a s to b e d is s o lv e d in o r d e r to s u h la te th e n e g a tio n o f th e n e c e s s a r y
o r g a n ic o r g a n iz a ti o n , th e d is o r g a n i z a tio n . A ls o th e p o o r h a s b e c o m e , lik e th e
r a b b le , b y f a llin g o u t o f t h e p o lit ic a l- o r g a n ic o r d e r o f t h e s ta le , a n un-organ.
H e r e a ls o it is c le a r th a t H e g e l's d e f in i tio n o f th e in o r g a n i c is a ls o v a lid f o r th e
p o litic a l b o d y . F o r t h e o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e c o n c e p t its e lf p r o d u c e s th is
e q u a tio n . H e g e l c a n th e r e f o r e c o n s ta n tly u s e th is an a lo g )·. W h e n a— p o litic a l
o r in d iv id u a l— b o d y — d o c s n o t p e r p e t u a l l y r e s to r e its e lf in c o n s ta n t activ ity ,
s tr u c t u r a lly it c o m e s c lo s e to th e in o r g a n i c w h ic h is n o t a b le to s e lf- r e p r o d u c e .
T h i s p e r s p e c tiv e n o w allo w s u s to u n d e r s t a n d o n e r e m a r k f r o m th e Philosophy
o f R ig h t in w h ic h a c o n n e c t io n b e tw e e n p u tr e f a c tio n a n d h a b it is f o r m u la te d .
H e g e l s ta te s t h e r e t h a t it is o n ly b e c a u s e w a r b r e a k s in to h is to r y f r o m tim e
t o t im e th a t “t h e e t h ic a l h e a l t h o f p e o p le s is p r e s e r v e d in t h e i r in d if f e r e n c e
to w a r d s th e s ta b iliz a tio n o f f in ite d e t e r m in a c ie s ; j u s t a s t h e b lo w in g o f th e
 The L o st H a b it 87

w in d p r e s e r v e s th e s e a f r o m s ta g n a t io n [Fäulnis]." P u tr e f a c t io n w o u ld b e u n a ­
v o id a b le if “a p r o lo n g e d c a lm ” o r a “p e r p e t u a l p e a c e ” ( I I O P R , 3 0 7 ) w e re to
b e in s t a ll e d . T h is is n o t a t a l l a m e re ly m e ta p h o r ic a l d is c o u r s e b u t a ls o a s tr u c ­
tu r a l o n e . M e ta p h o r ic a lly w a r is s im ila r to t h e w in d t h a t p re s e rv e s t h e s ta tis t
s e a o f p r o c e s s e s o f p u tr e f a c tio n a n d d e c a y b u t it a ls o r e f e r s to a m o m e n t o f
h is to r ic a l a c tiv ity t h a t s ta n d s a g a in s t th is p o litic a l p u tr e f a c tio n . H e g e l h e r e
th e m a tiz e s t h e p r o b le m o f t h e p o s itiv ity o f h a b i t in te r m s o f p u tr e f a c tio n a n d
d ec ay , d is s o lu tio n .29 T h i s m e a n s th a t h a b it c a n le a d to a “b e i n g p o s ite d , fix­
a t e d a n d a t th e s a m e tim e , to s o lid if ic a tio n .”50 T h i s c a n h a p p e n w h e n t h e r e is
a h y p o s ta tiz a tio n o f o n e s id e o f h a b it, m e c h a n ic a l r e p e t i t i o n i f t h e in c r e a s e in
u n iv e r s a lity o f th e r e a liz a tio n s o f f r e e d o m is s u b o r d i n a t e d to m e re ly m e c h a n i­
c a l r e p r o d u c ti o n . M e re r e p e titio n le a d s to d e a th a n d c o n s e q u e n tly p u tr e f a c ­
t io n e n t e r s . H a b it c a n b e c o m e p o s itiv e in th e w ay th a t it “b lin d s u s to th a t o n
w h ic h o u r w h o le e x is te n c e d e p e n d s ” ( H O P R , ‘2 41). T h is c a n le a d to t h e fa c t
t h a t “th e f u lln e s s a n d z e s t th a t o r ig in a lly c h a r a c t e r iz e s t h e a im of life a r e o u t
o f q u e s tio n . . . it is a n e x is te n c e w ith o u t in te lle c t o r v ita lity . . . a s a p o litic a l
n u llity a n d te d iu m ” ( H P H , 75).
H e r e H e g e l e x p lic itly s h a r e s th e d ia g n o s is o f t h is r e d u c tio n o f h a b i t to ju st
o n e o f its f a c e ts a ls o fo r th e p o o r : th e y b e c o m e a p o litic a l n u llity a n d t h e r e ­
f o r e th e y a r e le ft to r o t. N o t o n ly d o e s t h e d e t a c h m e n t of a n o r g a n f ro m a n
o r g a n is m a r o u s e p u tr e f a c tio n b u t a ls o t h e o r g a n is m c a n t u r n in to a d e a d
e x is te n c e if it e n t r u s t s itself to t h e m e c h a n ic a l s id e o f h a b i t. T h is d a n g e r is
im p lie d in th is s id e o f h a b i t a n d m a r k s t h e in d e x o f a s p e c if ic f o r m o f te m p o ­
ra lity th a t is lin k e d to h a b it. F o r if h a b i t b e c o m e s p o s itiv e t h e r e is a “life d is ­
so lv e d in d e c a y ” ( H P N , 2 6 4 ). D u e to th e o r g a n ic o r g a n iz a ti o n o f t h e c o n c e p t
w h a t g o e s f o r th e h u m a n o r g a n is m a ls o g o e s fo r th e p o litic a l: “w h e n h e h a s
o n c e c o m e to feel c o m p le te ly a t h o m e in life , w h e n h e h a s b e c o m e s p ir itu a lly
a n d p h y sic a lly d u ll, a n d w h e n t h e o p p o s itio n b e tw e e n s u b je c tiv e c o n s c io u s ­
n e s s a n d s p ir itu a l a c tiv ity h a s d i s a p p e a r e d ” ( H O P R , 160) ii c o lla p s e s . A s th e
in d iv id u a l h u m a n o r g a n is m h a s a s p e c if ic t im e — y o u th , a d o le s c e n c e , m a tu ­
rity , o ld a g e — t h e p o litic a l- s ta tis t o r g a n is m a ls o fo llo w s th is lo g ic o f h is to r ic a l
d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e r e f o r e “b y t h e h a b it o f m e n ta l life , a s w ell a s b y th e d u llin g
o f a c tiv ity o f h is p h y s ic a l o r g a n is m m a n b e c o m e s a n o ld m a n ” w h o “liv e s w ith ­
o u t a n y d e f in i te in te r e s ts . . . a n d t h e f u t u r e s e e m s to p r o m is e n o t h i n g n e w at
a l l . . .” (H P M , 61).
A s s o o n a s th e r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m b e c o m e s in a c e r ta in s e n s e o b je c tiv e —
a s s o o n a s th e g iv e n p o s s ib ilitie s h a v e r e a liz e d th e m se lv e s* 1— th e a c tiv ity o f
r e a liz a tio n b lu n ts a n d th e m e re ly m e c h a n ic a l, u n c o n s c io u s r e p e titio n ta k e s
p r io rity . T h e n th e h i g h e r habit o f life is n e e d e d to s u b la te th is n e g a tio n . W h e n
th is s ta tu s is r e a c h e d in t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e th ic a l life v ia t h e m e c h a n ic a l
r e p e titio n o f t h e g iv e n a n d a t th e s a m e tim e v ia th e lo s s o f c r e a tiv e v itality ,
o n t h e p o litic a l lev el a n a d d itio n a l m o m e n t is n e e d e d in o r d e r to c o n v e r t th e
u n liv e ly p o litic a l e x is te n c e in to d is s o lu tio n a n d to s u b la te it in to th e o r g a n ic
88 Hegel's R abble

p r o c e e d in g o f th e h is to r ic a l m o v e m e n t. F o r w h a t h a p p e n s to d e t a c h e d o r g a n s
i n th e p r o c e s s o f p u tr e f a c tio n ? O n e n e e d s a ( h is to r ic a l) e x e c u tiv e a s s is ta n ts .52
W a r is n e e d e d . It is th e n e c e s s a r y habit o f history w h ic h c o n v e r ts p o litic a l n u lli­
tie s in to d is s o lu tio n a n d th e r e w ith p e r f o r m s a p r o c e s s w h o s e e n d w as a lre a d y
d e c id e d . “A p e o p le c a n o n ly d ie a v io le n t d e a t h w h e n it h a s b e c o m e n a tu r a lly
d e a d in its e lf" ( I I P I I , 7 5 ). H e n c e th e p o litic a l lif e h a u n t e d b y p u tr e f a c tio n , as
w ell a s th e in o r g a n ic in g e n e r a l, is n o t a b le to p e r s is t w ith th e a c tiv e r e s to r a tio n
in th e s tr u g g le w ith e x t e r n a li ty a n d c r o s s e s o v e r in to ( h is to r ic a l) d is s o lu tio n .
M e re r e p e titio n p r o d u c e s in o r g a n ic ity a n d its e x p r e s s io n is th e s e p tic . T h is
c a n a ls o c la r if y I le g c l’s r e m a r k w h ic h r e la te s to th e b e c o m in g - p o s itiv e o f h a b it:
“T h e h u m a n b e i n g a ls o d ie s fro m h a b i t . . . fo r t h e h u m a n b e i n g is a c tiv e o n ly
in s o f a r a s h e h a s n o t a t t a i n e d h is e n d a n d w a n ts to p r o d u c e a n d a s s e r t h im s e lf
in t h e e f f o r t to a t ta i n it" ( H O P R , 1 5 9 - 6 0 ) . I f t h e h u m a n b e i n g o n ly m e c h a n i­
ca lly r e p e a ts w h a t b e c o m e s h is h a b it t h e r e is a d e v ita liz a tio n o f life w h ic h le a d s
to d e a t h , to th e b e c o m in g - in o r g a n ic o f life , a t w h o s e e n d s ta n d p u tr e f a c tio n
a n d d e c o m p o s itio n . B o th b e g in d u e to th e in a d e q u a c y o f c o n c e p t a n d reality .
It c a n f in d its g r o u n d e i th e r in a c o u n t e r n a t u r a l d e t a c h m e n t— of a n o r g a n
f r o m a n o r g a n is m — o r it c a n b e a p r o d u c t of h a b it a s p u r e m e c h a n ic a l r e p e ti­
tio n w h ic h n a m e s th e r e a s o n fo r th e n a tu r a lity o f d e a t h . T h e d a n g er o f the inor­
ganic is a d e c is iv e m o m e n t fo r t h e p r o b le m o f id le n e s s o r la z in e s s . I le n c e I leg el
f o r m u la te s a c l e a r m a x im fo r th e p o litic a l b o d y : “n o o n e o f its m o m e n ts s h o u ld
a p p e a r a s in o r g a n ic a g g r e g a te " ( Ib id ., 291. t r a n s . m o d .). T h a t th is m a x im is
n o t a n im p e r a tiv e — in d i c a t e d b y th e w o rd s h o u ld '— is c le a r a s a r e s u lt o f th e
fa c t t h a t it c a n n o t b e u n iv e rs a liz e d . A s G a n s r ig h tly r e m a rk s : “S ta te s a r e in d i­
v id u a ls w ith a s lig h tly lo n g e r life b u t w h ic h a ls o fa ll in th e e n d , d e s tr o y e d in th e
s tr u g g le w ith w o rld h isto ry . T h e y a r e riv e rs t h a t p o u r in to th e o c e a n o f h isto ry ,
t h e la st o b je c tiv e o f t h e r e a l w o rld .” '5
E a c h s ta te h a s its tim e . E very s ta te w ill r e v e r t in to a p o litic a l n u llity w h o se
e x is te n c e w ill b e d is s o lv e d by th e h a b it o f h is to ry . R e m e m b e r in g t h e d ia le c ­
tic a l d e t e r m i n i n g r e la tio n s h i p — th e o r g a n d e t e r m i n e s t h e o r g a n is m a s th e
o r g a n is m d e t e r m i n e s th e o r g a n 11— o n e c a n f o r e s e e a f u r t h e r m o m e n t. A s
H e g e l a lr e a d y c le a rly r e m a r k s in 1802: “[ T ] h c e th ic a l life o f th e in d iv id u a l is
o n e p u ls e - b e a t o f t h e w h o le sy ste m , a n d is its e lf t h e w h o le sy ste m .”5’ A n o r g a n
n o t h a v in g th is o r g a n ic b o n d w ith th e o r g a n is m d o e s n o t p r o d u c e a p r o b le m ,
b e c a u s e a s it is d e t a c h e d f r o m th e o r g a n is m a n d its c o n c e p t it p u tr e f ie s . B u t
i f in th e p o litic a l b o d y s o m e t h i n g in o r g a n i c a p p e a r s , a n u n -o rg a n , th e n it is
a t t h e s a m e tim e d e t a c h e d a s it is s till a p a r t o f it. It is d e c isiv e to d is tin g u is h
t h e d e t a c h m e n t f r o m s o c ie ty th a t p o v e r ty im p lie s f r o m th e d e t a c h m e n t f r o m
a ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n s t h a t th e r a b b le im p lie s : p o v e rty s ta n d s in a n in o r g a n ic
r e la tio n to t h e s ta te a n d its c o n c e p t, b e c a u s e it is in v o lu n ta r ily r e d u c e d b y th e
b o u r g e o is e c o n o m ic d y n a m ic s to t h e m e c h a n ic a lly r e p e a t i n g s id e o f h a b it.
T h is in d u c e s a p r o c e s s o f p u tr e f a c tio n w h ic h d iss o lv e s a ll th e d e t e r m in a tio n s
o f e x is te n c e o f t h e p o o r . T h e r a b b le a s un-organ e m e r g e s a t t h e e n d o f th is
 T h e L o st H a b it 89

p r o c e s s . T h e r a b b le is a p u tr e f ie d e x is te n c e , i.e . it is n o e x is te n c e . A t th e s a m e
t im e th e logic o f double latency h a s s h o w n t h a t w ith t h e r a b b le t h e r e e m e r g e s th e
in s ig h t t h a t it is la te n tly p r e s e n t in a l l e le m e n ts ‘p r i o r to ’ t h e p r o c e s s o f p u t r e ­
f a c tio n . W h a t is v a lid f o r th e in o r g a n i c in t h e lo g ic I h a v e b e e n d is c u s s in g is
a ls o v a lid f o r t h e p o o r a s u n - o r g a n : it p u tr e f ie s a n d d is s o lv e s. T h e r e b y th e
im p lie d n e g a tio n is n e g a te d a n d s u b la te d . P o v e rty m e a n s t h a t a n « « - o r g a n ic
r e la tio n s h ip , a r e la tio n b e tw e e n t h e n e g a tio n o f o n e ’s o w n c o n c e p t a n d th e
o r g a n is m e x ists. R abble m eans th a t there is a n inorganic as w ell as a n organic rela­
tion to the concept. F o r th e r a b b le e m e r g e s a t a s ta g e w h e r e t h e n e g a tio n o f
t h e o r g a n ic r e la tio n s h i p s h o u ld its e lf b e n e g a te d a n d s u b la te d . T h is d o u b lin g
d e lin e a te s t h e te r m in o lo g ic a l u s a g e t h a t I w ill m a k e in t h e f o llo w in g o f th e
n o tio n o f th e un-organ™ E ith e r th e o r g a n is w ith in th e b o d y a n d is d e t e r m i n ­
in g t h e o r g a n is m o r it is d e ta c h e d ; it is th e r e b y n o lo n g e r a n o r g a n a n d t h e r e ­
f o r e d o e s n o t d e t e r m i n e t h e o r g a n is m . T h e un-o rg a n m a r k s th e p o s itio n o f a
pecu liar 'negation' o f aw o r g a n w h ic h is, a t t h e s a m e tim e , p o sitiv e ly t h e r e a n d
d e t e r m i n e s th e o r g a n is m f r o m t h e in s id e a n d c a n n o t b e a s im p ly n e g a tio n o f
t h e o r g a n ic a s s u c h b e c a u s e o th e r w is e it w o u ld b e p o s ite d o u ts id e th e o r g a n ­
ism . T h e un-organ is b o th : in te r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l , a d e t a c h e d a n d un-organic
p a r t . It is n e i t h e r n o t o r g a n ic (as p o v e rty o r th e s e v e re d h a n d ) n o r o r g a n ic (as
n o r m a l , b o u n d o r g a n s ) . R a th e r it is un-organic (as th e r a b b le ) . T h e d e t a c h e d
o r g a n th a t in s is ts in t h e o r g a n is m s till d e t e r m i n e s t h e o r g a n is m , a n d in a
h a r m f u l way. A n in o r g a n i c e n s e m b le in th e p o litic a l b o d y is d e t a c h e d fro m
it a n d h a r m s it a t t h e s a m e tim e a s b e in g a n in o r g a n ic p a r t o f it. T h e r e f o r e
H e g e l c a n c o n c lu d e th a t “a p o w e r o r a c tiv ity in t h e s ta te m u s t n e v e r a p p e a r
a n d a c t in a f o rm le s s , in o r g a n i c s h a p e , i.e. o n th e p r in c i p le o f p lu r a lity a n d
n u m b e r ” (H P M , 244).
O th e r w is e , t h e p o litic a l b o d y fa c e s th e t h r e a t o f b e c o m in g in o r g a n ic a n d
u ltim a te ly o f e n t e r i n g in to its d is s o lu tio n . S in c e “[w ]h a t d is o r g a n iz e s th e
u n ity o f th e lo g ic a l-r a tio n a l, e q u a lly d is o r g a n iz e s a c tu a lity ” ( Ib id ., 241). In
t h e Philosophy o f R ig h t th e c o n te n t o f th is f o r m u l a ti o n b e c o m e s a c o n c r e te
g u is e w h e n H e g e l d ia g n o s e s : “th e s a n c tity o f m a r r ia g e a n d h o n o u r . . . a r e
t h e tw o m o m e n ts a r o u n d w h ic h th e d is o r g a n iz a tio n o f civil s o c ie ty rev o lv e s”
(H O P R , 2 2 6 ). C iv il so c ie ty — e x p lic itly n o t t h e s ta te — is t h r e a t e n e d in th e s e
tw o m o m e n ts w ith d is o r g a n iz a tio n , b e c o m in g in o r g a n ic . T h is m e a n s : civil
s o c ie ty is d u e to its lo g ic o f n e e d s its e lf d r iv e n to p r o d u c e d is o r g a n iz a tio n ,
w h ic h is c o m p e n s a te d f o r b y m a r r ia g e a n d th e c o r p o r a ti o n a n d th e h o n o r o f
its in d iv id u a l m e m b e r s . T h e c o r p o r a ti o n a n d m a r r ia g e d e s ig n a te th e in s titu ­
tio n s w h ic h s u b la te t h e m e n a c e s o f th e c iv il-so c ia l d y n a m ic a n d co n v e y th e m
i n to t h e e th ic a lity o f th e sta te . W ith o u t it t h e s ta te , t h a t H e g e l a ls o c a lls “th e
n e r v o u s sy ste m ,” in w h ic h fa m ily a p p e a r s a s “s e n s ib ility ” a n d civ il s o c ie ty as
“ir r ita b ility ” ( H O P R , 2 3 9 ) w o u ld b e a n in o r g a n ic e n s e m b le . B u t p o v e r ty is a
p r o d u c t o f civil s o c ie ty a n d g iv e s r is e to a p r o b le m t h a t c a n n o t b e c o m p e n s a te d
f o r by m a r r ia g e o r c o r p o r a tio n .
90 Hegel's R abble

T h e r a b b le d e s ig n a te s a t le a s i f o r civil s o c ie ty t h e d a n g e r o f t h e in o r g a n ic
e n s e m b le , o f d is o r g a n iz a tio n . It p r o d u c e s a s un-o rg a n w h ic h c a n n o lo n g e r b e
d r a w n b a c k in to th e e t h ic a l by m a r r i a g e o r t h e c o r p o r a ti o n e f f e c ts a m id s t
civil so c iety . A m id s t c iv il s o c ie ty a n in o r g a n i c Ver-wesen ta k e s p la c e th a t a t th e
s a m e t im e c a n n o t b e d is p e lle d b y t h e in s t itu ti o n s w h ic h s h o u ld r e t u r n “t h e
e th ic a l. . . to civil s o c ie ty a s s o m e th in g im m a n e n t" a n d w h ic h n a m e th e p la c e
o f th e d ia le c tic a l tr a n s itio n to th e s ta te . T h e r a b b le a p p e a r s p re c is e ly t h e r e as
un-organ, a s Ver-Wesen. I f th e s e in s t itu ti o n s a r e s u s p e n d e d in th e ir cffectiv ity ,
“m y p a r t i c u l a r e n d ” is n o t “id e n tif ie d w ith t h e u n iv e rs a l,” a n d th e r e b y “t h e
s ta te is le ft in t h e a i r ” ( Ib id ., 2 4 0 ). A g a in s t p u tr e f a c tio n o n ly r a ti o n a l activ ­
ity is o f a n y a v a il, a n a c tiv ity w h o s e in s t itu ti o n a l p la c e is d e l in e a te d b y th e
c o r p o r a ti o n . O n ly r a ti o n a l a c tiv ity is c a p a b le o f i n t e r r u p t i n g t h e p r o c e s s e s o f
d e s tr u c tio n b y m e d ia t in g b e tw e e n in d iv id u a l w e ll-b e in g a n d t h e u n iv e rs a l. A
c o n s ta n t r e s to r a tio n in d is s o lu tio n . T h e r e f o r e H e g e l c a n c a ll t h e e s ta te w h o se
p a r ti c ip a tio n le a d s to th e c o r p o r a ti o n a “m e d ia t in g o r g a n . . ." ( Ib id ., 28 9 ).
T h e p a r tic ip a tio n in a n e s ta te , w h ic h th e p o o r a n d th e r a b b le la c k , c a r e s fo r
t h e fa c t th a t it is in th e s ta te “[m ]u c h th e s a m e t h i n g . . . a s in th e o r g a n ic b o d y
. . . T h e r e is o n ly life a t a ll p o in ts a n d n o th in g w ith s t a n d s it. S e p a r a te d fro m
t h a t life, e v e ry p o in t d ie s ” ( Ib id ., 2 6 4 ). T h e r a b b le c a n n o t b e in s c r ib e d in to an y
o r g a n ic r e la tio n w ith s ta tis t in s titu tio n s — e x c e p t w h e n it b e c o m e s a c r im in a l.
B u t it is “[t]h e n a t u r e o f a n o r g a n is m . . . th a t u n le s s e a c h o f its p a r ts is b r o u g h t
in to id e n tity w ith th e o t h e r s , u n le s s e a c h o f th e m is p r e v e n te d f r o m a c h ie v in g
in d e p e n d e n c e , t h e w h o le m u s t p e r is h ." T h is is w h y w h e n it c o m e s to p o litic a l
o r g a n is m s it is a d e q u a t e to u s e th e “t h e fa b le o f t h e b e lly a n d th e o t h e r m e m ­
b e rs " ( I b id ., 242) a n d w hy th e un-organic r a b b le m a rk s a n u n ta m a b le d iffic u lty .
F o r n o t to b e r e la te d o r g a n ic a lly to th e s ta te a n d its o t h e r m e m b e r s m e a n s n o t
t o b e “ta k e n u p in to t h e to ta lity ” ( Ib id ., 2 9 0 ) a n d a s H e g e l c le a rly sta te s: “T h u s
s u b je c tiv e p a r ti c u la r i ty w as n o t i n c o r p o r a t e d in to th e o r g a n iz a ti o n o f so c ie ty
a s a w h o le; it w as n o t r e c o n c ile d in th e w h o le , a n d th e r e f o r e . . . it sh o w s its e lf
t h e r e a s s o m e th in g h o s tile , a s a c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e so c ia l o r d e r ” ( Ib id ., 19 6 ). It
is th e o r ig in o f th e d a n g e r o f a “m a ss o r a n a g g r e g a te . . . in o p p o s itio n to th e
o r g a n iz e d s ta te ” ( I b id ., 2 9 0 ); a d a n g e r fo r th e p o litic a l o r g a n is m in th e o r g a n ­
ism itse lf. B u t m ig h t it n o t b e th e c a s e th a t th e r a b b le , b e c a u s e it is a Ver-Wesen,
a n un-organ, p e r is h e s a l to g e t h e r in its e x is te n c e a n d f in d s its s u b la tio n in th e
d ia le c tic a l m o v e m e n t? W o u ld it n o t b e b e f a lle n by t h e “c o u n t e r c h a r g e ”*7 (Ib id .,
2 8 9 ) w h ic h — fo llo w in g H e g e l— n e c e s s a r ily r e s u lts f r o m h is s ta n d p o in t?
I w a n t to fo llo w u p o n th e th e s is t h a t t h e p u tr e f a c tio n a n d d e c o m p o s itio n
( o f th e p o o r ) le a d to th e f u ll d is s o lu tio n o f e x is te n c e , b u t th a t t h e la z in e s s /
id le n e s s o f th e r a b b le d e s c r ib e s a s ta te w h ic h is in a w ay y e t to b e d e t e r m in e d
a n d w h ic h ta k e s p la c e 'after'— a n d a t the sam e tim e logically 'before'— th is p r o c ­
es s o f d is s o lu tio n . T h e id le n e s s o f th e r a b b le d e s c r ib e s a ‘s ta te ’ w h ic h c o n ­
c e r n s ‘s o m e th in g ’ w h o se e x is te n c e is fu lly d is s o lv e d b u t w h ic h is a n d r e m a in s
p e r m a n e n tl y p r e s e n t a s d iss o lv e d . I f th e p u tr e f a c tio n d e s c r ib e s the o b je c tiv e
 The L o st H a b it 91

p r o c e s s o f t h e g e n e s is o f th e r a b b le — id le n e s s a s o n e o f its s o u r c e s — t h e n th e
a t titu d e w h ic h s u p p le m e n ts p o v e rty m a rk s h is subjective genesis. O n ly by r e la tin g
b o t h c o m p o n e n ts c a n o n e r e c o n s tr u c t t h e id le n e s s -p r o b le m . H e g e l h im s e lf
a d d r e s s e s th is w h e n h e asks: “B u t h o w c a n s o m e th in g b e p r e s e n t a n d y e t n o t
e x is t? ” ( I I P N , 155)™
I n itia lly p o v e rty a p p e a r s a s th e in a d e q u a c y of c o n c e p t a n d r e a lity w h ic h
H e g e l, r e f e r r i n g to th e lo g ic o f p u tr e f a c tio n , c a lls m is e r y [E lend]. “I f th e b o d y
d o e s n o t m a tc h t h e s o u l, it is a p o o r s o r t o f t h i n g [etwasElendes]" ( II O P R , 17).
M is e ry n a m e s t h is in a d e q u a c y . T h e m is e r y t h a t is p o v e rty r e f e r s to a f u n d a ­
m e n ta l n o n c o n f o r m ity o f c o n c e p t a n d re a lity . T h e lo g ic o f m is e r y c a n b e
g r a s p e d a s a s p e c if y in g s u p p le m e n t to th e lo g ic o f p o v e r ty a n d p u tr e f a c tio n .
O n e c a n c o n c lu d e t h a t p o v e rty n e c e s s a r ily le a d s to m is e ry b e c a u s e th e b o d y
o f th e p o o r d o c s n o t m a tc h t h e a c tiv e so u l; b e c a u s e fo r th e m a c tiv ity is m a d e
im p o s s ib le . I n d ig e n c e is th e r e f o r e alw a y s a ls o a (b o d ily ) e f f e c t o f id le n e s s . T o
p a s s o ff th is in d ig e n c e , how ev er, a s s o m e th in g s a c r e d w a s c h a r a c te r is tic of th e
r o tte n s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e C h u r c h in m e d ia e v a l tim e s b e f o r e th e R e fo r m a tio n .
In th e c h u r c h “P a u p e r is m , la z in e s s , in a c tiv ity w a s r e g a r d e d a s n o b le r: a n d th e
I m m o r a l th u s re c e iv e d th e s ta m p o f c o n s e c r a tio n " (H P ! I, 3 8 0 ). H e g e l b y c o n ­
tr a s t in sists, r e f e r r i n g to t h e R e f o r m a tio n , t h a t it is a m a tte r o f in d iv id u a l’s
h o n o r a b ility to g a in s u b s is te n c e th r o u g h w o rk . F o r “a c tiv ity a n d m o b ility a r e
p re c is e ly w h a t m a n if e s t t h e h i g h e r id e a lity o f life" (H A 1 , 131), a s h e h a s it
in th e Aesthetics. B u t if t h e r a b b le is m a r k e d by t h e a tte m p t to c la im a right
w ith o u t right t h a t p o s its it b e y o n d th e r a ti o n a l c o n te x t o f a c tiv itie s , t h e n it c a n
b e u n d e r s t o o d a n a lo g o u s ly to th e liv in g t h i n g o f w h ic h H e g e l c la im s t h a t it
“d is p le a s e s b e c a u s e o f its d ro w s y a c tiv ity ; it d r a g s its e lf p a in f u lly a lo n g a n d its
w h o le m a n n e r o f life d isp la y s its in c a p a c ity fo r q u ic k m o v e m e n t a n d a c tiv ity ”
( Ib id ., 1 3 0 f t): t h e sloth. I f t h e w h o le h a b itu s o f t h e s lo th r e f e r s to t h e in c a p a c ity
to m o v e a n d a c t a n d d u e to its d ro w sy ac tiv ity , o n e c a n ta k e th is a s a f u r t h e r
g u id e in o u r r e a d in g o f t h e r a b b le - p r o b le m . T h e s lo th c a n th u s b e c o n s id ­
e r e d to b e a tw o fo ld p a r a d ig m : it is a n a n im a l a n d th u s p riv a tiv e w ith r e g a r d
to h u m a n b e i n g (it d o e s n o t e x p e r ie n c e its o w n lim ite d n e s s , w h ic h d e riv e s
f r o m t h e e x t e r n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h is w ill b y h is in s tin c ts , a n d h is n e e d s ) a n d
a m o n g s t th e a n im a ls it p r e s e n ts t h e o n e w h ic h d is p le a s e s d u e to its le th a rg y . It
is in t h is s e n s e a ls o p riv a tiv e w ith r e g a r d to a n im a ls . T h e s lo th c a n b e r e a d as
a f ig u r e o f p riv a tio n .
T h e r a b b le is la z y b e c a u s e in p o v e r ty t h e r e is a n in a d e q u a c y w h ic h m a k e s
th e m p u tr e f y . T h e p o o r a s " id le r s " ( H P H , 4 2 3 ) b e c o m e r a b b le a t t h e e n d
o f t h e p u t r e f a c t i o n w h e n th e p e c u l i a r a t t i t u d e o f t h e r a b b l e j o i n s in . I f th e
r a b b le is n o w a f u lly p u t r e f i e d e x is te n c e , th is m e a n s t h a t it d o e s n o t e v e n d is ­
p le a s e b e c a u s e o f its d ro w s y a c tiv ity b u t r a t h e r b y n o t b e in g a c tiv e a t a ll a n d
d u e to t h e f a c t o f h a v in g lo s t a ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f t h e e x is tin g . T h e r a b b le
lo s e s t h e h a b i t o f b e i n g a c tiv e a n d th is m e a n s t h a t it is t h e c o m p le te ly s lu g ­
g is h , t h e absolute inert, t h e f u lly p u t r e f i e d a n d d is s o lv e d e x is te n c e . T h e i n e r t ia
92 Hegel's R abble

o f t h e r a b b le is m o r e r a d ic a l t h a n t h e d r o w s in e s s o f t h e s lo th . T h e p r o b le m
h e r e h a s t h e f o llo w in g lo g ic : in th e m o v e m e n t o f c iv il s o c ie ty a la c k is p r o ­
d u c e d . T h is la c k is in itia lly fu lly e x t e r n a l , a n o b je c tiv e la c k . T h e p o o r l o s e all
e x t e r n a l p r o p e r ty , b u t a t t h e s a m e t im e p o v e r ty is n o t a r e s u lt o f in d iv i d u a l
m is d e e d s . T h i s e x t e r n a l la c k m e a n s t h a t t h e r e is a n e g a tio n : a n e g a t i o n o f
p r o p e r t y a n d o f t h e p o s s ib ility o f e n t e r i n g in to th e m e d i a t i n g c o n t e x t o f civil
so c ie ty . T h e r e b y t h e n e g a tio n is d e e p e n e d to e n c o m p a s s t h e o r g a n i c b o n d
a n d th e o r g a n i c i n t e g r a t i o n . P o v e rty is n e g a t i o n in a s m u c h a s it is alw a y s a ls o
a n i n a d e q u a t e r e la tio n o f c o n c e p t a n d r e a lity : a n e g a tio n o f t h e n e c e s s a r y
a n d id e a l o r g a n i c s t r u c t u r i n g o f th e c o n c e p t . T h e r e f o r e t h e p o o r p u tr e f y
a n d d iss o lv e ; a f t e r d y in g a p o litic a l d e a t h — w h ic h p o s its th e m o u ts i d e r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i o n , th e y u lti m a t e ly d i e — a s o c ia l, a n e x i s te n tia l— d e a t h . A sto n is h in g ly ,
t h e r a b b le e m e r g e s 'a fte r the putrefa ctio n . R a b b le is th e n a m e f o r t h a t w h ic h is
p r e s e n t o f n e g a tiv ity — w h ic h h a s t h e o r e tic a ll y a lr e a d y d i s a p p e a r e d — ‘a f t e r ’
t h e n e g a tio n o f th e n e g a tio n .
It e m e r g e s a t a s ta g e w h e r e th e o r e tic a ll y th e n e g a tio n o f th e n e g a t i o n o f
p o v e r ty h a s (o r s h o u ld h a v e ) ta k e n p la c e a n d t h is n e g a tio n c o n v e r te d in to
t h e ‘p o s itiv ity ’ o f s u b la tio n . O n e c a n c o n c lu d e t h a t th e r a b b le m a r k s a p la c e
in w h ic h a p e c u l i a r p o s itiv ity o f n e g a tiv ity a p p e a r s — a p r e s e n t, in s is tin g
in - e x is te n c e . T h is p o s itiv ity fo llo w s f r o m t h e H e g e lia n lo g ic o f t h e r a b b le
a l th o u g h H e g e l c o n s ta n tly in s is ts t h a t t h e r a b b le m a r k s th e “n e g a tiv e o u tlo o k
g e n e r a lly ” ( H O P R , 2 8 9 ) a n d c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s b e i n g p u r e ly p r iv a tiv e o r
a s a m e r e a b s tr a c t n e g a tio n o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . F o r H e g e l o n e c a n say th a t
“th is in d e t e r m i n a c y is its e lf o n ly a n e g a tio n in c o n t r a s t w ith t h e d e t e r m i n a t e
. . ( I b id ., 31). H e r e c o ils — a s I w a n t to c la im — f r o m h is o w n in s i g h t.39 F o r
w ith t h e r a b b le t h e r e a p p e a r s a different concept o f in d eterm in a cy w h ic h c a n ­
n o t b e c o n c e iv e d o f in t h e f o r m o f t h e n e g a tio n o f a d e t e r m i n a t i o n , o f th e
d e t e r m i n a t e . I f o n e c a n c la im th a t t h e H e g e lia n c o n c e p t o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n
is alw ays ‘to b e d e t e r m i n e d a s s o m e t h i n g ’, th is is b e c a u s e f o r h im — to q u o te
S p in o z a — o m nis determ inatio est negatio.10 T h is m e a n s a ls o t h a t “a n y d e t e r m i ­
n a t i o n is f in iti z a t io n ” w h ic h in t u r n “m e a n s ‘m u s t - e n d ,’ to -p a s s -o v c r-o n c s e lf,
b u t n o t in to n o th in g , r a t h e r a c c o r d in g to a d e t e r m i n a t e n e g a t i o n i n t o th e
h ig h e r , c o n c r e te u n iv e r s a l . . A f t e r t h e n e g a tio n o f n e g a tio n t h e r e is w ith
t h e r a b b le s o m e t h i n g p r e s e n t t h a t is n o t n e g a tio n o r ‘s o m e th in g ,’ n o r is it s u b ­
l a te d . R a th e r t h e r e is a p a s s in g - o v e r - o n e s e lf in to th e v o id o f d e t e r m in a tio n s .
T h i s p a s s a g e m a r k s a s e c o n d ty p e o f la z in e s s — th e la z in e s s o f t h e r a b b l e .*'2
B u t w h ic h la z in e s s c o m e s a f t e r t h e p u t r e f a c t i o n a n d t h e f u ll d is s o lu tio n o f
e x is te n c e ? A la z in e s s w h ic h c a n n o t b e t h e id le n e s s o f s o m e t h i n g t h a t e x is ts
a n y lo n g e r . H e r e o n e f in d s c o n c e n t r a t e d a ll o f t h e e le m e n ts t h a t h a v e f o r m e d
a p a r t o f o u r in v e s tig a tio n u p to t h is p o i n t . F o r th e q u e s tio n a r is e s a s to w h a t
t h e s u b je c tiv e , i n n e r c o r r e la te o f t h e e x t e r n a l , o b je c tiv e in a d e q u a c y o f c o n ­
c e p t a n d r e a lity is. I n itia lly it m ig h t a p p e a r t h a t t h e r a b b le fa lls u n d e r th e
d e f in i tio n t h a t H e g e l g iv e s o f t h e i n e r t w ill:
 The L o st H a b it 93

A w ill w h ic h re s o lv e s n o th in g is n o a c tu a l w ill; a c h a r a c te r le s s h u m a n b e in g
n e v e r r e a c h e s a d e c is io n . . . H o w e v e r ‘b e a u t i f u l ’ s u c h a d is p o s itio n m a y b e,
it is n e v e r th e le s s d e a d . . . O n ly by re s o lv in g c a n a h u m a n b e i n g s te p in to
a c tu a lity , h o w e v e r b i t t e r th is m a y b e to h im . I n e r t i a la c k s th e w ill to a b a n d o n
t h e in w a r d b r o o d in g w h ic h allo w s it to r e t a i n e v e r y th in g a s p o ssib ility . B u t
p o s s ib ility is n o t y e t a c tu a lity . ( II O P R , 3 7 )45

I n e r tia — th e i n e r t i a o f th e w ill— is s till— a l th o u g h o n ly p r e s e n t a s p o ssib ility —

p a r t o f th e f r e e d o m o f s u b je c t. F o r it lie s in th e f r e e d o m o f th e s u b je c t “t o slip
i n to th e s ta n d p o in t o f . . . u n t r u t h , a n d la z in e s s [Trägheit] . . . a n d stic k to it
k n o w in g ly ” ( I I PR 1, 9 0 ). T h e i n e r t ia is i n e r t ia o f th e f r e e w ill w h ic h a b s tra c ts
f r o m a ll r e a lity b e c a u s e it c o n s id e r s a n y d e t e r m in a tio n to b e a n a b a n d o n m e n t
o f h is f re e d o m . H e g e l’s c ritic is m is c le a r: th e a b s tr a c tio n f r o m r e a lity a n d th e
p e r s is te n c e in th e s ta n d p o in t o f p u r e p o ssib ility m a k e s t h e i n e r t w ill in c a p a b le
o f a c tio n . T h e in e r t w ill is a f r e e w ill w h ic h lim its its e lf to th e m e r e p o ssib ility
o f f r e e d o m a n d in it b e c o m e s u n f r e e w ill, f o r h is p e r s is te n c e in th e p u r e p o s­
sib ility m a k e s h im determ ined as undeterm ined. T h e p o s s ib ility o f t h e in e r t will
w h ic h c o n c e iv e s o f its e lf a s a b s o lu te is th e r e f o r e a possibility w ithout the possibil­
ity o f r e a liz a tio n . T h e “in e r t e n tity ” is th e “e x tr e m e o f [th e ] a b s tr a c t b e in g -in -
its e lf” (I IP S , 312) o f th e w ill. I n e r tia m e a n s a b s tr a c tio n . T h is is w hy to t h e in e r t
w ill c o r r e s p o n d s th e d e a d d is p o s itio n w h ic h d islik e s “th e tr a n s itio n f ro m u n d if ­
f e r e n ti a te d in d e te r m in a c y to th e differentiation, determ ination a n d po sitin g o f a
d e t e r m in a tio n a s a c o n t e n t a n d o b je c t” ( H O P R , 3 0). D o e s th is j u d g m e n t n o t
a ls o fit th e r a b b le ? A n in e r t w ill w o u ld b e in a d e q u a te to th e c o n c e p t o f fre e w ill
a n d w o u ld p u tre fy . B u t th e p o o r d o e s n o t h im s e lf d e c id e to b e p o o r ; h e is n o t
th e p r e - re fo r m a to ry , s u p p o s e d ly s a c r e d p o o r to w h o m a s c e tic is m a n d p ro p e r ty -
le ssn e ss is th e h ig h e s t g o o d . P o v e rty in civil so c ie ty is d e f in e d in s u c h a w ay th a t
th e p o o r lo s e a ll a d v a n ta g e s , a n d a ll p o s s ib ilitie s o f r e a liz in g t h e i r f re e d o m , b u t
a t th e s a m e tim e th e n e e d s o f civil s o c ie ty p e r s is t. They w a n t to but they cannot.
O n e c a n c o n c lu d e th a t d u e to th is im p o s sib ility th e p o o r u ltim a te ly b e c o m e s
in te r n a lly in e r t a s w ell; h is w ill r e fle c ts th e e x t e r n a l p r e v e n tio n o f r e a liz a tio n .
I f i n e r t i a w o u ld p r e s e n t a n ( in te r n a l) a n a lo g u e o f th e w ill to ( e x te rn a l)
p o v e rty , t h e n th is w o u ld m e a n t h a t civil s o c ie ty p r o d u c e s th e im p o s s ib ility
o f b e i n g s o c ia lly a c tiv e . T h e e c o n o m ic m o v e m e n t o f civil s o c ie ty p r o d u c e s
i n e r t i a — firs t e x te r n a lly , t h e n in te r n a lly — a n d t h e n c a u s e s t h e b o u r g e o is to
c o m p la in a b o u t it. P o v e rty is— fo llo w in g th is in t u i t i o n — in itia lly a n o b je c tiv e
a n d e x t e r n a ll y p r o d u c e d i n e r t i a t h a t is t h e n r e f le c te d in t h e i n e r t w ill o f th e
p o o r . T h e w ill o f t h e p o o r is th e r e f o r e n o t by d e f in itio n th e i n e r t w ill. R a th e r it
is a w ill w h ic h d u e to th e e x te r n a lly p r o d u c e d p o v e r ty ( = in e r tia ) h a s n o p o ss i­
b ility o f a c tiv ity le ft a n d f o r th is r e a s o n b e c o m e s o r is in e r t. T h is is b e c a u s e th e
i n e r t w ill is, d u e to its o w n a b s tr a c t io n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s , s e lf-in flic te d ly
a lim ite d w ill, b u t th in g s s t a n d d if f e r e n tly w ith r e g a r d to p o v e rty . T h e in e r t
w ill o f p o v e r ty is p r o d u c e d by th e o b je c tiv e im p o s s ib ility o f d if f e r e n tia tio n ,
94 Hegel's R abble

d e t e r m i n a t i o n , a n d p o s itin g t h a t c o m e s in to b e i n g b y n o n - s e lf - in f lic te d p o v ­
e rty . I lis e x e m p ti o n f r o m a ll e x t e r n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n is n o t a p e r s is te n c e in th e
p u r e a n d a b s o lu te i n n e r p o ssib ility . R a th e r it is its e lf a d e t e r m i n a t i o n w h ic h is
e x te r n a lly p r o d u c e d — b y t h e e c o n o m ic m o v e m e n t. T h e i n e r t w ill o f t h e p o o r
w h ic h p e r s is ts in a b s tr a c t in te r io r ity is alw ays a lr e a d y a w ill t h a t is e x te r n a lly
d e t e r m i n e d b y p o v e r ty a n d o n ly a s a r e s u lt o f th is d o e s it f a ll b a c k in to in te r ­
n a l in e r t i a . A t th e s a m e tim e o n e h a s to s tr e s s t h a t t h e in a d e q u a c y o f c o n c e p t
a n d r e a lity in p o v e rty — w h ic h c a n b e c o n c e iv e d o f a s a n i n e r t w ill— m a k e s all
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f e x is te n c e d is a p p e a r . T h i s is a ls o to sa y t h a t e v e n t h e ( in e r t)
w ill d is s o lv e s in th e p r o c e s s o f p u tr e f a c tio n . T h e r a b b le is th e r e s u lt o f th is
a n d t h e r e f o r e o n e c a n c la im th a t a ll its d e t e r m i n a t i o n s of e x is te n c e a r e d is ­
s o lv e d , e v e n t h e w ill, o r a t le a s t th e f r e e w ill. E r ic W e il is a m o n g th o s e w h o
h a v e r e c o g n iz e d t h e r a n g e o f th is p r o b le m a n d h e r ig h tly r e m a r k s t h a t th e
r a b b le “d o e s n o t w ill, h e c a n n o t will; fo r, a n d t h i s is e q u iv a le n t to s a y in g th a t
it is w ith o u t r e a s o n .”' 1 B u t t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f e x is te n c e in th e H e g e lia n
s ta te im p ly t h e r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m w h ic h h a s its o r ig in a n d f o u n d a ti o n in
t h e f r e e w ill. I f o n e d e f in e s p o v e rty a s i n e r t ia o f t h e w ill, t h e a n a ly s is le a d s to
t h e f o llo w in g c o n s te lla tio n : t h e r a b b le a p p e a r s lo g ic a lly ‘a f t e r ’ t h e i n e r t i a of
t h e w ill, a s a p r o d u c t o f t h e d is s o lu tio n t h a t r e s u lts fro m i n e r t i a . I f e v e n th is
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e x is te n c e d iss o lv e s, t h e n w h a t d e t e r m i n e d t h is e x is te n c e in
t h e firs t p la c e a ls o d iss o lv e s: t h e f r e e w ill, w h ic h w as in i n e r t ia i n a d e q u a t e to
its c o n c e p t. T h e r a b b le d o e s n o t p e r s is t in th e p o s itio n o f a m e r e p o s s ib ility
w ith o u t a c tu a lity ; r a t h e r , e v e n th is p o s s ib ility o f r e a liz a tio n h a s d is s o lv e d . The
rabble is the impossibility o f the H egelian concept o f the fre e w ill. T h e r a b b le is t h u s
n o t t h e i n e r t w ill, f o r t h e i n e r t w ill is a ls o a d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a n e x is te n c e ,
o f th e i n e r t a n d d e a d d is p o s itio n . T h e r e f o r e o n e c a n c la im t h a t th e r a b b le is
m o r e i n e r t t h a n t h e i n e r t w ill, s in c e e v e n t h e w ill g e ts d is s o lv e d in th e p ro c e s s
o f p u tr e f a c tio n .
I f th e i n e r t w ill s till h a s t h e p o s s ib ility o f r e a liz in g f r e e d o m , o n e c a n say th a t
t h e r a b b le m a rk s th e p o s itio n in w h ic h o n ly a n impossibility o f realizing freedom
ta k e s p la c e . But w h a t is i n e r t ia w ith o u t a w ill? H e r e a g a in it is in s tru c tiv e to
g la n c e a t th e Encyclopedia'. “In itself m a tte r is in e r t, i.e. m a tte r a s its N o tio n ,
o p p o s e d to its re a lity ” ( H P N , 4 8 ). T h is m e a n s th a t m a tte r m a y in fa c t fill sp a c e
b u t is a t th e s a m e tim e d e t e r m i n e d by a “q u ite in d e te r m in a te d if f e r e n c e ” w h ic h
“is n o t y e t a d if f e r e n c e o f m a tte r a s s u c h " (Ib id ., 4 7 ). M a tte r s ta n d s in a p o s itio n
s tr u c t u r a lly a n a lo g o u s to th e i n e r t w ill. T h is a n a lo g ) ’ m a y b e m a d e if o n e first
p o in ts o u t th a t m a tte r a s th e i n e r t w ill b o th p r e c e d e all d e te r m in a tio n s , i.e.
b o th o f th e m a r e n e g a tio n s o f d e t e r m in a tio n a n d a r e th e r e f o r e d e t e r m i n e d as
u n d e t e r m in e d . I f th e i n e r t w ill is tr a n s f o r m e d in to a r e s o lu te w ill, w h ic h d e riv e s
f r o m a d e c is io n o f th e w ill its e lf (a n d is im p lie d in th e decision to a b s tr a c t fro m
a ll d e te r m in a tio n s ) , m a tte r o n ly a p p e a r s in s p a c e w h e n it p a s s e s in to d e te r m i­
n a t e f o r m a tio n s o f b o d ie s . T h is d e l in e a tio n o f m a tte r c a n se rv e a s a p a r a d ig ­
m a tic a n d h e u r is tic p o in t f r o m w h ic h to c o n tin u e th e in v e s tig a tio n .45
 Ί h e L o st H a b it 95

M a tte r in itself is i n e r t b e c a u s e it fills s p a c e p r i o r to a ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n in a n

i n d e t e r m i n a t e w ay a n d in d ic a te s o n ly t h e p o s s ib ility o f t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f b o d ­
ie s in s p a c e . B u t it p e r s is ts in th is p o s s ib ility s in c e n o d e t e r m i n a t i o n re s u lts
f r o m it, n o p o s it in g o f d if f e r e n c e . T h is p a s s a g e is r e m a r k a b le w h e n a p p lie d
t o th e r a b b le - p r o b le m ."1T h e r a b b le d o e s n o t h a v e a n y d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e x ist­
e n c e a n y m o r e a n d th u s c a n n o t h a v e a n y d e t e r m i n a t e d if f e r e n c e in i t s e l f W ith
t h e p u tr e f a c tio n o f a l l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s th e p o s s ib ility o f d if f e r e n c e a n d d is tin c ­
tio n a ls o p u tr e f ie s . T h e r e is in th is s e n s e n o d if f e r e n c e o f t h e r a b b le in its e lf
a n d it th e r e f o r e d is tin g u is h e s its e lf ex clu siv ely b y its c o n s titu tiv e in d e te r m i­
n a c y a n d n o t d u e to a d e t e r m i n a t i o n w h ic h it re c e iv e s f r o m e v e r y th in g e lse .”
T h is a ls o m e a n s t h a t th e r a b b le c a n n o t n a m e t h e m a tte r in its e lf b e c a u s e it n o
lo n g e r c o n t a in s t h e p o s s ib ility o f r e a liz a tio n s in c e it a p p e a r s a t a lo g ic a l p la c e
w h e r e th e in-and-for-itself i.e. th e n e g a tio n o f n e g a tio n h a s a lr e a d y ta k e n p la c e .
T h e r a b b le a p p e a r s w h e n t h e a b s tr a c t in its e lf ( o f a f r e e w ill w ith o u t d e t e r m i­
n a tio n s ) o f t h e m e r e p o s s ib ility o f d e t e r m in a tio n is a lr e a d y c o n v e r te d — b y a
firs t n e g a tio n — in to d e t e r m in a tio n a n d r e a liz a tio n (in civil so c ie ty ). B u t i f o n
t h is level o f r e a liz a tio n a n in a d e q u a c y o f re a lity a n d c o n c e p t a p p e a r s (p o v ­
e rty ), th is n e g a tio n is s u b la te d th r o u g h n e g a tio n . T h e r a b b le a p p e a r s o n th e
lev el o f th e in a n d f o r its e lf b u t a s th e p e c u lia r — a b s o lu te — n e g a tio n o f all
d e t e r m in a tio n s . A t th e s a m e t im e it is c l e a r t h a t e v e ry o n e is la te n tly p o o r a n d
t h e r e f o r e la te n tly r a b b le a n d th e r e f o r e , th e r a b b le s e e m s to m a r k s o m e th in g
w h ic h lies in a p e c u lia r w ay ‘p r i o r ’ to th e s in g u l a r a n d u n iv e rs a l r e a liz a tio n s
o f f r e e d o m — a lth o u g h t h is p e c u lia r , lo g ic a l ‘p r io r ity ’ c a n o n ly b e re v e a le d
re tro a c tiv e ly . T h e r a b b le th e r e f o r e s e e m s to fill t h e e th ic a l s p a c e o f th e s ta te
in a p e c u l i a r way— a s m a t t e r fo r H e g e l f u n d a m e n ta lly fills s p a c e .48 I f t h e r a b ­
b le in th is c u r io u s ly a n a lo g o u s w ay s e e m s to in d ic a t e th e m atter o f ethical space
t h e n th is m a t t e r w o u ld b e o n e w h ic h o n ly a p p e a r s a s m a tte r a t a ll 'a fter' th e
r e a liz a tio n ; a m a tte r in a n d fo r *7.w?//without d e t e r m in a tio n s ; a m a tte r w h ic h is
p r e s e n t— o n e c o u ld w rite : p r e - s e n t— w ith o u t b e i n g e x is te n t.
C o n s e q u e n tly , th e r a b b le w o u ld n o t o n ly b e th e i n e r t m a tte r in itself b u t
t h e m a t t e r o f e th ic a lity in a n d fo r itself. T h e r a b b le w o u ld b e a m a tte r w h ic h
d o e s n o t e x is t ‘b e f o r e ’ a n d c a n n o t e x is t ‘a f te r ’ a n d th e d e t e r m in a tio n . F o r a n y
e x is te n c e w o u ld in s c r ib e d e t e r m in a tio n s i n t o it, b u t th e e x is te n c e its e lf w o u ld
r e m a in in d e t e r m i n a t e — it w o u ld r a t h e r p r e s e n t its e lf o n ly w ith in th e p r o c ­
e ss o f d e t e r m in a tio n . T h e r a b b le , a p e c u l i a r m a t t e r o f e th ic a l s p a c e , a p p e a r s
‘a f t e r ’ t h e d e t e r m in a tio n in retrospect a s th e lo g ic a l ‘b e f o r e ’ o f d e t e r m in a tio n s .
B u t o n e n e e d s to b e p r e c is e h e r e : t h e i n e r t w ill m a r k s a n in d e te r m in a c y as
t h e n e g a tio n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s (a w ill p o o r o f d e te r m in a tio n s ) ; b u t a n y
s in g le d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e w ill— in a p r o c e s s w h ic h fin a lly c r e a te s civil s o c ie ty
a n d th e s ta te — le a d s in its m e d ia t e d u n iv e rs a l (e c o n o m ic a l) m o v e m e n t to th e
u n a v o id a b le p r o d u c ti o n o f p o v e rty , w h ic h is th e e x t e r n a l n e g a tio n o f p r o p ­
e r ty a n d o f th e p o s s ib ility o f p a r ti c ip a tio n in th e r a ti o n a l m e d ia tin g c o n te x t
o f w o rk ; th e p ro c e s s e s th a t n e c e s s a r ily c a r r y o u t th is n e g a tio n ( p u tre f a c tio n ,
96 Hegel's R abble

d iss o lv in g ) le a d to t h e s u b la tio n o f ih e s ta te ( th e n e g a tio n o f t h e e x is te n c e o f

t h e p o o r ); fin a lly , t h e r a b b le a p p e a r s w ith o u t e x t e r n a l d e t e r m in a tio n s b y m a k ­
i n g its e lf th r o u g h th e a t t i t u d e w h ic h s u p p le m e n ts p o v erty .
O n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d th is a c c o u n t a s p r o v id in g th e d ia le c tic a l- lo g ic a l g e n e sis
o f “a b s o lu te p o v e rty ”(M E P M , 107).49 T h e i n e r t w ill w o u ld b e p o v e rty in itself;
t h e e x t e r n a l p o v e r ty w o u ld b e p o v e r ty f o r itself; th e r a b b le p o v e rty in a n d fo r
itse lf. O r: i n e r t i a in its e lf is m a tte r ; inertia fo r itse lf is poverty; inertia in a n d fo r
itself is the rabble. T h e in a n d f o r its e lf w h ic h is th e r a b b le is s p lit.’0 T h e r a b b le as
t h e m a t t e r o f e th ic a lity is b o th : a n e f f e c t a n d a ls o th e lo g ic a l a p rio ri o f t h e e t h i­
ca l sp a c e . I Ic o n ly e m e r g e s in th e p r o c e s s o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d a s a n e f f e c t o f
d e t e r m in a tio n ( ‘a f te r ’) t h e e th ic a l a n d a s s o o n a s it e m e r g e s it b r in g s w ith it
t h e in s ig h t t h a t it w ill alw ays h a v e b e e n a p a r t o f e v e ry e le m e n t o f e th ic a l s p a c e
( ‘b e f o r e ’). So: is th e r a b b le th e m a t t e r o f th e e th ic a l sp a c e ?
I f t h e m a tte r f illin g s p a c e alw ays f in d s its e lf p a r c e le d o u t in m u ltip le “w h o le
o r sin g le b o d ie s ” th a t u n if y e v e r y th in g to f o r m in d iv id u a l a n d in e a c h c a s e
“d if f e r e n t q u a n t a ” (H P N , 4 7 ) c o n s titu te s u n iti e s th a t a p p e a r in s p a c e , d o e s
t h is m e a n t h a t th is is a ls o v a lid lo r t h e p e c u lia r , i n e r t r a b b le -m a tte r ? I f o n e
ta k e s a s te p b a c k f r o m th is q u e s tio n to c o n s id e r o n c e a g a in w h a t h a s b e c o m e
c le a r s o far, o n e w ill c o m e c lo s e r to a n a n s w e r. T h e p r o b le m th a t p o s e s itself
h e r e is t h a t th is p e c u lia r m a t t e r h a s to b e w ith o u t d e t e r m in a tio n s , a n d m u s t
c o n s titu te t h e e th ic a l s p a c e a s a b s o lu te v o id b u t w ith o u t b e in g d ia le c tic a lly
determ ined as in d e te r m in a te o r n o t ^ d e t e r m i n e d m a tte r. I f t h e r a b b le th u s h a s
n o e x is te n c e a n y m o re , th is a ls o m e a n s t h a t its in-organic p r e s e n c e is b o d ile s s
a n d d o e s n o t h a v e a n y a p p e a r a n c e p r o p e r to h im . T h e r a b b le n e v e r a p p e a r s
a s s u c h , n e v e r a s h im s e lf, b u t alw ays o n ly in t h e p o o r , a s t h e p o o r , a n d th e logic
o f double latency h a s s h o w n th a t h e is th e r e w ith la te n tly in c lu d e d e v e ry w h e re
w ith o u t a p p e a r in g . T h e ra b b le is in th is s e n s e a n un-organ, w h ic h o n e c a n a t
t h e s a m e tim e d e l in e a te a s a n organ w ith o u t a body.·'1 I u s e organ w ith o u t body
sy n o n y m o u s ly w ith un-organ to e m p h a s iz e its d o u b le b o d y le ss n e s s: firs t, th e
o r g a n is d e t a c h e d f r o m t h e b o d y to w h ic h it b e lo n g s a s a n o r g a n a c c o r d in g to
its c o n c e p t, a n d s e c o n d ly th is o r g a n d o e s n o t its e lf h a v e a b o d y , n o e x te r n a l
a p p e a r a n c e p r o p e r to it. It a p p e a r s a s d e t a c h e d , e v e n f r o m th e d e t e r m in a tio n
o f t h e b o d y . I f th is p e c u l i a r organ w ithout body th a t t h e r a b b le is, is a ls o m a r k e d
b y its i n e r t i a a n d c a n b e c o n c e iv e d o f a s th e p e c u lia r m a tte r o f th e e th ic a l
s p a c e , h o w d o e s t h is lo g ic r e la te to th e o n e H e g e l d e s c r ib e s in r e s p e c t o f th e
r e la tio n s h i p o f p h y sic a l b o d ie s in sp a c e ?
I f m a tte r fills s p a c e , t h e n it is alw ays a lr e a d y u n if ie d in to u n itie s t h a t a re ,
w h ile th e m s e lv e s m a te r ia l, th e firs t a p p e a r a n c e a n d e x is te n c e o f m a tte r. T h is
in d iv id u a l bo d y , a s th e “im m e d ia te o n e " ( H P N , 4 9 ) o f th e m a tte r , is e m b o d ­
i e d s o a s to f o r m a u n ity , b u t, lik e m a t t e r itse lf, it d o e s n o t h a v e a m o v e m e n t
p r o p e r to it b u t e n te r s in to it t h a n k s to a c o llis io n w ith a n o t h e r b o d y . B o d ie s
a r e lo c a liz e d m a tte r, i.e. th e y a r e u n itie s o f m a tte r n e c e s s a r ily a p p e a r i n g in a
p la c e . B o d ie s a r e m a tte r w h ic h b e g in s to d if f e r f r o m its e lf a n d t h a t a p p e a r s .
 T h e L o st H a b it 97

T h e c o llis io n m a r k s a p o in t o f e n c o u n t e r b e tw e e n tw o b o d ie s in a “s tr u g g le fo r
o n e a n d t h e s a m e p la c e ” ( Ib id ., 5 0 ). By e n c o u n t e r i n g th e m s e lv e s in a p la c e , a
c o llis io n b e tw e e n o n e b o d y a n d t h e o t h e r is g e n e r a te d . T h is d e t e r m in a tio n
is a lr e a d y e n o u g h to m a r k a f u n d a m e n t a l p o in t. N a m e ly th a t t h e r e is m o tio n
f o r a n in d iv id u a l b o d y o n ly a s a r e s u lt o f its c o llis io n w ith o th e r s . M o tio n is n o
a b s o lu te b u t a f u n d a m e n ta l ly r e la tiv e n o tio n . It is d e d u c e d f r o m th e f a c t th a t
“t h e r e is n o t e m p ty s p a c e . . . N o m a tte r h o w h a r d a n d b r ittl e t h e m a tte r is
im a g in e d to b e . . ." (Ib id .).52 B e c a u s e t h e r e is n o e m p ty s p a c e t h e r e a r c alw ays
c o llis io n s b e tw e e n tw o b o d ie s t h a t r e p e l o n e a n o t h e r . T h is m e a n s : t h e r e alw ays
a lr e a d y is m o tio n , f o r t h e r e is alw ays a lr e a d y a c o llis io n o f b o d ie s , a n d m o tio n
is “t o b e in o n e p la c e , a n d a t t h e s a m e tim e to b e in a n o t h e r p la c e . . . ” (Ib id .).
M o tio n is in c e s s a n tly a n d c o n s titu tiv e ly re la tiv e . B u t w hy s h o u ld th is d e t e r m i­
n a tio n o f m o tio n b e h e lp f u l h e r e ? D ie te r W a n d s c h n c id e r h a s a r t i c u l a t e d o n e
c o n s e q u e n c e o f th is c o n c e p tio n w h ic h is in te r e s ti n g h e re :

T h e s u r p r i s in g r e s u lt o f t h e e q u iv a le n c e o f c in e m a tic re la tiv ity a n d in e r t

c o r p o r e a lity o p e n s , if I a m n o t m is ta k e n , a p e r s p e c tiv e o n th e p o s s ib ility o f
n o n - re la tiv e m o v e m e n t. P u re ly fo rm a lly , t h is e q u iv a le n c e a ls o m e a n s t h a t a
“n o n - b o d y ”— w h a te v e r th a t m a y b e — is o n e th a t c a n in a n y c a s e n o lo n g e r
h a v e a re la tiv e m o v e m e n t— a s t r a n g e th o u g h t, to b e s u r e .53

H e f o r m u la te s a c o n s e q u e n c e w h ic h r e s u lts f r o m th i n k i n g i n e r t i a a n d b o d i­
le s s n e s s to g e th e r . T h a t th is th o u g h t s e e m s s tr a n g e to W a n d s c h n e id e r is d u e to
a tw o fo ld d iffic u lty . A n a b s o lu te m o v e m e n t— a m o v e m e n t w h ic h is 110 lo n g e r
d e s c r ib a b le in te r m s o f m o ti o n — w o u ld b e th e m o v e m e n t o f a n o n - b o d y w h ic h
h e c a n n o t s p e c if y m o r e p rec isely . B u t it h a s b e c o m e c le a r t h a t t h e r a b b le c a n
b e u n d e r s to o d a s a n n o n - b o d y , n a m e ly a s a n organ w ith o u t a body, a s a n o r g a n
t h a t d o e s n o t h a v e a b o d y a n d w h ic h is d e t a c h e d fro m th e b o d y w h o s e o r g a n
it s h o u ld b e d u e to its c o n c e p t. I f th e r a b b le , b e in g s u c h a n o r g a n , w e re to
m o v e , h is m o v e m e n t w o u ld h e n c e b e a b s o lu te a n d n o t re la tiv e . W h a t d o e s th is
m ean?
In itia lly it m e a n s t h a t th is m o tio n w o u ld n o t f in d a n e n d . It w o u ld b e in fi­
n ite m o tio n . A t t h e s a m e tim e it w o u ld n o t b e a m o v e m e n t o f o n e b o d y in
o n e d ir e c tio n , b u t r a t h e r o f a n o n - b o d y in in f in ite ly m u ltip le d ir e c tio n s . It
w o u ld n o t b e lim ite d to o n e p la c e , r a t h e r it w o u ld b e e x p lo siv e . I f th e r e la ­
tiv ity o f m o ti o n d e p e n d s o n th e lo c a liz a tio n o f th e b o d y , t h e n a d c lo c a liz c d ,
u n r e a l i z a b l e m o v e m e n t s e e m s th in k a b le . T h e logic o f double latency h a s sh o w n
t h a t la te n tly a n y b o d y in th e s ta te is r a b b le a n d a s a c o n s e q u e n c e th e ra b b le
is p r e s e n t in a ll e le m e n ts o f th e s ta te . H e n c e it w o u ld b e in t h is ‘la te n t w ay
o f b e i n g ' e v e ry w h e re a n d a b s o lu te , n e v e r u n a m b ig u o u s ly lo c a liz a b le a n d n o t
b o u n d to a n y p la c e . O n c e in m o tio n , o n c e e m e r g e d , th is n o n - b o d v a p p e a r s
re tro a c tiv e ly a n y w h e re . A s s o o n a s in th e h is to r ic a l s p e c ific ity a n d p a r ti c u la r ­
ity o f civil s o c ie ty th e r a b b le e m e r g e s f r o m th e p o o r , it b e c o m e s c le a r th a t it
98 Hegel's R abble

w ill alw ays a lr e a d y h a v e b e e n la te n tly e v e ry w h e re . O n c e in m o tio n th e r a b ­

b le is a b s o lu te (in m o tio n ) . T h e r e f o r e in t h e m o v e m e n t o f s o c ie ty itself s o m e ­
t h i n g is p r o d u c e d (p o v e rty ) w h ic h p r e s e n ts th e c o n d i tio n o f p o s s ib ility o f th e
a b s o lu te m o tio n o f a n o n - b o d y ( ra b b le ). I f th is p o s s ib ility is c o m b in e d w ith
t h e p r o c e s s o f p u tr e f a c tio n a n d w ith th e r a b b le - a ttitu d e , a n a b s o lu te , in f in ite
a n d e x p lo siv e m o v e m e n t is g e n e r a te d . A m o v e m e n t o f d is s o lv in g t u r n s in to a
m u ltid ir e c tio n a l, e x p lo siv e m o v e m e n t. T h e r a b b le , a s s o o n a s it e m e r g e s , is
t h u s alw ays e x p lo siv e .51 T h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r a b b le a s a m a tte r o f c th ic a lity
alw ays m e a n s a ra b b le -e x p lo s io n . A n d o n e c a n s e e th a t a n a b s o lu te a n d in fi­
n ite m o tio n h a s to b e o n e th a t la s ts fo re v e r, i.e . is e t e r n a l. T h is c o n s e q u e n c e
c a n b e m a d e in te llig ib le w h e n w e ta k e a c c o u n t o f th e f a c t t h a t th e r a b b le lo ses
h a b it. I f h a b i t alw ays m e a n s a h a b i t o f ac tiv ity , to lo s e t h e h a b i t m e a n s to n o t
b e a c tiv e a n y m o re , to n o t m o v e . R ut if h a b it c o n t a in s b y its b e c o m in g -p o s itiv e
t h e m o m e n t o f f in itu d e o f ( th e a c tiv e , m o v in g ) life , o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d w h ic h
f o r m o f a b s o lu te n e s s e n t e r s th e p ic tu r e h e r e . F o r h a b i t in tr o d u c e s te m p o r a lity
i n to life; m a n d ie s o u t o f h a b it. F ro m th is it fo llo w s t h a t t h e r a b b le d o e s n o t d ie .
It d o e s n o t d ie s in c e it s h o u ld b y r ig h ts a lr e a d y b e d e a d a n d d iss o lv e d ; a f t e r th e
n e g a tio n t h a t is p o v e rty it s h o u ld h a v e b e e n n e g a te d a n d s u b la te d .
T h e r a b b le e m e r g e s in a p e c u l i a r in te r s tic e b e tw e e n life a n d d e a th ; o f a life
a f t e r d e a t h , o r b e t te r : o f a lif e o f th e d e a d .55 In th is s e n s e it n o t o n ly n a m e s
a n organ w ith o u t a body, a n un-organ, b u t a ls o t h e p la c e o f ‘s o m e th in g ’ un-dead.
F o r it c a n n o t fa ll u n d e r th e p o s itiv e j u d g m e n t th a t th e r a b b le is d e a d , b e c a u s e
t h e n it w o u ld p u tr e f y d u e to th e in a d e q u a c y o f c o n c e p t a n d re a lity . It is a lre a d y
a r e s u lt o f t h e p u tr e f a c tio n o f p o v e rty . B ut n o r c a n o n e j u d g e n e g a tiv e ly a n d
c la im t h a t it is n o t d e a d , s in c e th is w o u ld m e a n t h a t o n e c o u ld r e w rite th is
j u d g m e n t in to a p o s itiv e o n e : it is a liv e . T h e r e f o r e o n ly o n e p o s s ib ility r e m a in s
a n d t h a t is t h a t it falls u n d e r a — K a n tia n — in f in ite j u d g m e n t : th a t it liv es as
d e a d , t h e it is un-dead. O n e c a n s e e w hy th e te m p o r a lity o f th e p e c u lia r in te r ­
s tic e is e te r n ity . E ternity is the tim e of the rabble. F o r o n c e e m e r g e d t h e r e is n o p o s ­
sib ility th a t it c o u l d r e t u r n f r o m h is d is s o lu tio n b a c k in to e x is te n c e , in to tim e.
Its b o d ile s s , un-organic, un-dead, i n e r t , id le p r e s e n c e is e t e r n a l. T h e r a b b le is
u n -d ea d in th e a c c e n tu a tio n o f h is te m p o r a l d im e n s io n ; it is a n un-organ in th e
a c c e n tu a tio n o f th e in a d e q u a c y o f th e r e la tio n b e tw e e n r e a lity a n d c o n c e p t; it
is a Ver-Wesen in th e a c c e n tu a tio n o f th e a b s o lu te d is s o lv in g o f a ll d e t e r m in a ­
tio n s . In th e fo llo w in g I c o n s id e r th is d e f in itio n to b e in h e r e n t to th e n o tio n o f
t h e organ w ith o u t body. T h e r a b b le a s a n organ w ith o u t body is u n -d ea d; its tim e is
e te r n ity ; it is a n un-organ b e c a u s e it is d e t a c h e d f r o m its o r g a n ic r e la tio n s a n d
h a s in its e lf n o b o d y ; fin a lly , th e r e a s o n fo r its tw o fo ld b o d ile s s n e s s is t h a t it is
t h e r e s u lt o f a p r o c e s s th a t h a s m a d e a ll o f its d e t e r m in a tio n s ro t.
N ow it is c le a r: w h a t p r o d u c e s it a n d le ts it la te n tly a p p e a r e v e ry w h e re —
t h e r e a s o n f o r its te m p o r a lity — is— as s o o n a s th e r e is p o v e rty — its a ttitu d e .
T h e r a b b le c o n s titu te s its e lf o n ly w h e n p o v e rty a n d th e p r o c e s s o f p u tr e f a c ­
t io n a r e s u p p le m e n te d b y its p e c u l i a r a t titu d e . F o r th e o r ig in o f th e ra b b le
 T h e L o st H a b it 99

c a n n o t b e e x p l a in e d o n ly w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e r e la tiv e e c o n o m ic a l m o v e m e n t.
It p r o d u c e s itself-— f r o m p o v e rty , is its e lf ( a n d a t th e s a m e t im e n o t w ith o u t
p o v e rty ) t h e r e a s o n f o r its a b s o lu te m o tio n . B u t d o e s th is s e lf- m a k in g im p ly a
m o m e n t o f f r e e d o m ? D o e s th is n o t im p ly a n a c t o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n w h ic h b r e a k s
w ith th e a f o r e m e n tio n e d in d e te r m in a c y ? T h e s e q u e s tio n s p o in t in t h e d ir e c ­
tio n a lre a d y in d ic a t e d by H e g e l’s n o tio n o f h a b it: i f h a b i t m e d ia te s o b je c tiv ity
a n d s u b je c tiv ity in th e p r o d u c ti o n o f a s e c o n d n a t u r e , th e lo s s o f h a b i t m e a n s ,
o b je ctiv ely , p u tr e f a c tio n . B u t w h a t d o c s it m e a n su b je ctiv ely ? T h is is a q u e s tio n
o f w ill a n d a t titu d e . A lso , a n e u r a lg ic p o in t is s tr e s s e d h e r e . F o r it firs t h a s to b e
in v e s tig a te d m o r e p re c is e ly h o w th e r a b b le - a ltitu d e is c o n s titu t e d i f t h e r a b b le
o n ly e m e r g e s a f te r t h e lo s s o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s o f e x is te n c e , a n d , se co n d ly ,
t h e d is c u s s io n o f th e c o n c e p t o f a t titu d e s e e m s to m a r k th e p la c e fo r a n o b je c ­
t io n to th e in v e s tig a tio n s th u s fa r. T h is o b je c tio n in its m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l fo rm
r u n s a s follow s: t h e r a b b le is a p r o b le m o f civil s o c ie ty b u t n o t o f th e H e g e lia n
s ta te . T h is w o u ld m e a n th a t H e g e l’s s e n te n c e “a b e g i n n i n g o f in e q u a lity in
civil s o c ie ty ” is m u ltip lie d “in f in ite ly ” (H P R V . 221) a n d it c o n c e r n s civil s o c i­
e ty b u t n e v e r t h e s ta te . O r o n e c o u ld say: t h e r a b b le is n o t H e g e l’s p r o b le m .
H e g e l c o u ld th e n sa y th a t w h e n p o v e rty is p r o d u c e d a n d t h e r a b b le e m e rg e s ,
‘s o m u c h th e w o rs e fo r th e fa c ts.’
1 w ill sh o w in th e fo llo w in g th a t th is o b je c tio n c a n n o t b e s u s ta in e d . I will
d e m o n s tr a te t h a t th e p r o b le m of th e f a ile d s u b la tio n w h ic h p o s e s itself in
t h e tr a n s itio n f r o m p o v e r ty to th e r a b b le a n d w ith t h e p e c u l i a r p r e s e n c e o f a
p o s itiv ity o f n e g a tiv ity ‘a f te r ’ s u b la tio n , is r e p e a t e d in th e tr a n s itio n fro m civil
s o c ie ty to its in s titu tio n s a n d th e sta te . T h e s ta te is n o t c o n f r o n t e d w ith th e
r a b b le - p r o b le m in th e f o r m o f a p r o b le m o f in e q u a lity w ith in civil so c ie ty , b u t
in th e ‘f o r m ’ o f a f u n d a m e n ta l p r o b le m o f in c o n s is te n c y w h ic h fo llo w s th e logic
o f double latency. T o p ro v e th is it is n e c e s s a ry to e x p lic a te t h e c o n c e p t o f a tti­
tu d e . I w ill sh o w t h a t n o t o n ly d o th e in s titu tio n s w h ic h a r e u n d e r s t o o d a s th e
o b je c tiv e s u b s ta n tia lity o f t h e s ta te p r o d u c e e th ic a lity a s s o m e th in g im m a n e n t
w ith in civil so c ie ty , b u t a lso , th e d ia le c tic a l g e n e s is o f a t titu d e — o f t h e s u b je c ­
tiv e s u b s ta n t ia lity o f t h e s ta te — fa ils to c o n v e r t t h e r a b b le - p r o b le m in to a sta tist
s u b la tio n . O n ly b y d o in g s o w ill w e b e a b le to g r a s p w hy it is th a t th e " th e m o st
h o r r ib le r a b b le th a t e v e n f a n ta s y c a n n o t im a g in e ” ( Ib id ., 2 2 3 )— a ls o H e g e l’s
fa n ta s y — p r e s e n ts a p r o b le m w h ic h r e m a in s u n s o lv a b le in H e g e l’s p h ilo s o p h y .
 C h a p te r 9

W ithout Attitude? Rabble an d State

Great revolutions which strike the eye at a glance m u st h a ve been preceded by a still
a n d secret revolution in the spirit o f the age, a revolution not visible to every eye, espe­
cially imperceptible to contemporaries, a n d a s h ard to discern as to describe in words.
(G. W. F. Ilegel)1

O n e h a s to in v e s tig a te t h e r a b b le - a ttitu d e in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d h o w th e r a b ­
b le is a b le to m a k e itse lf. I f e v e r y th in g is d is s o lv e d , h o w c a n t h e r a b b le m a k e
itse lf? H e g e l's f ir s t a n s w e r is t h a t its a u to -g e n e s is is la rg e ly d e p e n d e n t o n th e
a t titu d e t h a t s u p p le m e n t p o v e rty . T h e r e f o r e a r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f H e g e l's n o tio n
o f a t t i t u d e is e s s e n tia l. S o , h o w d o e s H e g e l d e f in e t h e n o tio n o f a ttitu d e ? Λ f u n ­
d a m e n ta l d e f in itio n o f t h e d is p o s itio n o f m i n d w h ic h a p p e a r s in th e e th ic a lity
o f t h e s ta te re a d s :

T h e p o litic a l disposition, p a t r i o tis m p u r e a n d sim p le , is c e r ta in t y b a s e d o n

tru th — m e r e su b je c tiv e c e r ta in t y is n o t th e o u tc o m e o f t r u t h b u t is o n ly
o p in io n — a n d v o litio n w h ic h h a s b e c o m e habitual. A s s u c h , it is sim p ly a
p r o d u c t o f th e in s titu tio n s s u b s is tin g in t h e s ta te , s in c e r a tio n a lity is actually
p r e s e n t in th e s ta te . . . T h is d is p o s itio n is, in g e n e r a l, tru st (w h ich m a y p ass
o v e r in to a g r e a t e r o r le sse r d e g r e e o f e d u c a t e d in s ig h t), o r t h e c o n s c io u s n e s s
t h a t m y in te r e s t, b o th s u b s ta n tia l a n d p a r ti c u la r , is c o n t a in e d a n d p r e s e rv e d
in a n o t h e r 's (i.e. in th e sta te 's ) in te r e s t a n d e n d , i.e. in th e o t h e r ’s r e la tio n to
m e a s a n in d iv id u a l. I n t h is w ay, th is v e ry o t h e r is im m e d ia te ly n o t a n o th e r
in m y e y e s, a n d in b e in g c o n s c io u s o f th is f a c t, I a m f re e . ( H O P R , 2 4 0 )’

A ttitu d e is d e f in e d a s 1. c e r ta in t y b a s e d o n t r u t h ; 2 . v o litio n w h ic h h a s b e c o m e
h a b itu a l a s r e s u lt o f s ta tis t in s titu tio n s ; 3. t r u s t w h ic h c o n s is ts in th e b e l ie f th a t
m y in te r e s t in th e r e a liz a tio n a n d s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n o f m y f r e e d o m c o m e s
i n to its o w n a s it d e f in e s t h e s ta te . T h is in t u r n m e a n s t h a t 4 . t h e s ta te d o e s
n o t a p p e a r to m e a s o t h e r b u t I r e c o g n iz e m y se lf a s f r e e w ith in it a n d t h a t o n ly
i n t h is w ay d o e s m y f r e e d o m b e c o m e fu lly r e a l, i.e. o b je c tiv e . I n th is c o m p le x
lin k a g e o f d if f e r e n t m o m e n t H e g e l m a rk s a f u n d a m e n ta l p o in t: a t titu d e is n o t
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R abble a n d State 101

m e re ly a f o r m o f s u b je c tiv e o p i n i o n o r a v a r ia n t o f s u b je c tiv e c o n v ic tio n . F or

a t titu d e u n d e r s to o d a s c e r ta in t y b a s e d o n t r u t h a n d h a b itu a liz e d v o litio n is
firs t a n d f o r e m o s t a r e s u lt o f s ta tis t in s t itu ti o n s a n d th u s alw ay s a lr e a d y m o r e
t h a n s u b je c tiv e a n d a r b i t r a r y doxa. T h is is d e c isiv e b e c a u s e a t titu d e c a n n o t b e
u n d e r s to o d m e re ly su b je ctiv ely , m o r a lis tic a lly b u t a t th e s a m e tim e it c o n c e r n s
i n a f u n d a m e n t a l w ay t h e ( in n e r c o r e o f th e ) s u b je c t— a s s u b je c t w ith in th e
s ta te . T h e r e f o r e h e r e it is n e c e s s a r y to r e c o n s tr u c t h o w H e g e l th in k s t h e r e la ­
tio n s h ip o f t h e s u b je c t to th e s ta te a s e s s e n tia lly a p la c e w ith in t h e s u b je c t, in
h is a ttitu d e .
T h e a t t i t u d e is th u s to b e c o n s is te n tly d is t in g u is h e d fro m o p in io n . II it w e re
to b e a m e r e su b je c tiv e o p in io n a b o u t w h a t a n d h o w o n e ’s o w n g o o d s h o u ld b e
c o n c e iv e d — in d e p e n d e n tly o f t h e s ta te a n d its in s titu tio n s — H e g e l w o u ld h e r e
s till b e a t t h e s ta g e o f m o ra lity , i.e. th e f r e e w ill fo r its e lf w h ic h k n o w s t h a t its
f r e e d o m o n ly r e la te s to itself . I f a b s tr a c t r ig h t, t h e firs t b c i n g - t h e r e o f t h e f r e e
w ill, d id n o t k n o w s u b je c ts , b u t o n ly p e r s o n s , i.e. m e re ly p o te n tia l a g e n ts w ith ­
o u t in te r e s ts , th e s ta g e o f m o r a lity c o n c e r n s a n d tr e a ts firs t th e m o tiv e s , n e e d s
a n d in te r e s ts o f th e s u b je c ts. M o ra lity fo r H e g e l d e a ls w ith t h e r e la tio n s h ip
w h ic h t h e s u b je c t h a s to h is a c tio n s . F o r it d e s c r ib e s a “d e t e r m in a c y o f th e will,
in s o f a r a s it is in te r io r to t h e w ill in g e n e r a l, a n d th u s in c lu d e s th e p u r p o s e
a n d in te n tio n , a s w ell a s m o r a l e v il” (H P M , 224 ). T h e s u b je c t b e c o m e s c o n ­
s c io u s o f t h e in f in ity o f h is f r e e w ill— i.e. t h a t th is w ill is a lr e a d y f r e e b e c a u s e it
c a n a b s tr a c t f ro m a ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a n d d e t e r m i n e itself-— a n d c o n s e q u e n tly
it e x p e r ie n c e s th e d e m a n d to r e c o g n iz e n o t h i n g in its w ill w h ic h is n o t j u s t i ­
fie d by it. T h is is “th e o b s tin a c y w h ic h d o e s h o n o u r to h u m a n ity ” ( H O P R , 16),
a s H e g e l w rite s. In t h is w ay t h e w ill r e la te s to its e lf in a n in te r n a l f o r m a n d
i n th e p e r s p e c tiv e o f in te n tio n a n d p u r p o s e to its o w n a c tio n s . T h is m e a n s
in itia lly th a t m o r a lity is t h e s ta g e o f th e f r e e w ill fo r itself, w h ic h r e la te s its e lf
c o n s c io u s ly to its e lf a n d its a c tio n s . B u t th is k n o w le d g e is n o t y e t m e d ia te d w ith
re a lity . M o ra lity s ig n ifie s t h a t th e “r ig h t o f t h e s u b je c tiv e w ill is th a t w h a te v e r it
is to r e c o g n iz e a s v a lid s h a ll b e s e e n b y it a s good, a n d th a t a n a c tio n , a s its a im
e n t e r i n g in to e x t e r n a l o b je c tiv ity , s h a ll b e im p u t e d to i t . . . in a c c o r d a n c e w ith
its know ledge o f th e v a lu e w h ic h t h e a c tio n h a s in th is o b je c tiv ity ” (Ib id ., 127).
T h e f r e e w ill fo r its e lf k n o w s its e lf a s f r e e a n d d e m a n d s th e r ig h t to k n o w a n d
r e c o g n iz e its e lf in a ll h is a c tio n s a s f r e e w ill. B u t p o litic a l a l titu d e is s itu a te d
o n a lo g ic a lly h i g h e r s ta g e . In it su b je c tiv e k n o w le d g e (c e rta in ty ) a n d t r u t h ,
r e a lity a n d f r e e d o m h a v e to e n t e r in to m e d ia tio n . E th ic a lity , w h ic h lo g ic ally
lie s b e f o r e w h ile a t t h e s a m e tim e s u c c e e d in g m o r a lity in t h e o r d e r o f d e v e l­
o p m e n t in th e Philosophy o f R ight, s u b la tc s th e m e r e fo r- its c lf o f th e w ill a n d
m e d ia te s it w ith th e o b je c tiv ity o f th e n e c e s s a r ily e x is tin g e th ic a l c o m m u n ity .
T h is is w h y H e g e l c a n c la im t h a t p o litic a l d is p o s itio n , p a tr io tis m , is a r e s u lt o f
e x is tin g s ta te in s titu tio n s a n d a t th e s a m e tim e c a n b e u n d e r s to o d a s su b je c tiv e
c e r ta in ty b a s e d o n t r u t h . T h e r e f o r e h e c a n a s s e r t a s h a r p d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n
o p in io n a n d t r u e p o litic a l a ttitu d e : “I f . . . th is d is p o s itio n is lo o k e d u p o n as
102 Hegel's R abble

t h a t w h ic h m a y b e g i n o f its e lf a n d a r is e f r o m su b je c tiv e id e a s a n d th o u g h ts , it
is b e i n g c o n f u s e d w ith o p in io n , b e c a u s e s o r e g a r d e d it is d e p r iv e d o f its tr u e
g r o u n d , o b je c tiv e r e a lity ” ( Ib id ., 241). I f th e f r e e w ill f o r its e lf is s u p p o s e d to
b e th e s o le g r o u n d o f r e a lity it m is u n d e r s ta n d s th a t it c o u ld n e v e r r e a liz e its e lf
w ith o u t a n a lre a d y e x is tin g o b je c tiv e re a lity — a n d its law s. H e r e o n e f in d s a
c le a r d e f in itio n o f doxa in th e H e g e lia n s e n s e . It c o n s is ts in th e m is c o n c e p tio n
o f a s u b je c t w h o th in k s h im s e lf a b le to b e g i n b y h im s e lf a lo n e — a n d th is is
a lre a d y q u ite te llin g f o r H e g e l’s c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n o f t h e r a b b le a s se lf-m a k in g .
O p in io n in t h is s e n s e a ls o s ta n d s f o r a d e n ia l o f r e a lity a n d im p lie s a d e n i a l o f
t h e r e a lity o f th e e th ic a l in s t itu ti o n s in w h ic h a n y s u b je c t is alw ay s a lre a d y in te ­
g r a te d . T h e r e f o r e m o r a lity o n ly p r e s e n ts f o rm a l c o n s c ie n c e , f o rm a l c e r ta in ty
a n d n o t t r u e c e r ta in ty . ' F o r it m a rk s a r e f le c tio n o n th e in f in ity o f th e f re e d o m
o f th e w ill w h ic h is a t t h e s a m e t im e la c k in g o b je c tiv ity . E th ic a lity n o w c o n ­
c e r n s th e f r e e w ill in a n d f o r itse lf, i.e . th e f r e e w ill o f t h e s u b je c t in a m e d ia t­
in g r e la tio n s h ip to th e o b je c tiv ity of law s a n d in s titu tio n s . T h e a t titu d e n a m e s
t h e s tr u c t u r a l p la c e w h e r e "effectivee th ic a lity ” a p p e a r s , f o r in it it b e c o m e s c le a r
“th a t a n y in d iv id u a l k n o w s o f t h e id e n tity b e tw e e n h is d e e p e s t in te r e s t a n d th a t
o f th e w h o le .”1A ttitu d e c o n c e r n s t h e s u b je c t in a w ay th a t n a m e s th e r e la tio n
o f su b je c tiv e w ill a n d k n o w le d g e to th e sta te .
In th e a t t i t u d e th e m e d ia tio n o f t h e in d iv id u a l s u b je c t w ith th e w h o le o f th e
s ta te a n d its in s t itu ti o n s p r e s e n ts its e lf a s th e t r u t h i n t h e s u b je c t a n d a s th e
t r u t h » / t h e s u b je c t. F o r " t h e S ta te re a lly re s ts o n th o u g h t, a n d its e x is te n c e
d e p e n d s o n t h e a ttitu d e s o f m e n , fo r it is a s p ir itu a l a n d n o t a p h y sic a l k in g d o m ”
( H L H P 1 , 4 3 9 , tr a n s . m o d .). It is i m p o r t a n t to r e m a r k t h a t th e w o rd ‘s p i r i t u a l ’
h e r e s h o u ld b e u n d e r s to o d " in te r m s o f o b t a i n e d c a p a c itie s a n d p r a c tic e s o f
w h ic h o n e c a n say th a t n a t u r a l o r g a n is m s h a v e c r e a te d a n d a u t h o r i z e d th e m .”*
a s a h a b it w h ic h h a s b e e n a d a p te d to th e e x is tin g c ir c u m s ta n c e s b u t a t th e
s a m e tim e a s su b je c tiv e k n o w le d g e , t r u e c e r ta in ty , i.e. a s k n o w le d g e o f o n e s e lf
a n d o f o n e 's o w n h a b it. In th is k n o w le d g e t h e s u b je c t is c o n s c io u s o f th e ac tiv e -
r e p e a t i n g p r o d u c ti o n a n d o f th e h a b it w h ic h is p r o d u c e d b y th is activ ity . O r as
N a n c y e x p r e s s e d th is r e la tio n s h i p — in a d if f e r e n t c o n te x t: “I k n o w t h e tr u th
o u ts id e m y s e lf [in e th ic a lity ], a n d I k n o w th a t I a m t h e t r u t h o u ts id e m y se lf
[th e h a b it o f m y a c tiv ity w h ic h it p r o d u c e s ]. M e, th e t r u t h , I k n o w th a t I c a n n o t
c o n f u s e m y s e lf w ith a n y ‘s c lf'.”<’
N e it h e r e n a b le s th is r e la tio n s h i p t h a t I t h i n k I c o u ld c o m m e n c e a ll b e
m y se lf— th e t r u t h o f m y s e lf p e rs is ts in its e lf— n o r th a t I h a v e b e e n th e v ic tim
o f a s im p le in te r io r i z a tio n in th e p a r t i c u l a r r e a liz a tio n o f m y f r e e d o m — m y
p a r ti c u la r i ty a s s u b o r d in a t e d to t h e s ta te . I k n o w t h a t I b y a c tin g e x te r n a liz e
m y a c tio n , p o s it it u n d e r t h e law s o f th e o b je c tiv e w o rld a n d t h a t m y a c tio n
t h e r e f o r e d o e s n o t o n ly c o u n t fo r m e b u t a ls o f o r o th e r s . T h is m e d ia tio n is g e n ­
e r a t e d b y a t titu d e . N e ith e r is o n e d e a lin g h e r e w ith a s u b je c t t h a t c o m m e n c e s
a ll b y its e lf n o r w ith o n e t h a t ta k e s to th e e x is tin g o b je c tiv e c ir c u m s ta n c e s .7
F o rm a l c o n s c ie n c e in c o n tr a s t p e rs is ts s tr u c t u r a lly in th e p o s itio n t h a t fro m
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R abble a n d Slate 103

t h e p e r s p e c tiv e o f th e s u b je c t a n y a c tio n c a n b e e i t h e r g o o d 01 b a d — a s th e
ir o n is t h a s it— a n d is p le a s e d b y t h e (su b jec tiv e ) a r b it r a r in e s s o f th is d e t e r ­
m in a tio n . B ut t r u e c o n s c ie n c e c o n s is ts in t h e in s ig h t o f re a s o n s ,8 in a s u b je c ­
tiv e k n o w le d g e t h a t is d i r e c t e d to w a rd th e n e c e s s ity i n h e r e n t in th e e x is tin g
w ith o u t g iv in g u p “t h e r ig h t o f th e s u b je c t to f in d h is satisfaction in t h e a c tio n "
( IIO P R , 120). O n ly a n in te r e s t, a n e e d th a t s e e m s w o r th r e a liz in g c a n b e a n
e ffe c tiv e r e a s o n fo r th e s u b je c tiv e r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m . T h e r e f o r e th e p u re ly
f o r m a l a n d a b s tr a c t a s p e c t h a s to b e o v e rc o m e . T h e e t h ic a l a t titu d e , i.e . th e
t r u e c e r ta in t y is th u s g r o u n d e d in a n d 011 m o r a lity b u t o v e r c o m e s it n e c e s ­
sa rily . It p r e s e n t th e “in n e r m o s t m o m e n t o r a s p e c ts . . . o f se lf-c o n s c io u s n e s s ”
( H P R 2, 4 4 2 ) a n d c o n s is ts a t th e s a m e tim e “in s tic k in g s te a d f a s tly to w h a t is
r ig h t, a n d a b s ta in in g fro m all a tte m p ts to m o v e o r s h a k e it, o r d e r iv e it” (I IPS,
2 6 2 ). P o litic a l a t t i t u d e , p a tr io tis m , m a rk s th e p o in t in w h ic h in th e i n n e r c o r e
o f th e s u b je c t t h e h a b i t o f v o litio n a p p e a r s , a h a b i t t h a t is d ir e c te d to w a rd th e
m a in te n a n c e a n d s ta b ility o f t h e e x is tin g c ir c u m s ta n c e s in w h ic h th e s u b je c t
c a n o n ly u n d e r s t a n d its e lf a s fre e .
T h e a r is in g o f s u c h a h a b i t in th e s u b je c t is n o t in d e p e n d e n t o f t h e s u b je c t’s
e d u c a t io n a l p ro c e s s — f r o m h is u p b r i n g i n g w ith in th e fa m ily to th e v o lu n ta r y
c h o ic e o f a p ro fe s s io n in civil so c ie ty w h ic h le a d s to t h e e s ta te , r ig h t u p to th e
s ta te — s in c e th e c o n s ta n t r e g e n e r a ti o n a n d p e r p e t u a t e d p r o d u c ti o n o f th e s ta ­
tis t c o m m u n ity is n o t th in k a b le w ith o u t t h e m u ltip lic ity o f s in g u l a r in d iv id u ­
als. T h e a t titu d e a s a su b je c tiv e , e th ic a l p h e n o m e n o n ( o f f r e e w ill) c o n s is ts in
t h e c e r ta in t y b a s e d o n t r u t h a n d in t h e h a b itu a liz e d v o litio n w h ic h g u a r a n te e s
a t o n e a n d th e s a m e tim e th e f r e e d o m o f th e in d iv id u a l a n d t h e b a s is o f th e
a u to n o m y o f th e u n iv e rs a l. T h e a t t i t u d e is n o t a m e r e e m o tio n b u t n e v e rth e le s s
c o n ta in s c e r ta in d im e n s io n s o f it.9 B r in g in g to m in d o n c e a g a in t h e s tr u c t u r e
o f e th ic a lity in t h e Philosophy o f R ight— fam ily , civil so c ie ty , s ta te — it b e c o m e s
c le a r th a t a t titu d e a s c e r ta in ty a n d h a b it m u s t a ls o b e d e v e lo p e d a c c o r d in g to
t h e s e s ta g e s, in th e fo llo w in g p a g e s I s h a ll r e c o n s tr u c t th e g e n e s is o f a t titu d e in
t e r m s o f th e s e s ta g e s in o r d e r to c o n c e iv e o f its c o n s titu t io n in a m o r e p r e c is e
w ay. I w ill th e r e b y p r o c e e d f r o m th e fam ily , v ia civil so c iety , to th e s ta te . S in c e
e a c h o f th e s e s ta g e s is i n te r d e p e n d e n t, it w ill b e im p o s s ib le to av o id c e r ta in
a n tic ip a tio n s a n d c e r t a i n r e c o u rs e s .
A lr e a d y in th e fa m ily , e th ic a l d u tie s m a y b e f o u n d w h ic h d o n o t f in d th e ir
g r o u n d in a c o n t r a c t o r p r o m is e o r p u r e ly e x t e r n a l r u le s . T h e y a r e r a t h e r
b o u n d to t h e s e lf - u n d e r s ta n d in g o f e a c h in d iv id u a l a s a “m e m b e r ” o f th is
“ im m ediate substantiality” (H O P R , 162), i.e. f o r e x a m p le to th e p o s itio n o f th e
f a th e r , m o t h e r o r c h ild . E a c h m e m b e r o f t h e fa m ily is th e r e f o r e n o lo n g e r
p u r e ly a b s tr a c t fo r its e lf a s a p e r s o n , i.e . a s a b e a r e r o f r ig h ts , b u t r a t h e r s ta n d s
in a n e c e s s a r ily o b je c tiv e ( a n d alw a y s a lre a d y r e c ip ro c a l) r e la tio n to o th e r s .
B u t th e a t titu d e is in th e fa m ily in a c e r t a i n s e n s e s till to o n a t u r a l b e c a u s e th e
" f e e lin g o f its o w n u n ity ” (Ib id .), t h a t is fa m ily , d o e s k n o w o b je c tiv e r e q u ir e ­
m e n ts w h ic h a p p e a r to its m e m b e r s a s d u tie s . B u t th e r e a liz a tio n s o f f r e e d o m ,10
104 Hegel's R abble

l ig h ts a n d d u tie s w h ic h r e s u lt f r o m it a p p e a r o n ly in th e f o r m o f a n e m o tio n ,
lo v e b e tw e e n its m e m b e r s . T h e fa m ily is in th is s e n s e a f o r m o f im m e d ia te ly
in s titu tio n a liz e d e th ic a l c o m m u n ity — th e r e f o r e H e g e l r e a d s it a l o n g w ith th e
in tr o d u c tio n o f p r iv a te p r o p e r t y a s t h e p r im o r d ia l f o u n d in g in s ta n c e o f all
s ta te s . “T h is is w hy w e m a y s e e t h e fa m ily a s t h e s ta te in e m b ry o n ic f o r m .”11 In
it t h e “u n ity b e tw e e n h u m a n b e in g s . . . is felt— i.e . liv e d in th e s u b je c tiv ity as
th is , h a b i t . . .” (IIG P R , 328). T h e u n ity w ith o th e r s b e c o m e s h a b i tu a l in th e
s u b je c t, i.e. s e c o n d n a t u r e , s o th a t lie c a n n o t t h i n k o f h im s e lf w ith o u t o th e r s ,
in o t h e r w o rd s , w ith o u t so c ia lity . In th is w ay I le g e l a ls o d e f in e s t h e a t titu d e
o f lo v e : “T h e firs t m o m e n t in love is t h a t I d o n o t w ish to b e a sc lf-su b siste n t
a n d in d e p e n d e n t p e r s o n a n d th a t, if I w e re , t h e n I w o u ld fe e l d e fe c tiv e a n d
in c o m p le te . T h e s e c o n d m o m e n t is th a t I fin d m y s e lf in a n o t h e r p e r s o n , th a t
I c o u n t f o r s o m e th in g in t h e o th e r , w h ile th e o t h e r in t u r n c o m e s to c o u n t fo r
s o m e th in g in m e ” ( H O P R , 1(32).
I d o n o t c o u n t fo r m y s e lf a n y lo n g e r b u t I c o u n t in a n o t h e r . T h e r e f o r e I
c o u n t in a m o r e o b je c tiv e w ay— t h a n I c o u ld b e i n g a lo n e — a n d I th e r e b y h a v e
t h e h a b it to o n ly e x p e r ie n c e m y se lf a s c o m p le te w h e n I a m n o t ju s t m y self . In
t h is s e n s e o n e c a n r e c a ll A d o r n o 's r e m a r k : “W h a t is m e re ly id e n tic a l w ith itself
is w ith o u t h a p p in e s s .”12 T h e in s ig h t is a lre a d y H e g e l's . T h e h a p p in e s s o f love
in th e fa m ily is n o t to b e m e re ly id e n tic a l w ith its e lf b u t r a t h e r to s t a n d in a
c o n s titu tiv e r e la tio n w ith o th e r s , a r e la tio n w h ic h h a s b e c o m e s e c o n d n a tu r e .
H o w e v e r o n e n e e d s to le av e t h is e m b r y o n ic s ta te o f e th ic a lity a n d th e im m e ­
d ia c y of th e lo v in g s e n tim e n t, w h ic h is s till b o u n d to th e a r b it r a r in e s s o f th e
f e e lin g s u b je c t, m u s t b e c o m e o b je c tiv e a n d r a tio n a l. T h e e m o tio n is to o m u ta ­
b le to f o u n d a s ta b le e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity in it w h ic h w o u ld e n c o m p a s s m o r e
t h a n j u s t th e m e m b e r s o f th e fam ily . H e g e l m a k e s th is p o in t c le a r w h e n h e
w rite s th a t o n e c a n n o t c la im a r i g h t a g a in s t s e n tim e n t, fo r t h is w o u ld b e e q u a l
t o a r ig h t to h a v e r ig h ts a n d h e c o n c lu d e s th a t th e s e n tim e n t o ffe rs in s u ffic ie n t
g r o u n d fo r e th ic a lity .13 H e a tte m p ts to d e m o n s tr a te th a t th e f e e lin g o f lo v e is
l a r k i n g d u e to “th e in itia l c o n tin g e n c y o f its e x is te n c e ” ( H O P R , 175)— a p r o b ­
le m w h ic h in f o r m s h is e n t ir e d is c u s s io n o f d iv o r c e " — ra tio n a lity , n e c e s sity a n d
s ta b ility . W e m a y sa y o f lo v e w h a t H e g e l says a b o u t p r e m o d e r n e th ic a lity : “T h e
a n c ie n ts d id n o t k n o w a n y t h in g a b o u t c o n s c ie n c e . . .” ( H ( iP R , 3 0 2 ), in th e
s a m e w ay, th e fa m ily d o e s n o t know ' a n y t h in g a b o u t c o n s c ie n c e a n d e th ic a lity
a n d y e t it a lre a d y s e n s e s it. It is a m e r e p r e m o n i tio n o f t r u e e th ic a lity : e m o ­
tio n a l e th ic a lity . T h e la c k p r o p e r to e m o tio n in d ic a te s w hy th e fa m ily d isso lv es
a n d its c h i ld r e n h a v e to b e c o m e m e m b e r s o f c iv il so c iety . O n ly a t t h is s ta g e c a n
f r e e s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n — in th e f r e e c h o ic e o f a p ro fe s s io n , w h ic h is a n c h o r e d
i n th e p r in c ip le o f s u b je c tiv ity ( m o ra lity )— b e f o u n d .
O n e c a n n o te t h a t a t titu d e m a rk s in th e s ta tis t c o n s titu t io n p re c is e ly th e
m o m e n t w h ic h ta k e s th e sp e c ific ity of m o d e r n ity in to a c c o u n t. In it, th e “p r i n ­
c ip le o f su b je c tiv ity ” is th e p r in c ip le o f th e s ta te , i.e. t h e in d iv id u a l, a n d it c u l­
m in a te s “ in th e s e lf-s u ffic ie n t e x tr e m e " ( H O P R , 2 3 5 ) r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R abble a n d State 105

a c q u ir in g its r ig h t.1*“M o d e rn ity , f o r I Ic g e l, is th e m o d e r n ity o f th e s u b je c t w h ic h

a u to n o m o u s ly p o s its a im s f o r its a c tio n s . T h is in d ic a te s w hy a t titu d e is d e c isiv e .
T h e a t t i t u d e a s s u r e s th e o b je c tiv ity o f th e s ta tis t p r in c ip le : th e f r e e s u b je c t.
F o r th e t r u e e t h ic a l a t titu d e r e fle c ts — in its f o r m a s w ell a s in its c o n te n t— th e
t r u t h o f t h e c o n s titu tiv e p r in c ip le o f e v e ry m o d e r n s ta te : t h e s e lf - d e te r m in in g
f r e e w ill a s r e a liz e d . T h e r e f o r e H e g e l h a d to sh o w t h a t a l t i t u d e is n o t a p r o d u c t
o f in s titu tio n s a n d r ig h t a l o n e b e c a u s e “t h e la w s o f t h e s ta te th e r e f o r e c a n n o t
p o s s ib ly s e e k 10 r e a c h a s f a r a s a p e r s o n ’s d is p o s itio n . . .” (IIO P R , 9 8 ). It is
im p o s s ib le to in d u c e in a p u r e ly e x t e r n a l w ay a c o n v ic tio n in t h e s u b je c t— n o t
e v e n w ith v io le n c e . E v en ih c fam ily , d u e to its n a tu r a lity , is e x t e r n a l to th e
s u b je c t s in c e i h c in d iv id u a l fe e ls h im s e lf to b e w ith in it, b u t d o c s n o t k n o w
h im s e lf to b e t h e r e . O n ly w h e n e v e ry m o m e n t o f m e r e s u b je c tiv e c o n v ic tio n is
s u s p e n d e d c a n it b e s a id t h a t “e th ic a l lif e is a su b je c tiv e d is p o s itio n , b u t o n e
im b u e d w ith w h a t is r ig h t in its e lf ” ( Ib id ., 152). O n ly w h e n t h e e th ic a l a s su c h
b e c o m e s th e s e c o n d n a t u r e o f a n y in d iv id u a l d o e s a n y o n e r e a liz e h is f r e e d o m
a n d a t th e s a m e tim e p r o d u c e th e s ta te in h is r e a liz a tio n s . O n ly in th is way
c a n th e s ta te , d e s p ite th e ( p o te n tia l) in f in ity o f in d iv id u a l in te r e s ts r e a liz in g
th e m s e lv e s w ith in it, r e m a in a s ta b le reality .
W ith th is it is c le a r t h a t th e s ta te h a s to b e d is t in g u is h e d f r o m civil so c iety . In
it t h e r e e x is ts a f o rm a l u n iv e rs a lity o f in te r e s ts a n d n e e d s v ia th e m e d ia tio n o f
e g o is tic a c tiv itie s. B u t it is c l e a r t h a t in it t h e r e m a y b e th e h a b it o f th is f o rm a lly
u n iv e rs a l a c tiv ity b u t its r a tio n a lity is o n ly u n c o n s c io u s ly p r e s e n t in th e in d i­
v id u a ls , a s t h e a u to m a tis m o f a b lin d r e p e titiv e s a tis f a c tio n o f e g o is t in te re s ts .
T h e u n iv e rs a l m e d ia tin g c o n te x t r e m a in s u n k n o w n . T h e f o rm a l u n iv e rs a lity is
n o t k n o w le d g e , it is n o t th e c e r ta in ty o f th e in d iv id u a l. F o r c iv il s o c ie ty k n o w s
t h e u n iv e rs a l o n ly a s a n unconscious u n iversal o f h a b it. B u t th e e t h ic a l a tti­
t u d e n e e d s b o th m o m e n ts — h a b it a n d c e r ta in ty — w h ic h m e a n s t h a t s ta te a n d
civil so c ie ty — a l r e a d y w ith r e g a r d to t h e s u b je c t— n e e d to b e d is tin g u is h e d .
O n ly in th is w ay it is th in k a b le th a t t h e p r in c i p le o f th e m o d e r n s ta te — self­
d e t e r m i n i n g su b je c tiv ity — a n d its re a lity — th e o b je c tiv e ly r e a liz e d f r e e d o m o f
th e s u b je c t— c o in c id e . T h e n a t titu d e a p p e a r s in t h e s u b je c t a s k n o w le d g e , as
a r e f le c tio n o f b e in g u s e d to th e u n iv e rs a l. R o s e n z w e ig r ig h tly r e m a r k s th a t
H e g e l f o r th is r e a s o n r e je c ts a n y u s e o f th e n o tio n o f p a t r i o tis m w h ic h o n ly
r e c o g n iz e s a c tio n s w h ic h a r c e x c e p tio n s to t h e o r d i n a r y e th ic a l life — a s s u b je c ­
tiv e s a c rific e s fo r th e s o c ia l to ta lity (R H S , 133). T h e h a b it o f a c tiv ity in e th ic a l
in s t itu ti o n s c a n n o t m e a n t h a t th e s u b je c t is in tr o je c te d s o m e th in g to f o r m a
s a c rific ia l c o n s c io u s n e s s . F o r “T h e s p h e re s o f r ig h t a n d m o r a lity c a n n o t e x ist
in d e p e n d e n tly [ fü r sich] ; th e y m u s t h a v e th e e th ic a l a s th e ir s u p p o r t a n d f o u n ­
d a t io n . . . R ig h t e x ists o n ly a s a b r a n c h o f a w h o le o r lik e th e p la n t w h ic h
tw in e s its e lf r o u n d a t r e e t h a t is firm ly r o o te d in a n d f o r its e lf" ( H O P R , 153).
W ith o u t t h e e th ic a l a s e x is tin g m e d ia t o r w h ic h m e d ia te s r ig h t w ith su b je c tiv ­
ity a n d m o r a lity w ith o b je c tiv ity , n e i th e r o b je c tiv e r ig h t n o r s u b je c tiv e m o r a lity
is sta b le . O r g a n ic s t r u c t u r i n g a n d sta b ility c a n b e g a i n e d fo r a c o m m u n ity o n ly
106 Hegel's R abble

i n t h e s ta te . T h a t th e e th ic a l is t h e f o u n d a ti o n — i.e. th a t it lie s lo g ic a lly p r io r

t o th e s ta g e s o f a b s tr a c t r ig h t a n d m o r a lity — o n c e a g a in c la r if ie s th e fa c t th a t
t h e Philosophy o f R ig h t s h o u ld n o t b e r e a d ex clu siv ely a s a p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l
s to ry o f th e r e a liz a tio n o f th e f r e e w ill."1T h e e th ic a l is lo g ic a lly p r e s u p p o s e d as
a n e le m e n t in w h ic h m o r a lity a n d r ig h t a s s u m e th e ir p r o p e r p la c e . It p r e s e n ts
t h e f o u n d a ti o n b e c a u s e , d u e to th e ir in h e r e n t a b s tra c tn e s s , n e i t h e r r ig h t n o r
m o r a lity a r c s ta b le o r e ffe c tiv e : m o r a lity is a b s tr a c t a n d u n s ta b le a s a r e s u lt o f
t h e p u r e su b je c tiv ity , i.e . a r b it r a r in e s s , o f its d e t e r m in a tio n s a n d a b s tr a c t r ig h t,
a s a r e s u lt o f its in f le x ib le o b je c tiv ity a n d d u e to th e in f le x ib ility o f i ts in itia l
p o s itin g , d o c s n o t k n o w su b je c tiv e f r e e s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n . T h e e th ic a l d is p o s i­
tio n is t h e m e d ia tio n o f b o t h . T h e r e f o r e p a t r i o tis m is, a s e th ic a l a t t i t u d e a n d
a s p r in c ip le o f t h e s ta te , th e a c tu a lly c o n s titu tiv e m o m e n t o f e q u a lity in th e
s ta te — a n d n o t m e re ly le g a l o r m o r a l e q u a lity . A s R o s e n z w e ig p e n c tr a tin g ly
r e m a rk s : “T h is e q u a lity o f a t titu d e is n o w th e u n i q u e e q u a lity w h ic h I leg el
r e c o g n iz e s fo r t h e sta te .” T h e e q u a lity o f c itiz e n s — w h ic h h e r e r e f e r s to th e
‘c ito y e n ’— m e a n s a n “e q u a lity o f a t titu d e ” (R IIS , 1 3 3 - 4 ), a s a n e q u a lity o f
s e lf-fe e lin g , a s th e b e in g - o n e - in - d if f e r e n c e o f a ll in d iv id u a ls in t h e s ta te . F or
I Ie g e l, t r u e e q u a lity o n ly e x is ts in th e s ta te a n d o n ly a s e th ic a l. T h e r e f o r e , a t ti­
t u d e is d e c isiv e a s / / ^ m o m e n t o f e q u a lity a s it d e s c r ib e s t h e e q u a lity o f su b je c ts
in te r n a lly a n d th r o u g h t h e i r a c tio n s . “H e r e b y a u n iv e rs a lity is f o u n d e d w h ic h
m a k e s h u m a n lif e a n d liv in g to g e th e r p o ssib le .”17 E v ery s u b je c t k n o w s its e lf —
o u t o f h a b it— in t h e p r o d u c ti o n o f its e lf a n d th e s ta te a s r e a liz in g its f re e d o m .
It k n o w s a n d w ills its e lf a s s u b je c t in th e s ta te a n d th e r e w ith w ills t h e s ta te a s it
w ills its e lf— it w ills its e lf a s s ta tis t. In a t t i t u d e , a s h a b i tu a l iz e d v o litio n a n d t r u e
c e r ta in ty , th e w ill d i r e c t s its e lf o n to its e lf a s f r e e a n d in a r a tio n a l- u n iv e rs a l
w ay by m e d ia t in g its e lf w ith t h e s ta te . T h is is w hy o n e c a n c la im t h a t th e t r u e
e th ic a l a t t i t u d e is t h e p la c e w h e r e th e f r e e w ill w ills its e lf in its f r e e d o m . A will
h a b itu a liz e d to th e a c tiv e d e t e r m i n a t i o n k n o w s its e lf in it a s r e a liz e d a n d is a
w ill w h ic h r e fle c ts its e lf a s s u c h a n d w h ic h is c e r ta in o f its e lf in th is h a b it: a fre e
w ill w h ic h w ills its e lf a s f r e e w ill.18
B u t h o w to m e d ia t e s o m e th in g p ic k e d o u t (su b jectiv ely ) a r b it r a r il y a n d a
n e c e s s a r ily s ta b le e t h ic a l c o n te n t? T h is m e d ia tio n c a n n o t in tr o d u c e a h ie r a r ­
c h y c i t h e r o f t h e s u b je c t o r o f th e o b je c t. T o c la r if y th is , H e g e l m a rk s th a t th e
f a m ily a ls o a p p e a r s a s a p e r s o n b e c a u s e it o w n s p r o p e r t y a n d s ta n d s a s a riv a l
o v e r a g a in s t o t h e r p e o p l e in civil so c ie ty . A ls o th is n a t u r a l e th ic a lity a p p e a r s
a s o n e c o n s titu t e d in te r e s t a m o n g o th e r s a n d is in c o m p a r is o n w ith o t h e r s o n ly
o n e p e r s o n a l in te r e s t o f m a n y . B u t to r e a liz e th e f r e e w ill o f th e in d iv id u a l in
t h e c e r ta in ty o f its f r e e d o m a n d in a h a b i tu a l iz e d v o litio n o n e h a s to s u r p a s s
t h is f o r m a l u n iv e rsa lity . F o r “t r u e c o n s c ie n c e is th e d is p o s itio n to w ill w h a t is
g o o d in a n d fo r itself I t th e r e f o r e h a s fix e d p r in c ip le s a n d th e s e a r e f o r it d e t e r ­
m in a tio n s a n d d u tie s th a t a r e o b je c tiv e f o r th e m s e lv e s ” ( H O P R , 132). T h e
a t titu d e a s h a b i tu a l iz e d v o litio n th e r e f o r e a ls o im p lie s t h e h a b i t o f d u ty : a voli­
t io n t h a t is d ir e c te d to w a r d th e sta b ility o f t h a t w h ic h is in a w ay t h a t I m y se lf
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R ubble a n d Stale 107

h a v e p r o d u c e d it in th e r e a liz a tio n o f m y f r e e d o m a n d w h ic h e n a b le s m e c o n ­
s ta n tly to to d o so. D u ty is a w ay o f p e r p e t u a t i n g f r e e d o m . D u ty m e a n s th a t th e
in d iv id u a l is n o l o n g e r in a n im m e d ia te u n ity w ith t h a t w h ic h h e s h o u ld d o ,
a s h e w as in th e fam ily , b u t in a r e la tio n o f r e f le c tio n , o f r e fle c tiv e d is ta n c e .
T h e p o litic a l a t t i t u d e a s c e r ta in ty th u s r e la te s to th e h a b i tu a l iz e d v o litio n a n d
p r e s e n ts a s o r t o f habit o f habit— a n d th is re fle x iv e h a b i t is w h a t H e g e l c a lls
t h e e th ic a l a t titu d e . O n e g e ts u s e d to o th e r s in th e fa m ily , a n d th e n in civil
s o c ie ty o n e b e c o m e s a c c u s to m e d to p r o v id in g f o r o n e ’s s u b s is te n c e b y la b o r ­
i n g a n d o n e th e r e b y e n t e r s in to a n a c tiv e m e d ia tin g c o n te x t w ith o th e r s w h ic h
d o th e s a m e . T h e r e b y t h is a c tiv ity g e n e r a liz e s its e lf — s till u n c o n s c io u s ly — by
s e e in g th a t m y s a tis f a c tio n is a s s u r e d o n ly b y th e s e c u r e d d u tif u l p r o d u c tio n
o f th e s a tis f a c tio n o f a ll o th e r s . By n o t o n ly p e r c e iv in g th e a c q u ir e d h a b i t as
m y u n c o n s c io u s s e c o n d n a t u r e b u t a ls o b y k n o w in g it a s m y d u ty — m y d u ty is
t h e r e f o r e n o t h i n g e x te r n a l to m e b u t b e lo n g s to m y n a t u r e — a h a b i t o f h a b it
f o rm s in w h ic h I k n o w m y s e lf a s fre e . N o f o r m in g o f a t t i t u d e w ith o u t e th ic a li-
z a tio n , n o e th ic a liz a tio n w ith o u t th e f o r m a tio n o f a ttitu d e .
A ttitu d e th u s s ig n ifie s t h e p o in t in w h ic h t h e w ill h a s b o th its r e a lity in th e
e th ic a l a n d in th e se lf-c o n s c io u s n e s s o f th e in d iv id u a l. T h is is w hy H e g e l c a n
c la im t h a t “e th ic a l lif e is a su b je c tiv e d is p o s itio n ” a n d “t h e t r u t h o f t h e c o n c e p t
o f f r e e d o m . . . ” ( Ib id ., 152) th e s e lf-fe e lin g a n d se ll: u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a n y s u b ­
j e c t c o n c e iv e s o f its e lf a s a s u b je c t o n ly in t h e s ta te a n d c o n s id e r s th is n e c e s s a ry
t o h is o w n n a t u r e . T h is n a t u r e a p p e a r s fo r a n y in d iv id u a l a s t h e r e a liz a tio n o f
h is o w n f r e e d o m a n d a s t h e k n o w le d g e o f th is r e a liz a tio n it is th e k n o w le d g e o f
t h e r e a lity o f f r e e d o m a n d o f t h e r a tio n a lity o f o n e 's o w n h a b its.
T h e a t t i t u d e is th e " s u b je c tiv e s u b s ta n tia lity ” ( Ib id ., 2 4 0 ) o f t h e s ta te o r as
M a rx r ig h tly r e c a lls : " p o litic a l s e n tim e n t is t h e su b je c tiv e , a n d th e p o litic a l
c o n s titu t io n is th e o b je c tiv e s u b s ta n c e o f t h e s ta te ” (M C H , 7 ). F o r th e in d i­
v id u a l " k n o w in g t h e u n iv e rs a l a s h is m o v in g e n d r e a liz e d th e u n iv e rs a l. A n d
a s a r e s u lt, it h a s its b e in g t h e r e in h im b e c a u s e w ith o u t h im it w o u ld b e a m e re
a b s tr a c t u n i” (H V O R L 3, 4 9 6 ). T h e state is n o th in g w ith o u t the subjects; the subjects
are n o th in g w ith o u t the state. T h e s ta te is t h e o n ly t r u e fo rm o f life o f t h e e t h i­
c a l a n d th u s t h e a c tu a l r a ti o n a l f o r m o f h u m a n life b e c a u s e it is t h e “r a tio n a l
i n a n d fo r i t s e l f . . .” ( H O P R , 2 2 8 ). T h is o b je c tiv e r a tio n a lity is r e f le c te d in to
t h e a ttitu d e . T h is is w h y t h e e s s e n tia l p o litic a l c o n t e n t o f t h e s ta te c o n s is ts in
t h e p o litic a l c o n s titu t io n a n d t h e p o litic a l a t titu d e . I n th e p a tr io tic a t titu d e
o n e c a n s e c , d u e to t h e c o n s titu tiv e a s p e c t o f h a b it, th e s ta b ility o f a n e th ic a l
f o r m o f life w h ic h in its s tr u c t u r e , r a tio n a lity a n d s p ir itu a lity d if f e r s f r o m th e
life f o r m o f a n im a ls : “L ik e t h e e l e p h a n t h a s a d if f e r e n t life t h a n th e w o lf, h e ,
t h e e th ic a l m a n h a s th is life ” (H P R V , 152). N e v e rth e le s s o n e h a s to n o te a t th e
s a m e t im e th a t a t titu d e is n o t a m e r e h a b itu s . F o r " t h e a n im a l d o e s n o t c o m e
i n to c o n f lic t w ith w h a t it s h o u ld d o , m a n h a s to k n o w w h a t h e s h o u ld d o a n d to
e d u c a te h im s e lf ” (H V O R L 3, 4 9 5 ). T h e life o f e th ic a l m a n is n e c e s s a r ily a life
108 Hegel's R abble

i n a s la te in w h ic h h e p o sits th e s ta te a s f o r m a n d c o n t e n t o f t h e r e a liz a tio n o f

h is f r e e d o m a n d k n o w s o f th is d e t e r m in a tio n .
T h e s ta te is t h e r a t i o n a l n a t u r e o f f r e e m a n a n d a t t i t u d e is th e r a ti o n a l
h a b i t a n d t r u e c e r t a i n t y o f th is r a tio n a lity . T h e r e f o r e p o litic a l a t t i t u d e d e l in ­
e a te s t h e s t r u c t u r a l m o m e n t in w h ic h th e f u lf i llm e n t o f d u tie s a p p e a r s as
c o m p le te ly m e d i a t e d w ith t h e p e r f o r m a n c e a n d r e a liz a tio n o f h is f r e e d o m .
T h is is w hy I le g e l c a n c la im t h a t “v ir tu e [T agend] is t h e e t h ic a l o r d e r . . . so lely
a s th e in d iv i d u a l’s s im p le c o n f o r m ity w ith th e d u tie s o f t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s to
w h ic h h e b e lo n g s , it is r e c t i t u d e . . ( H O P R , 157) th is v i r t u e a s a t t i t u d e is th e
d o u b le o f h a b i t a n d c e r t a i n t y m a r k s a n i m p o r t a n t im p lic a tio n . I f c o n f o r m ity
is th e d e c is iv e f e a tu r e o f s u b je c tiv e v i r t u e in c ih ic a lity , th is m e a n s t h a t t h e r e
is a p r iv ile g e d p la c e f o r t h e f o r m a tio n o f h a b i t in t h e f o r m o f th e v i r t u e o f
r e c titu d e . F o r r e c titu d e m e a n s “th a t a n in d iv id u a l fills its p la c e , t h is is th e
m a in th in g , t h a t it h o n o r s its p la c e , a l th o u g h th e in d iv i d u a l is o n ly b y e x te r ­
n a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s , b y p u r e e x t e r n a l n e c e s s ity p o s ite d th e r e . It h a s to s u b la te
th is f o rm , h a s to s t a n d t h e r e w ith f r e e d o m b e c a u s e I s h o u ld s ta n d , I w ill to
s t a n d t h e r e ” (H V O R L 4 , 524). In c iv il s o c ie ty th e p la c e in w h ic h t h e in d i­
v id u a l w a n ts to s t a n d a s it is s u p p o s e d to s ta n d is, a s I Ie g e l h a s d e m o n s tr a te d ,
t h e e s ta t e a n d th e c o r p o r a t i o n . O n e h a s to r e c a ll h e r e th a t t h e in d iv id u a l
v o lu n ta r ily — b u t d u e to t h e e x t e r n a l n e e d of p r o v id in g fo r h is o w n su b sist­
e n c e a u to n o m o u s ly — c h o o s e s a n e s ta te . In it th e in d iv id u a l g e ts u s e d to itself
a s a r e a liz e d f r e e w ill a n d to th e d u tie s t h a t a c c o m p a n y it.ly Its h o n o r is to w ill
to s ta n d a s it is s u p p o s e d to s t a n d . In t h e e s ta t e , t h e in d iv id u a l a c c o r d in g to
its o w n s k ills t h a t a r e a ls o f o rm s o f h a b it p r o v id e s fo r h is o w n w e ll-b e in g in
m e d ia t io n w ith th e o t h e r s f r o m th e s a m e e s ta te . In t h e e s ta te , c o lle c tiv e s ta n d ­
in g b e c o m e s h a b itu a liz e d . T h e r e b y , t h e m e d ia t in g m o v e m e n t c a u s e s o n e to
r e a liz e n o t o n ly t h e r ig h ts o f o n e ’s o w n in te r e s t b u t a ls o t h e d u ty to c o n s ta n tly
p r o d u c e a l o n g s id e th is t h e s a tis f a c tio n o f t h e n e e d s o f th e o th e r s . T h i s is w hy
t h e e t h ic a l a t t i t u d e is a ls o a v ir tu e a s a h a b i tu a l iz e d c o n s c io u s n e s s o f d u ty . A s
H e g e l f o r m u l a te s t h is in h is Encyclopedia: “T h e m o r a l d u ty in g e n e r a l is, in m e
a s f r e e s u b je c t, a t th e s a m e tim e a r ig h t o f m y s u b je c tiv e w ill, o f m y d is p o s i­
tio n . . . In e th ic a l life th e s e tw o s id e s h a v e t h e i r a b s o lu te u n ity , th o u g h h e r e
to o d u ty a n d r ig h t r e t u r n to o n e a n o t h e r a n d j o i n to g e th e r , a s is th e w ay o f
n e c e s sity , th r o u g h m ediation" (H P M , 218).
‘V ir tu e ’ in itia lly m e a n s to b e u s e d to a n a c tiv ity w h ic h is s u b o r d i n a t e d to th e
e x ig e n c y o f c o n f o r m ity w ith t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s a n d b e c o m e s s e c o n d n a t u r e .
C iv il s o c ie ty th e r e b y p r o v id e s a f o r m u la in w h ic h th e in d iv id u a l fo llo w s h is
o w n in te r e s ts a n d t h e r e i n a t th e s a m e tim e m a in ta in s th e w h o le . T h is le a d s
t o th e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t p a tr io tis m a s p o litic a l a t titu d e is e s s e n tia lly r e lia n t
o n h o n o r a n d r e c titu d e . F o r b o th d e s c r ib e t h e c o n f o r m ity o f a c tio n s w ith th e
p o litic a l r e g u la tio n s a n d in s t itu ti o n s — w ith w h a t H e g e l c a lls t h e p o litic a l c o n ­
s titu tio n -" — of th e s ta te . A ttitu d e a s th e su b je c tiv e c o n s titu t io n o f t h e s ta te is
th e r e b y a lr e a d y c o n d i tio n e d by th e in s titu tio n s . T h e e s ta te in p re c ise ly th is
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R abble a n d Stale 109

s e n s e is a “m e d ia t in g o r g a n ” s in c e it s ta n d s “b e tw e e n th e g o v e r n m e n t in g e n ­
e r a l . . . a n d t h e p e o p l e b r o k e n u p in to p o litic a l s p h e r e s . . .” ( II O P R , 28 9 ).
It m e d ia te s o b je c t a n d s u b je c t a s w ell a s s u b je c t a n d o b je c t. T h e in te g r a tio n
i n to a n d th e p a r ti c ip a tio n in o n e e s ta te b e c o m e s — in th e w o rld o f th e a p p e a r ­
a n c e o f th e e th ic a l— t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i tio n o f t h e e t h ic a l c o n n e c tio n s . N ow
it a ls o b e c o m e s c le a r w hy t h e c o n t e n t o f p o litic a l a t titu d e a p p e a r s a s tr u s t.
T h is t r u s t n a m e s t h e “f u n d a m e n t a l s e n s e o f o r d e r w h ic h e v e r y o n e p o sse sse s”
w h ic h “h o ld s th e s ta te to g e th e r . . ( Ib id .. 241). It c o n s titu te s a f u n d a m e n ta l
s e n s e th a t 1. e v e r y o n e p o s s e s s e s a n d 2 . is a s e n s e o f o r d e r . T r u s t n a m e s th u s a
s u b je c tiv e b e l ie f in th e r a tio n a lity o f o b je c tiv e s ta tis t c i r c u m s ta n c e s w h ic h h a s
b e c o m e h a b itu a liz c d . T h is is w hy “t h e d is p o s itio n is, in g e n e r a l, tr u s t. . . o r m y
c o n s c io u s in te r e s t, b o th s u b s ta n tia l a n d p a r t i c u l a r is c o n t a in e d a n d p r e s e rv e d
in a n o t h e r ’s . . . ” (Ib id ., 2 4 0 ).21
T h r o u g h tr u s t t h e r e is a f e e lin g o f in te g r a tio n a n d id e n tity w ith t h e e th ic a l
s u b s ta n c e in a ll in d iv id u a ls : t h e s u b s t a n c e is n o lo n g e r a lie n , e x t e r n a l to th e
s u b je c t b u t h e is c o n v in c e d t h a t h e c a n o n ly b e f r e e in it. T h e in te r e s t— in itia lly
s e lf-s e e k in g t h e n g e n e r a liz e d v ia th e e s ta te s — o f a s u b je c t h a s b e c o m e th e
in te r e s t o f th e s u b s t a n c e itse lf.22 B u t o n e h a s to e m p h a s iz e h e r e t h a t civil s o c i­
e ty d o e s n o t r e a liz e th is s t r u c t u r e c o m p le te ly . A lth o u g h th e c o r p o r a ti o n — a n d
i n a c e r t a i n s e n s e a n y e s ta te — c a n d e r iv e a c o lle c tiv e in te r e s t— in t h e s e n s e o f
a n a s s o c ia tio n o f m a n y in te r e s ts — o u t o f th e e g o is tic is o la te d in te r e s t, th e e n d
o f th e c o r p o r a ti o n alw ays r e m a in s a “r e s tr ic te d a n d f in ite ” ( H O P R , 2 2 7 ) o n e ,
b e c a u s e a t th e s a m e tim e t h e g a t h e r i n g o f in d iv id u a l in te r e s ts is c o n s ta n tly
r e f e r r e d b a c k to w h a t it c o n s is ts of. Associated in d iv id u a l in te r e s ts r e m a in a s s o ­
c ia te d in d iv id u a l interests. D a v id J a m e s r ig h tly r e m a r k s t h a t th e “c o r p o r a ti o n
r e p r e s e n ts a n e n l ig h te n e d f o r m o f s e lf-in te re s t.”23 A t th e s a m e tim e , o n e h a s
to n o te t h a t

th e s p ir it o f th e c o r p o r a ti o n . . . is n o w in w a rd ly c o n v e r te d in to th e s p ir it o f
th e s ta te , s in c e it f in d s in th e s ta te th e m e a n s o f m a i n t a i n i n g its p a r ti c u la r
e n d s . T h is is th e s e c r e t o f th e p a tr io tis m o f t h e c itiz e n s in th e s e n s e th a t
th e y k n o w th e s ta te a s t h e i r s u b s ta n c e , b e c a u s e it is th e s ta te t h a t m a in ta in s
t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s p h e re s o f in te r e s t to g e th e r w ith t h e ju s tific a tio n , a u th o rity ,
a n d w e lfa re o f th e s e . T h e s p ir it o f th e c o r p o r a t i o n im m e d ia te ly e n ta ils th e
r o o tin g o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r in th e u n iv e rs a l, a n d f o r th is r e a s o n it is in th is
c o r p o r a te s p ir it t h a t th e d e p t h a n d s t r e n g t h o f d is p o s itio n w h ic h th e s ta te
p o sse sse s re s id e s . ( H O P R , 279)

T h e c o r p o r a ti o n r o o ts th e p a r t i c u l a r in th e u n iv e rs a l a n d v ic e v e rsa . F o r in it a
r e v e rs a l ta k e s p la c e : t h e p a r t i c u l a r in te r e s t a n d e n d o f th e in d iv id u a l b e c o m e s
im m ediately id e n tic a l w ith t h e m a in ta in in g a n d p r o v id in g fo r th e u n iv e rs a l.
T h e r e f o r e H e g e l a tte m p ts to d e m o n s tr a te th a t th e c o r p o r a ti o n is n o t s itu a te d
a t th e s ta g e o f t h e e s ta te s . I t is r a t h e r th e c a s e t h a t in it a f o r m o f u n iv e rs a lity
110 Hegel's R abble

t r a n s g r e s s in g th e e s ta te , a s e lf-k n o w in g u n iv e rs a lity is a n t ic i p a te d w h ic h
p r o d u c e s — w ith th e h e l p o f t h e o t h e r in s t itu ti o n s o f g o v e r n a n c e , p u b lic j u d i ­
c a tu r e — a n a t t i t u d e w h ic h c o n ta in s n o t m e re ly h o n o r a n d r e c titu d e b u t r a t h e r
t r u e c e r ta in t y a n d c o m p le te h a b i tu a l iz e d v o litio n . T h u s th e b o u r g e o is d o e s
n o t b e c o m e a citoyen by s im p ly e g o is tic a lly fo llo w in g h is in te r e s ts . O th e r w is e
I le g e l w o u ld b e a s p o k e s p e r s o n — a l b e it a d v a n c e d — o f a lib e r a l o r in s t r u m e n ­
ta l c o n c e p tio n o f r e a s o n . A ls o th e c o m m o n p u r s u i t o f th e in d iv id u a l in te r e s t is
a w ay— e v e n i f r e f le c te d — o f p u r s u in g th e in d iv id u a l in te r e s ts a n d th e d ia le c ti­
c a l m o v e m e n t w h ic h s h o u ld le a d to t h e in te r tw in e m c n t o f in d iv id u a l f re e d o m .
T h e s ta b ility o f t h e law s c a n n o t m e r g e to b e a m e r e a d d itio n o f m e r e e g o is tic
in te re s ts .
T h is is p re c is e ly w h y I le g e l d o c s n o t rely o n a n a u to m a tis m o f th e invisible
h a n d fo r th e d e d u c tio n o f e th ic a lity a n d its a t titu d e . T h is w o u ld n o t b e su ffi­
c ie n t to s p e a k o f t h e g e n e s is o f t h e p o litic a l a t t i t u d e b u t w o u ld o n ly g e n e r a te
a th i n k i n g o f f o rm a lly m e d ia t e d u n iv e rsa lity . H e r e I le g e l g o e s f a r t h e r t h a n
A d a m S m ith .24 O n e c a n say t h a t S m ith ’s th o u g h t d e v o te s its e lf ex c lu siv ely to
c o n s id e r in g in d iv id u a l in te r e s ts a n d is u n a b l e to a t ta i n t h e lev el o f u n iv e rsa lity .
It p re c is e ly c a n n o t b e in te r e s t w h ic h d r iv e s o u t e th ic a lity a n d its a ttitu d e . T h e
c o r p o r a ti o n n a m e s th e p la c e in w h ic h t h e p a r t i c u l a r in te r e s t is a n d b e c o m e s
m o r e th a n itse lf. O n ly if t h e in d iv id u a l k n o w s th e a s s u r a n c e o f h im s e lf to b e
id e n tic a l w ith th e m a i n t a i n i n g o f t h e u n iv e rs a l a n d i f h e k n o w s t h a t t h e u n i­
v e rsa l m a in ta in s h im , o n ly t h e n c a n o n e s p e a k o f a r o o tin g o f t h e p a r ti c u la r
in th e u n iv e rs a l. T h e c o r p o r a ti o n p r e s e n ts h e n c e a u n iv e rs a l r e f le c te d in itself:
1. in r e la tio n to e a c h m e m b e r a n d its f r e e w ill; 2 . in r e la tio n to o t h e r c o r p o ­
ra tio n s ; 3. in r e la tio n to t h e in s titu tio n s o f t h e s ta te . T h r o u g h th e c o m m o n
p r o p e r ty it h a s th e o b je c tiv ity w h ic h a s s u r e s t h e p e r s is te n c e o f th e c o r p o r a ti o n
a n d th e p ro v is io n c o n c e r n in g its m e m b e r s . It is n e i t h e r sim p ly th e e m o tio n
o f th e in d iv id u a l— n e i t h e r m e r e h a b it— n o r j u s t th e o b je c tiv e v a lid ity o f th e
r ig h t— th e m e r e k n o w le d g e o f its v a lid ity — w h ic h le a d s to th e p o litic a l a tti­
tu d e . T h e r e f o r e t h e c o r p o r a t i o n is im m e d ia te ly th e r o o t i n g o f t h e p a r ti c u la r
in th e u n iv e rs a l, t h e la tte r b e in g b o th s e lf-fe e lin g a n d a k n o w le d g e o f th e s ta ­
b ility o f th e in s titu tio n . T h e a t titu d e as h a b i tu a l iz e d v o litio n a n d t r u e c e r ta in ty
n o lo n g e r c o r r e s p o n d s to th e r e g is t e r o f t h e e m o tio n in its in itia l s e n s e . B ut
h o w to c o n c e iv e o f a n e m o tio n w h ic h is n o t s u b o r d in a t e d to a r b itr a r in e s s ?
A ttitu d e is n o t lo g ic a lly i n f e r i o r to e m o tio n . R a th e r it— s in c e th e s ta te is a ls o
lo g ic a lly p r io r to t h e s ta g e s o f r ig h t a n d m o r a lity — n a m e s a r e la tio n s h i p w h ic h
is e v e n more im m ediate. A ttit u d e is “c lo s e r to id e n tity t h a n e v e n th e r e la tio n to
f a ith o r tr u s t" ( H O P R . 155). It is th e r e f o r e f u n d a m e n ta l ly d if f e r e n t f r o m th e
“r e lig io u s p e a s a n t’s b e l ie f in n a t u r e o r g o d .” ’’' P o litic a l a t titu d e s ig n ifie s r a t h e r
a habit o f oneself as another— in th e s e lf- c e r ta in f o r m w h ic h h a s e r a d ic a te d th e
a r b it r a r in e s s o f m e r e e m o tio n a n d su b je c tiv e o p in io n . P o litic a l a t t i t u d e n a m e s
a n e m o tio n — a se lf-fe e lin g — t h a t is n o lo n g e r a n e m o tio n — w h ic h is to say,
a r b itr a r y . It is a n e m o tio n w h ic h is m o r e t h a n j u s t a n e m o tio n , n a m e ly : tr u th
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R abble a n d Stale 11 1

a n d c e r ta in ty . A ttit u d e is a true em otion, n o t a n a u t h e n ti c e m o tio n , r a t h e r a s a

s o r t o f o b je c tiv e e m o tio n i n th e s u b je c t: an em otion o f tru th a n d a t the sam e tim e
a tru th o f em otion, a n e m o tio n w h ic h n e v e r d e c e iv e s a n t i h a s its f o o th o ld in
e h tic a lity b y b e in g , a s f u n d a m e n t a l f e e lin g o f o r d e r . O r a s I le g e l w rite s c o n ­
c e r n in g th e lin k a g e o f t r u t h a n d e m o tio n : “T h e p a tr io tic d is p o s itio n a c q u ir e s
its s p e c ific a lly d e t e r m i n e d content f r o m th e v a r io u s a s p e c ts o f th e o r g a n is m o f
t h e s ta te . . . H e n c e th e s e d if f e r e n t a s p e c ts a r e th e va rio u s powers o f th e s ta te
w ith t h e i r f u n c ti o n s a n d s p h e re s o f a c tio n , b y m e a n s o f w h ic h t h e u n iv e rs a l
c o n tin u a lly e n g e n d e r s itse lf, a n d e n g e n d e r s its e lf in a n e c e s s a r y w ay . . . T h is
o r g a n is m is th e political constitution''. (I IO P R . 242 ). T h e c o n t e n t o f th e a t titu d e
is o r g a n ic a lly s tr u c t u r e d - 6 b e c a u s e it is its e lf a p a r t o f th e o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r i n g
o f t h e s ta te . A ttitu d e , d e v e lo p in g fro m fa m ily , civil s o c ie ty a n d fin a lly c o r p o r a ­
tio n , a n d th e s ta te , ta k e s its c o n t e n t f r o m t h e s ta g e s o f th is e d u c a t io n a l p r o c ­
e ss. T h is m e a n s t h a t o n th e o n e h a n d it r e fle c ts th e m o m e n ts o f its f o rm a tiv e
p r o c e s s in its c o n te n t— it c o n t a in s all th e s e d im e n s io n s — a n d o n th e o th e r
h a n d it th e re b y ta k e s u p t h e p e r s is te n c e o f th e w h o le o f e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity —
it c o n ta in s th e r e f o r e th e r a tio n a lity a n d r e a lity o f t h e s ta te . A ttitu d e is in th is
s e n s e tr a n s - in d iv id u a l a n d tr a n s c e n d s e v e n civil so c ie ty .27 It f u lfills th e ta s k of
c o lle c tiv iz in g th e in d iv id u a l by r e f le c tin g — k n o w in g ly a n d re p ro d u c tiv e !)·— in
its c o n t e n t t h e o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r i n g o f th e e th ic a l in s titu tio n s . T h e p o litic a l
a t titu d e is alw ays su b je c tiv e a n d c o lle c tiv e .
I.e t m e s u m m a r iz e t h e in v e s tig a tio n s o f h a b i t a n d a t titu d e : h a b i t p r o d u c e s
a p e r m a n e n c e o f t h e s u b je c tiv e w ill by p r o d u c i n g a s e c o n d n a t u r e ; it c r e a te s
a p e r s is te n c e o f th e w ill w h ic h is d i r e c t e d to w a r d th e e t h ic a l w h o le a n d its
p e r p e t u a t e d p r o d u c ti o n : th is is t h e f ir s t p a r t o f p o litic a l a t titu d e ; c e r ta in ty
p a s s e s t h r o u g h a p a r a lle l p r o c e s s : in itia lly it a p p e a r s in t h e u n s ta b le f o r m o f
e m o tio n , by o n ly k n o w in g m y s e lf a s c o m p le te w h e n m e d ia t e d w ith t h e o th e r ;
it p a s s e s o v e r in to th e h o n o r o f th e e s ta t e s a n d r e c titu d e in w h ic h I k n o w th e
o b t a i n m e n t o f m y o w n in te r e s ts a s t h e o b t a i n m e n t o f m y o w n s u b s is te n c e . I
a l te r it in th e c o r p o r a t i o n to b e c o m e c e r ta in t h a t o n ly th e p e r s is te n c e o f th e
e x is tin g in s t itu ti o n s a n d t h e s ta te c a n m a in ta in t h e p a r t i c u l a r i t y o f t h e in te r ­
e s ts— a s t h e u n iv e r s a l e n t i t l e m e n t o f a ll p a r t i c u l a r in te r e s ts ; c e r ta in t y th u s
d e v e lo p s f r o m e m o tio n b y w ay o f th e s u b je c t’s m o r a l s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n o f its
o w n g o o d to t r u t h . T h e r e b y o n e c a n o n ly t h i n k o f th e t r u e e t h ic a l a l titu d e
a s a r e s u lt o f t h e o r g a n ic i n t e g r a t i o n a n d b in d in g in a n d to th e e t h ic a l c o m ­
m u n ity . It is in th is w ay a lo n e t h a t “th e p e r s o n c e a s e s in th is d is p o s itio n to b e
a n a c c id e n t o f s u b s t a n c e ” a n d "w it h o u t r e f le c tiv e c h o ic e th e p e r s o n f u lfills h is
d u ty a s h is o w n a n d a s s o m e th in g t h a t is a n d in th is n e c e s s ity h e h a s h im s e lf
a n d h is a c tu a l f r e e d o m ” (H P M , 2 2 8 ). W h a t H e g e l h e r e d e s c r ib e s a s a re v e rs a l
f r o m a c c id e n t in to s u b s t a n c e m a r k s e x a c tly th e p o i n t w h ic h is p r o d u c e d by
h a b it a n d c e r ta in ty . T h e in d iv id u a l r e m a in s a n a c c id e n t o f s u b s ta n c e a s lo n g
a s it d o e s n o t r e p r o d u c e it h a b itu a lly a n d k n o w its e lf in it a s a c tu a lly fre e .
T h is t r a n s i t i o n f r o m s u b s t a n c e to s u b je c t— o n e c a n c la im t h a t it is t h e s u b je c t
112 Hegel's R abble

a s s u b s ta n c e 28— d e lin e a te s th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e a t t i t u d e ’s c o n t e n t as
o r g a n ic , t h e s ta te h a s b e c o m e a collective subject. T h e r e b y t h e e m p h a s is lie s as
m u c h o n t h e c o lle c tiv e , w h ic h is th e h a b i tu a l iz c d r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e w h o le
a n d its p e r s is te n c e , a s o n t h e s u b je c t, w h ic h k n o w s its e lf a s r e a liz e d in th e
w h o le a n d s o p r o d u c e s its e lf a n d t h e w h o le b y its ac tiv ity . T h e p e r s is te n c e o f
t h e c o lle c tiv e -s u b je c t is th e p e r s is te n c e o f its p r o d u c ti o n w h ic h b e c a m e h a b it
a n d th e c e r t a i n t y o f th e s u b je c t. T h is is t h e a c tu a l c lim a x o f H e g e l’s n o tio n
o f a t titu d e .
O n e h a s to c le a rly a r ti c u la te its ra d ic a lity : t h e e th ic a l a t t i t u d e c o n ta in s a
k n o w le d g e o f th e u n c o n s c io u s w h ic h is alw ays n e c e s s a r ily p r e s e n t— th e f o rm a l
u n iv e rs a lity w h ic h o p e r a te s a u to m a tic a lly — o f th e e th ic a l w h o le itse lf. I f th e
s e lf-fe e lin g p r o d u c e d by h a b i t d e s c r ib e s a n a u to m a tic a n d u n c o n s c io u s r e p e ti­
tio n . t h e n t h e c o n c e p t o f a t titu d e m a rk s th a t th e in d iv id u a l h a s s o m e th in g
in th e fo rm o f k n o w le d g e w h ic h it u n c o n s c io u s ly t h i n k s o f a s b e l o n g in g to
itse lf. P o litic a l a t t i t u d e m e a n s t h a t I k n o w w h a t I p e r f o r m u n c o n s c io u s ly as
m y t r u t h a n d o n ly th is k n o w le d g e p o sits m e in a t r u e r e la tio n s h i p w ith th e
e th ic a l c o m m u n ity . F o r th is k n o w le d g e o f th e u n c o n s c io u s p e r f o r m a n c e c o n ­
s e rv e s th e u n c o n s c io u s a n d is s till a k n o w le d g e o f it. B u t w h a t c a n ‘u n c o n ­
s c io u s ' m e a n h e r e ? I f in e v e ry in d iv id u a l, n o t o n ly d o th e a u to m a tis m s o f h a b it
r e m a in u n c o n s c io u s , b u t a ls o th e to ta lity o f a ll h a b its in th e s ta te — i.e. o f all
in d iv id u a ls — t h e n th is k n o w le d g e o f t h e h a b it(s ) is a k n o w le d g e o f th e u n c o n ­
s c io u s in d if f e r e n t r e g a r d s . A ttitu d e is a k n o w le d g e a n d c e r ta in t y o f o th e r s
( a n d o n e s e lf ) a s a n o t h e r w ith a n u n c o n s c io u s .
T h is m e a n s th a t 1. I a m c e r ta in t h a t I a m alw ay s a lre a d y d e p e n d e n t o n th e
o th e r , o n in te r s u b je c tiv e r e la tio n s , w h ic h d e t e r m i n e m e ( th e o t h e r in m i w h ic h
a p p e a r s a s m y h a b it— in m y o w n u n c o n s c io u s a u to m a tis m s — a n d th e o th e r
e x t e r n a l to m e a s t h e o t h e r s w ith w h o m I alw ays s ta n d in r e la tio n a n d a g a in s t
w h o m I h a v e a n “a n s w e ra b ility to m y - n e ig h b o u r-w ith -a n -u n c o n s c io u s " 29 a n d
a ls o a s t h e O t h e r t h a t alw ays a lre a d y d e t e r m in e s m e — f o r e x a m p le m y fam ily,
a c o n s titu tiv e “I w as n o t t h e r e ”30)— th is is c e r ta in t y o f m y s e lf a s / in a n o th e r ;
2 . th is c e r ta in t y c o n s is t in t h e t r u s t t h a t th e o t h e r is n o t o n ly s o m e th in g e x te r ­
n a l w h ic h c o n f r o n ts m e a n d a g a in s t m y w ill d e t e r m in e s m e , b u t a s t h e o th e r
w ith in m e it is a ls o d e p e n d e n t u p o n th is s t r u c t u r e t h a t m a r k s m e ( o th e r s c o n ­
s titu te th e m s e lv e s th r o u g h m e a s 1 c o n s titu te m y s e lf th r o u g h th e m , b y b e c o m ­
i n g o th e r ) ; 3. f r o m th is I g a in t h e c e r ta in ty b a s e d o n t r u t h t h a t th e o t h e r is a n
o t h e r w ith ( th e s a m e ) u n c o n s c io u s s o th a t h e a ls o r e f e r s in h is r e a liz a tio n s o f
h is f r e e a c ts o f w ill to s o m e th in g th a t tr a n s c e n d s h im , ju st a s I d o . In t h is way,
t h e m u tu a l r e la tio n s h i p its e lf alw ays a lre a d y a n d n e c e s s a r ily tr a n s c e n d s th e
p u r e su b je c tiv e c o n v ic tio n o f th is r e la tio n (m o ra lity ) a n d its p u r e o b je c tiv e
s ta b ility a n d g iv e n n e s s (rig h t). Where once there w as id, th a n ks to the attitude, now
there is ego, b u t w ith o u t abolishing the id, rather su b la tin g it into a know ledge about the
id. T h is is th e c o m p le x r e la tio n s h ip w h ic h is e ffe c tiv e in t h e e th ic a l a t titu d e
a n d it is th e r e f o r e i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r th a t: “T h e u n c o n s c io u s f. . .] f o rm s
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R ubble a n d Stale 113

t h e lo c u s o f p s y c h ic a c tiv ity w h e re b y a h u m a n b e i n g b e c o m e s a ‘s u b je c t’ by
m e ta b o liz in g its e x is te n tia l d e p e n d e n c y o n in s titu tio n s th a t a r e in t u r n su s­
ta in e d b y a c ts o f f o u n d a ti o n , p r e s e r v a tio n a n d a u g m e n ta tio n . A n d b y ‘in s titu ­
tio n ’ I m e a n a ll s ite s t h a t e n d o w u s w ith so c ia l r e c o g n itio n a n d in te llig ib ility ,
t h a t p r o d u c e a n d r e g u la te s y m b o lic id e n titie s."* 1
C h r is t o p h e M e n k e h a s in h is r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e c o n n e c t io n o f m u ltip lic ­
ity a n d b e a u ty in H e g e l’s c o n c e p tio n o f t h e d r a m a c o n v in c in g ly d is tin g u is h e d
tw o fo rm o f m u ltip lic itie s w h ic h s u r e ly a r e o n ly v a lid f o r th e p r e m o d e r n u n d e r ­
s ta n d in g o f e th ic a lity b u t c a n n e v e r th e le s s b e h e lp f u l f o r th e in v e stig a tio n :

T h e c o m m o n e th ic a l s u b s ta n c e c o n s is ts o f a m ultiplicity o f values; th is is w hy
t h e e th ic a l- b e a u tif u l in te g r a tio n o f th e in d iv id u a l s u b je c ts in to c o m m u n ity
p r o c e e d s in a w ay t h a t is o r ie n t e d b y th e d if f e r e n t v a lu e s . L ik e w ise , th e o th e r
m o m e n t o f e th ic a lity , t h a t o f in d iv id u a l s u b je c tiv ity c o n s is ts o f a m ultiplic­
ity o f individuals', th is is w hy th e e th ic a l- b e a u tif u l in te g r a tio n o f c o m m u n ity
w ith its m e m b e r s p r o c e e d s th r o u g h d if f e r e n t in d iv id u a ls . D u e to th is d o u b le
m u ltip lic ity th e ‘u n s e p a r a t e d ' a s s o c ia tio n w ith c o m m u n ity c a n h a p p e n fro m
b o th d ir e c tio n s w ith in ir re d u c ib ly m u ltip le a n d d if f e r e n t w ays.'12

M e n k e s c o m m e n t c l a r if ie s t h a t a n y o f t h e m a n y d i f f e r e n t in d iv i d u a ls is a b le
t o o r i e n t its e lf to w a r d d i f f e r e n t v a lu e s a n d t h a t a n y o f t h e v a lu e s m a y b e
a s s ig n e d to a m u lt ip lic ity o f d i f f e r e n t in d iv i d u a ls . I n t h i s w ay t h e r e is a n
i n t e r n a l m u lt ip lic a t io n o f t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e la tio n s . W h a t H e g e l s till
w a n ts to g r a s p in t h e e t h ic a l a t t i t u d e — s p e c if ic a lly in its m o d e r n f o r m — is
t h e k n o w le d g e — a k n o w le d g e o f t h e u n c o n s c io u s — a n d t h e h a b i t o f o n e 's
o w n o r i e n t a t i o n a t v a lu e s a n d a t o n e ’s o w n p a r t i c u l a r i t y a n d a ls o t h e k n o w l­
e d g e a n d h a b i t o f th e m u ltip lic ity o f v a lu e s a n d in d iv id u a ls . T h e f o llo w in g
in v e s tig a tio n w ill b e g u i d e d b y th e h y p o th e s is t h a t t h e r a b b le is a ( m o d e r n )
m u ltip lic ity w h ic h c a n b e p u t n e i t h e r o n t h e s id e o f t h e v a lu e s n o r o n th e
s id e o f th e in d iv i d u a ls — n o r c a n it b e th e m u t u a l m u lt ip lic a t io n o f b o th .
T h i s is to say t h a t H e g e l’s d e f i n i t i o n o f m o d e r n i t y a s a “w o rld w h ic h . . . d o e s
n o t e x c lu d e m u ltip lic ity a n d d i f f e r e n c e b u t w ith s t a n d s it ”*·'* c a n b e r e c o n ­
s t r u c t e d , b u t lin k e d t h e s a m e tim e it r e v e a ls t h a t lin k e d to t h e r a b b le is a
p r o b le m w h ic h lie s b e y o n d t h e im p o s s ib ility o f t o t a l i z a t i n g t h is m u ltip lic ­
ity a n d d i f f e r e n c e a n d w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e im p o s s ib ility o f its u n i f y i n g r e c o n ­
c i lia tio n . N o t o n ly is m o d e r n i t y f o r H e g e l d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y i ts a t t e m p t to
w i t h s t a n d t h is c o n f lic t w h ic h is a c o n f li c t o f m u lt ip lic ity a n d u n ity ; H e g e l’s
m o d e r n i t y is a ls o m a r k e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t in t h e p la c e w h e r e it a t t e m p t s to
c o n f r o n t t h e q u e s tio n “w h ic h a g i ta t e s a n d t o r m e n t s m o d e r n s o c ie ty e s p e ­
c ia lly ” ( H O P R . 2 2 1 )— t h e q u e s t i o n o f p o v e r ty — it is c o n f r o n t e d w ith a d if f e r ­
e n t p r o b le m : th e p r o b le m o f a n e g a tiv ity w ith o u t r e l a t i o n , a n “u n e m p lo y e d
n e g a tiv ity ”34 a n d t h i s m e a n s w ith a n e w concept o f in d eterm in a cy ( a n i n d e t e r ­
m in a c y in a n d f o r its e lf).
114 Hegel's R abble

S ta r lin g f r o m th is r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e d e c isiv e e le m e n ts o f a t t i t u d e o n e

c a n n o w r e t u r n to th e q u e s tio n o f t h e r a b b le - a ttitu d e . I le g e l g iv e s h is m o s t
i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n o f th is a t t i t u d e in th e fo llo w in g re m a rk :

T h e lo w e st s u b s is te n c e lev el, th a t o f a r a b b le o f p a u p e r s , m a k e s its e lf . . .

P o v e rty in its e lf d o e s n o t t u r n p e o p l e in to a r a b b le ; a r a b b le is c r e a te d o n ly
w h e n t h e r e is j o i n e d to p o v e rty a d is p o s itio n o f m in d , a n i n n e r in d ig n a tio n
a g a in s t th e r i c h , a g a in s t so c ie ty , a g a in s t «he g o v e r n m e n t, e t c . . . . In th is w ay
t h e r e is b o r n in th e r a b b le t h e ev il o f la c k in g s u ffic ie n t h o n o u r to s e c u r e
s u b s is te n c e b y its o w n l a b o u r a n d y e t a t t h e s a m e lim e o f c la im in g t h e rig h t
to r e c e iv e s u b s is te n c e [a r ig h t w ith o u t r ig h t] . ( II O P R , 221, tr a n s . m o d .)

T h e r a b b le m a k e s itself. T h i s j u d g m e n t s e e m s to in d ic a te th a t t h e r a b b le fo r
I Ieg el fa lls u n d e r w h a t h a s b e e n s h o w n to b e t h e d e f in itio n o f doxa. T h e r a b b le
o p p o s e s th e t r u t h o f e th ic a l c o m m u n ity a n d its r e a lity w ith a m e r e o p in io n .
T h e r a b b le - a ttitu d e w h ic h h a s a s its c o n t e n t o n ly in d ig n a tio n a g a in s t all p o ssi­
b le in s ta n c e s a n d in s titu tio n s — th e ‘e tc .’ in th e p a s s a g e q u o te d a b o v e — se e m s
to d e s c r ib e a m e re ly m o r a l a t titu d e w h ic h o p p o s e s its e lf t o a ll c o n c r e te in s titu ­
tio n s a n d d e n ie s th e m t h e i r ju s t if i c a tio n . I n d ig n a t io n w o u ld th e n b e t h e c o n ­
te n t o f th e r a b b le - a ttitu d e . B u t is H e g e l’s j u d g m e n t re a lly v a lid fo r th e r a b b le ?
A s M a rx rig h tly r e m a r k e d , in a p a s s a g e w h e r e h e im p lic itly r e f e r s to t h e d is c u s ­
sio n o f p o v e r ty a n d th e r a b b le in H e g e l, th is in d ig n a tio n is o n e " to w h ic h it is
n e c e s s a r ily d r iv e n by t h e c o n t r a d ic t io n b e tw e e n its h u m a n n a tu re a n d its c o n ­
d itio n o f life , w h ic h is t h e o u tr ig h t, r e s o lu te a n d c o m p re h e n s iv e n e g a tio n o f
th a t n a t u r e .”*5 I n d ig n a t io n is a n e x p r e s s io n o f a c o n t r a d ic t io n .361 h a v e s h o w n
t h a t t h is c o n t r a d ic t io n e n t e r s b e c a u s e in p o v e r ty t h e r e is a n in a d e q u a te re la ­
tio n b e tw e e n c o n c e p t ( f r e e w ill) a n d r e a lity (p o v e rty ). T h is c o n t r a d ic t io n is
a lre a d y th e r e s u lt o f a n o t h e r c o n t r a d ic t io n , w h ic h civil s o c ie ty its e lf p r o d u c e s ,
n a m e ly th a t a n y o n e s h o u ld su b sist by m e a n s o f t h e i r o w n la b o r in it b u t w h ic h
m a k e s it im p o s s ib le fo r a n y o n e to b e a b le to s u b s is t b y h im s e lf. T h is d o u b le
c o n t r a d ic t io n 57 le a d s to th e d is s o lv in g o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s o f e x is te n c e w h ic h
H e g e l d e s c r ib e d a s p u tr e f a c tio n . H e g e l's c r it iq u e o f th e r a b b le - p o s itio n se e m s
c le a r: it is a m e r e p a r ti c u la r i ty t h a t a r b itr a r ily p o s its a s e lf - d e te r m in e d e n d —
a s th e c o n t e n t o f th e m e re ly m o r a l a t titu d e — a g a in s t th e u n iv e rs a l. H e r e o n e
c a n s ta r t to a n s w e r w h a t th e in a n d fo r its e lf o f p o v e rty , w h a t th e r a b b le a s n o t
o n ly th e c o m p le te ly p u tr e f ie d organ w ith o u t body is o b je ctiv ely , b u t w h a t it is
su b je ctiv ely .
I f H e g e l c la im s t h a t t h e c o n c r e te c o n t e n t o f th e e th ic a l a t t i t u d e is c o m ­
p o s e d o f t h e o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r i n g o f t h e s ta te , t h e n o n e c a n n o te t h a t th e c o n ­
t e n t o f th e r a b b le - a tti tu d e — b e c a u s e it is a n organ w ith o u t body— c a n n o t a c c o r d
w ith th is o r g a n ic s tr u c t u r i n g . T h e d e t a c h m e n t o f t h e o r g a n f r o m th e b o d y
m e a n s f o r th e c o n t e n t o f th e r a b b le - a tt itu d e th a t it is n o t o r g a n ic , n o t a s o c ia l
o n e . F o r if it d e - le g itim iz e s a n y in s titu tio n o f th e s ta te , it n o t o n ly — fo llo w in g
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R ubble a n d Stale 115

h is o w n e n t itle m e n t— d iss o lv e s t h e i r p e r s is te n c e b u t a t th e s a m e t im e th e ir
r a ti o n a lit y a n d t h e r e w ith th e o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r e o f th e c o n s titu t io n o f t h e e t h i­
c a l c o m m u n ity itse lf. T h e d e l i n e a t i o n o f t h e r a b b le - a tti tu d e a s in d ig n a tio n
m e a n s th a t i ts c o n t e n t is a p u r e ly n e g a tiv e o n e . It is a c o n t e n t w h ic h d e c o m ­
p o s e s e v e r y th in g a n d d iss o lv e s it a s s o m e th in g w h ic h s h o u ld n o t b e . S ta r tin g
f r o m th is o n e c a n n o t g e n e r a t e c u s to m s o r a s o c ia l c o m m u n ity . I n d ig n a t io n
in t h is s e n s e w o u ld b e a f u r t h e r in a d e q u a c y o f c o n c e p t a n d r e a lity a n d t h e r e ­
f o r e it is fo r I l c g e l a p o s itio n o f u n t r u t h . S u c h a p a r t i c u l a r i t y is th e r e f o r e evil:
t h e m e r e f o r its e lf is “ev il in th e c a s e o f th e w ill . . .” ( II O P R , 7 7 ). T h e r a b b le
b e c o m e s e v il b e c a u s e it is o n ly fo r itse lf, d o e s n o t k n o w o f t h e n e c e s s ity to g e n ­
e r a liz e o n e s e lf a n d g e ls in to c o n t r a d ic t io n s . T h e r e w ith t h e r a b b le n e g a te s th e
e th ic a l a s s u c h a n d a ls o s o c ia lity a s s u c h : d u e to its a t t i t u d e it is alw ay s a -so c ia l.
A i th e s a m e tim e th e o n ly t h i n g t h a t a p p e a r s w ith in th e r a b b le - a tti tu d e is a n
in f in ite m o v e m e n t o f n e g a tio n f r o m w h ic h n o t h i n g e s c a p e s . I f a lr e a d y th e
p o o r d o e s n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in a n y e s ta te a n d falls o u t o f t h e p o litic a l s tr u c t u r e s
o f th e s ta te , th e r a b b le is m a r k e d b y a n a t t i t u d e w h ic h b e c a m e “h o s tile a n d
c o n tr a r y " ( Ib id .. 173) w h o s e g a z e d o e s n o t s e e a n y o r g a n ic e th ic a l- s ta tis t c o m ­
m u n ity b u t o n ly ille g itim a c y .
If o n e c a n c la im th a t m a r r ia g e c a n b e d iv o r c e d , b e c a u s e it is b a s e d o n
m e re ly a r b it r a r y e m o tio n s , a s H e g e l c o n tin u e s , th is d o e s n o t g o f o r t h e “s ta te ,
b e c a u s e it is b a s e d o n t h e law ” (H V O R L 3, 5 5 4 ). T h e r a b b le h o w ev e r te n d s
e v e n to d isso lv e th e s ta te in to a n u n la w f u l a s s o c ia tio n b y in d ig n a n tly d o u b t­
in g t h e le g itim a c y o f t h e law a n d its in s titu tio n s . B e c a u s e it la c k s t h e d e c isiv e
o r g a n ic b u ild i n g b lo c k s o f t h e e th ic a l a t titu d e , t h e r a b b le a ls o la c k s th e e t h i­
c a l a t titu d e . T h e d is s o lv in g m o v e m e n t w h ic h c o n c e r n s all d e t e r m in a tio n s o f
e x is te n c e a ls o s e e m s to c o n c e r n a ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f a t titu d e . T h is is w hy
H e g e l c a n d e s c r ib e t h e r a b b le - a ttitu d e in t h e Philosophy o f R ig h t in th e follow ­
in g te rm s : “T o ta k e t h e m e re ly n e g a tiv e a s a s ta r t in g - p o in t a n d to m a k e th e
w illin g o f e v il a n d t h e m is tr u s t o f s u c h w illin g th e p r im a r y fa c to r, a n d th e n
o n th e b a s is o f th is p r e s u p p o s itio n slyly to c o n s tr u c t d ik e s w h o s e e ffic ie n c y
sim p ly n e c e s s ita te s c o r r e s p o n d i n g d is lik e s o v e r a g a in s t th e m , is c h a r a c te r is tic
in th o u g h t o f th e n e g a tiv e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d in d is p o s itio n o f th e o u tlo o k o f
t h e ra b b le " ( Ib id ., 258).
T h is p a s s a g e is a s to n is h in g b e c a u s e H e g e l d r a w s a p a r a lle l b e tw e e n th e
r a b b le - a tti tu d e a n d th e n e g a tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g . B e c a u s e , a s I h a v e p ro v e d ,
fo llo w in g H e g e l's o w n d e f in i tio n , th e r a b b le c a n n o t ta k e th is p o s itio n . A lr e a d y
t h e p o o r d o c s n o t c o m e in to th e n e g a tiv e r e la tio n , o f c o n c e p t a n d re a lity , by
h is o w n f a u lt. A c c o rd in g ly th e in e r t w ill o f t h e p o o r is n o t h i n g b u t a n in te r ­
n a liz a tio n o f t h e o b je c tiv e im p o s s ib ility to a c t, w h ic h civil s o c ie ty p ro d u c e s .
T h e r e w ith H e g e l's d e l in e a tio n o f t h e r a b b le a s m a k in g its e lf b y its a t titu d e is
im p r e c is e . O n e c a n o n ly c o n c e d e to H e g e l— w ith r e g a r d to h is ju d g m e n t th a t
t h e r a b b le m a k e s itself-— i f o n e ta k e s in to a c c o u n t t h a t th e condition o f th is self­
m a k in g , p o v e rty , is a n e c e s s a r y c o n s e q u e n c e o f civil so c iety . T h e c o n tin g e n c y
116 Hegel's R abble

w h ic h a p p e a r s in t h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r a b b le is n o t, a s I le g e l c la im s , m e re ly
c o n tin g e n t. T h e c o n d i tio n o f t h e r a d ic a l c o n tin g e n c y o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f
t h e r a b b le is n e c e s s a r ily p r e s e n t. I n d i g n a t i o n a s a c o n s ta n t f e a tu r e o f its a tti­
t u d e is t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n t e n t o f a c o n t in g e n t a t titu d e w h ic h is d i r e c t e d to w a rd
t h e n e c e s s ity o f its o w n p o ssib ility . T h e r e f o r e t h e r a b b le c a n n o t b e c o u n t e d
a s a f o r m o f n e g a tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g , f o r th e d e c isiv e d e f in i tio n o f t h e lat­
t e r is t h e c o n t in g e n t- a r b itr a r y a b s tr a c t io n f r o m a ll c o n c r e te d e te r m in a tio n s .
I n c o n s e q u e n c e , th e r a b b le , b e i n g th e p a r t i c u l a r s ta g e w h ic h c o m e s ‘a f t e r ’
p o v e rty — a n d th is m e a n s th a t it s u b la te s a n d d iss o lv e s it— a n d a ls o a p p e a r ­
in g c o n tin g e n tly fro m p o v e rty , d o c s n o t fall b a c k in to a p o s itio n o f n e g a tiv e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o r m o r a l ev il. R a th e r it e m e r g e s a s a lr e a d y d iss o lv e d e x is te n c e ,
a s n e g a tio n o f n e g a tio n ( o f p o v e rty ) in a p la c e in w h ic h th e in a d e q u a c y s h o u ld
b e o v e rc o m e . T h e r e is th e n e g a tio n o f n e g a tio n b u t n e v e r th e le s s th e r a b b le is
a s th e in a n d lo r its e lf o f p o v e rty p r e s e n t a f t e r th is s u b la tio n ; a s organ w ithout
body, a s absolute rabble.
A g a in s t 1le g e l's o w n d e f in itio n th e r a b b le d o e s n o t ta k e t h e m e re ly n e g a tiv e
a s a s t a r t i n g p o in t, r a t h e r it is t h e n e g a tiv e a s s u c h — a n d th is in a f o rm w h ic h
is n o t m e re ly p o s s ib le b u t r a t h e r im p o s s ib le . II I le g e l r e f e r s th e r a b b le b a c k to
n e g a tiv e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d m o r a l ev il h e a tte m p ts to ta m e t h a t w h ic h , fol­
lo w in g th e lo g ic o f h is o w n d e s c r ip tio n , re s is ts th is ta m in g . T h e r a b b le is. as
I le g e l s u g g e s ts , n o f ig u r e o f n e g a tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g , o f m o r a l ev il, a m e r e s u b ­
je c tiv e f ig u r e w h ic h a r b itr a r ily w ith d r a w s fro m th e o b je c tiv ity o f th e e x is tin g
c ir c u m s ta n c e s . R a th e r th e o b je c tiv ity o f t h e e x is tin g law s n e c e s s a r ily p r o d u c e
s o m e th in g (p o v e rty ) w h ic h s ta n d s o n th e e d g e o f th e o b je c tiv e c o m m u n ity , at
t h e " e d g e o f th e v o id " (B B E , 175) a n d o n ly t h e r e is t h e r a b b le a b le to m a k e
itse lf. T h e r a b b le is in d i g n a n t a b o u t th e p o s s ib ility o f h is its p r e s e n c e a n d it is
t h e r e f o r e n o t m e re ly su b je c tiv e , n o f a n a tic a l f ig u re . T h e r a b b le is n o t a fig u re
w h ic h fa lls in to a b s tr a c t , su b je c tiv e im a g in a tio n , b u t it is f ir s t a n d f o re m o s t a
f ig u r e w h ic h r e f e r s to its o w n o b je c tiv e c o n d itio n s o f p o s s ib ility a n d subjectivizes
th e m . T h e r a b b le is a m a te r ia lis t f ig u r e .38
A t th e s a m e t im e it is i m p o r t a n t to d e t e r m in e m o r e p re c is e ly o n e e f f e c t o f
t h e c o n tin g e n c y o f t h e s u p p le m e n tin g a t titu d e , o f i n d ig n a tio n . T h is c o n tin ­
g e n c y is o n o n e s id e in its p o s s ib ility n e c e s s a r ily in s c r i b e d in to civil so c ie ty
a n d o v e r tu r n s t h e s ta te o n th e level o f a t titu d e , b u t t h is m e a n s o n th e o th e r
s id e th a t th e e m e r g e n c e o f a t t i t u d e c a n n o t b e d e s c r ib e d a s fo llo w in g law s o f a
n e c e s s a r y a n d r a ti o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t, o f h isto ry , o f f r e e d o m . T h e emergence o f
the rabble is not deducible. A t th e s a m e tim e t h e d is s o lv in g o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s
d e s c r ib e s a n e x c e ss o f th e n e g a tiv e , a n e x c e s s o f in c o n s is te n c y o v e r t h e m o v e­
m e n t its e lf a n d th is in th e position o f the subject. C iv il s o c ie ty c a n n o t in c lu d e
e v e r y th in g t h a t it p r o d u c e s ; th e s ta te c o n s titu tiv e ly c o n ta in s (as a p a r t) ‘s o m e ­
t h i n g ’ w h ic h d o e s n o t b e lo n g to it.
H e g e l th u s c o m m its a n e r r o r o f c a te g o r iz a tio n w ith r e g a r d s to th e ra b b le . H e
is c o n f r o n te d w ith a p r o b le m t h a t c a n n o t b e g r a s p e d in t h e a v a ila b le c a te g o rie s ,
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R ubble a n d Stale 117

b e c a u s e w ith th e r a b b le th e r e a p p e a r s th e r a d ic a l p r o b le m o f d e t e r m in in g
s o m e th in g w h ic h c o n s titu tiv e ly , i.e . in a n d f o r its e lf is u n d e t e r m i n e d a n d is
a t th e s a m e tim e n o t a m e r e n e g a tio n o f d e t e r m in a tio n . H e g e l d e s c r ib e s th is
in d e te r m in a c y h a s tily a s th e m e r e n e g a tio n o f a ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a n d t h e r e ­
w ith a s in d e te r m in a c y , t h a t is n e g a tiv e ly s till d ia lc c tic a lly d e t e r m in e d . T h is is
w hy h e u n d e r s ta n d s it a s n e g a tio n : a s a n e g a tio n o f t h e e th ic a l t h a t s ig n ifie s a
r e v e rs io n in to m e r e m o ra lity ; a s t h e n e g a tio n o f m o r a lity w h ic h a p p e a r s a s a
n e g a tio n o f t h e u n iv e r s a l a n d a n in s is te n c e o n t h e p a r ti c u la r , i.e . a s e v il w ill; as
n e g a tio n o f th e d e t e r m in a tio n s o f t h e w ill w h ic h s ta n d s a g a in s t t h e r e a liz a tio n
o f f r e e d o m , i.e. a p p e a r s a s a b s tr a c t , n e g a tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g . R u t n o n e o f th e s e
c h a r a c t e r iz a tio n s a r e s u ita b le lo r th e r a b b le — o r m o r e p re c ise ly : th e y a r c o n ly
v a lid if o n e le a v e s th e r a b b le ’s o b je c tiv e ( a n d m a te r ia l) c o n d itio n o f p o s s ib ility
o u t o f th e p ic tu r e . T h e r a b b le a p p e a r s , a g a in s t 1 I c g c l’s r e a d in g b u t s till a c c o r d ­
in g to H e g e l’s o w n d e d u c tio n , a s th e negative in a n d fo r itself: n o t th e n e g a tiv e
a s th e s u b je c tiv e s ta r t in g p o in t a n d th e r e w ith a s th e p la c e o f a s u b je c t (o f n e g a ­
tiv e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d in d ig n a tio n ) w h ic h w o u ld r e m a in m e re ly f o r itse lf, b u t
r a t h e r t h e n e g a tiv e a s s u c h w h ic h m a r k s th e site a t w h ic h , i f o n e m ig h t say so,
a rabble-subject c o u ld f o r m itself. I f th e r a b b le lo se s all d e t e r m in a tio n s a n d —
a s a s s u m e d s o far— th e r e w ith a ls o th e w ill, th is d e t e r m in a tio n o f t h e r a b b le
a s s u b je c t in t h e H e g e lia n s e n s e c a n n o t b e u p h o ld . T h e g r e a tn e s s o f I le g e l
c o n s is ts in m a r k in g t h a t th e r a b b le d e s ig n a te s t h e p la c e o f a possible subject. B ut
t h e o n ly a p p e a r a n c e th a t a c c o r d s to it is th e d i s a p p e a r i n g b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t
h a v e a n y d e t e r m in a tio n s o f e x is te n c e n o r a n y w ay o f a p p e a r a n c e p r o p e r to it.
F o r H e g e l it is th e r e f o r e n o t h i n g b u t s e m b la n c e , fo r s e m b la n c e "w e c a ll a being
t h a t is d ir e c tly a n d in its o w n s e lf a non-being, a s u r f a c e sh o w ” (H P S , 8 7 ). W ith
t h e n o tio n o f s e m b la n c e a n d a p p e a r a n c e H e g e l m e a n s t h e e x is te n c e o f a th in g
t h a t m a k e s h is e x is te n c e d if f e r e n t f r o m h is e s se n c e . '" In th is s e n s e o n e c a n c o n ­
ce iv e o f th e p u tr e f a c tio n h a p p e n i n g to th e p o o r a s d is s o lv in g th e s e m b la n c e
o f a n i r r a t i o n a l e x is te n c e . B u t th e r a b b le a p p e a r s a f te r th e d is s o lv in g o f th e
s e m b la n c e a n d c a n n o t d e s ig n a te a n im m e d ia te n o n - b c in g .
It m a r k s — a s o n e n e e d s to s ta te a ga in st H e g e l— t h e i r r u p t i o n o f in c o n s is t­
e n c y in to t h e c o n s is te n t s tr u c t u r e s o f th e e th ic a l; it is o n ly g e n e r a te d in th e
m o v in g r e la tio n s o f th e e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity b u t falls o u t o f th e s e r e la tio n s . It
is o b v io u s t h a t in d ig n a tio n , th e c o n t e n t o f th e r a b b le - a ttitu d e , is n o t a m e r e
m o r a l in d ig n a tio n , b u t r a t h e r it r e f le c ts th e d is s o lv in g w h ic h a lr e a d y o b je c tiv e ly
m a r k e d th e p o s itio n o f th e r a b b le a n d c o n tin u e s it in ‘i n t e r i o r ’ r e f le c tio n . In
t h e r a b b le - a ttitu d e o n e c a n n o t f in d s ta b ility , so c ia lity , fo r th e d e t e r m in a tio n
o f t h e e n d s o f th is in d ig n a tio n d o n o t e x c lu d e th e r a b b le itself; its a t titu d e
c a n a ls o b e d ir e c te d a g a in s t h im s e lf : t h e r a b b le s p lits , a n d d o e s n o t k n o w
a n y u n ity . T h e r e f o r e in d ig n a tio n is n e c e s s a r ily in d ig n a tio n a b o u t t h e c o n d i­
tio n o f its o w n p o ssib ility . I n th is s e n s e th e a t t i t u d e o f t h e r a b b le is n o t a n
a t titu d e w h ic h c o r r e s p o n d s to th e H e g e lia n c o n c e p t o f th e e th ic a l a t titu d e as
h a b itu a liz e d v o litio n o r t r u e c e r ta in ty . T h e r a b b le - a ttitu d e is a c c o r d in g to its
118 Hegel's R abble

p e c u lia r lo g ic w ith o u t a t t i t u d e b e c a u s e it 1. d o e s n o t in c lu d e h a b it o r h a b itu a l­

iz c d v o litio n , b e c a u s e it 2. h a s lo st th e n e c e s s a r y e th ic a l se lf-fe e lin g , a n d 3 . is
d r iv e n in to t h e s ta tu s o f a n a -s o c ia l p a r tic u la r ity . O n e c a n c la im th a t th e r a b ­
b le in d ig n a n tly lo o k s a t t h e e th ic a l c o m m u n ity a n d d o e s n o t s e e a n y t h in g b u t
a n “a g g r e g a te ”; its g a z e s e c s th e p e o p l e a s m e r e “v u lg u s, n o t [as] p o p u lu s . . .”
(11PM , 2 1 5 ).'° F o r it d o c s n o t r e c o g n iz e a n y d e e p e r e t h ic a l u n ity in th e e x is tin g
c ir c u m s ta n c e s b u t o n ly th e s a m e d is s o lv in g th a t is h a p p e n i n g to it. It s e e s in
t h e e th ic a l n o t h i n g b u t a n a g g r e g a tio n b e c a u s e it its e lf is th e p r o d u c t o f a d is ­
so lu tio n w h o s e c o n d itio n th e e th ic a l c o m m u n ity u n a v o id a b ly p r o d u c e s . It se es
e v e ry w h e re t h e a c tu a lity o f its o w n p o ssib ility . T h e r a b b le s e e s w h a t is e n a b le d
in th e civ ic m o v e m e n t a n y w h e re a s a c tu a l p o ssib ility . T h a t fo r th e r a b b le th e
p e o p le a p p e a r s o n ly a s vu lg u s, a s v u lg a r , m e a n s t h a t it s e e s e v e ry w h e re w h a t it
its e lf h a s b e c o m e : a d is s o lu tio n o f all d e t e r m in a tio n s . T h e v u lg u s is “th e p e o p le
dissolved in to a h ea p "41— th e p e o p l e w h ic h h a s lo st th e u n ity w h ic h th e e th ic a l
p r o d u c e d a m o n g its m u ltip le p a r ts in a n o r g a n ic way. B e c a u s e th e r a b b le o n ly
b e h o ld s a d is s o lv e d p e o p le , it c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e sc issio n w h ic h a lr e a d y m a rk s
h im e ty m o lo g ic a lly . F o r t h e G e r m a n w o r d 'Pöbel'd e riv e s f r o m th e F re n c h 'peu­
p le 'w h ic h r e f e r s b a c k to th e L a tin 'p o p u lu s' B u t it a lr e a d y g a in s its p e jo ra tiv e
c o n n o t a ti o n in M id d le H ig h G e r m a n . T h e r a b b le is a lr e a d y e ty m o lo g ic a lly
d e r iv e d f r o m th e p e o p le a s po p u lu s b u t n a m e s th e r a b b le p re c is e ly a s a “n a s ty
m a s s w ith a d e s p ic a b le c o n n o t a ti o n . . . b e y o n d t h e h o n o r s o f la b o r ”42; th e p e o ­
p le a s vulgus** F ro m th e e th ic a l r e la tio n s o f th e p o p u lu s t h e r a b b le a s vulgus
a p p e a r s , w h ic h b e h o ld s o n ly vu lg u s e v e ry w h e re . T h e r a b b le n a m e s p re c ise ly
t h e sc is s io n o f th e p e o p le in to po p u lu s a n d vu lg u s, b e c a u s e it s e e s p re c is e ly th is
m a t t e r a s th e p e c u l i a r m a tte r o f th e e th ic a l s p a c e . T h is in s ig h t is m e d ia te d by
t h e logic o f double latency w h ic h m a k e s a n y o n e in t h e s ta te la te n tly r a b b le . I f th e
r a b b le d e c o m p o s e s th e r a tio n a lity a n d o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r i n g o f th e s ta te w ith its
a t titu d e , th e n it c a n o n ly d o s o by s u s p e n d in g w ith in its a t titu d e th e u n ity th a t
e x ists b e tw e e n th e in d iv id u a l a n d th e s ta te . T h e r a b b le s e e s e v e ry w h e re o n lv
vu lg u s in s t e a d o f p o p u lu s, p u r e m u ltip lic ity in s te a d o f e th ic a l u n ity , in f in ite
sc issio n in s te a d o f o r g a n ic s tr u c t u r i n g . F o r th e ra b b le , t h e r e is, fo llo w in g a
w o r d o f M a c h ia v e lli, “o n ly r a b b le in th e w o rld .”" Its a l titu d e is its e lf a v u lg a r
a t titu d e . T h e r a b b le s e e in g o n ly v u lg u s d e t e r m in e s its e lf th e r e f o r e a s p a r t o f
t h e in o r g a n ic , u n s t r u c t u r e d m u ltip lic ity o f th e vulgus**
T h e r e f o r e th e r a b b le is m u c h m o r e v u lg a r — in th e s e n s e o f vu lg u s— t h a n
H e g e l th in k s , fo r its a t titu d e r e f le c ts its o w n c o m p le te d is s o lu tio n . A n d th is
d is s o lu tio n e x p a n d s , it is c o n ta g io u s . T h a t th e in o r g a n ic a r is e s s o m e w h e r e
in th e p o litic a l b o d y m e a n s n o t o n ly th a t th is in o r g a n ic b e in g p u tr e f ie s a n d
d isso lv e s its e x is te n c e b u t a ls o t h a t a c c o r d in g to th e logic o f double latency th e
p u tr e f a c tio n a n d th e in o r g a n ic s p r e a d s , a p p e a r s e v e ry w h e re a s th e w h ic h it
w ill alw ays a lre a d y h a v e b e e n . W ith th e r a b b le c o m e s t h e r e la te d in s ig h t th a t
e v e r y th in g c a n b e c o m e ra b b le -lik e , t h a t t h e w h o le o r g a n ic a lly s t r u c t u r e d e t h i­
c a l c o m m u n ity is alw ays a lr e a d y c o n f r o n te d w ith t h e la te n t t h r e a t o f b e c o m in g
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R ubble a n d Stale 119

r a b b le -lik e , o r e v e n m o r e : th a t th e e th ic a l w ill alw ay s o n ly h a v e b e e n t h e f r a g ile

u n if o rm ly o r g a n iz e d ra b b le . It is in t h is s e n s e , “t h e d e a d e n i n g f o r a ll r a tio n a l
c o n c e p ts , s t r u c t u r i n g a n d liv e lin e ss."16W ith h im N ie tz s c h e ’s in s ig h t is v e rifie d :
“T h e r e is h i d d e n r a b b le in y o u a s well."*7
T h e f u lly p u tr e f ie d r a b b le p r o d u c e s th e t h r e a t o f d e c a y in t h e s ta te . F o r if
o n e c o n c e iv e s o f th e r a b b le a s 1. a n organ w ith o u t a body w h ic h 2 . r e m a in s in th e
b o d y f r o m w h ic h it is d e t a c h e d , o n e c a n c la im t h a t th e a t t i t u d e d e s c r ib e s th e
r e la tio n o f th is o r g a n to th e b o d y . H e r e 1. t h a t w h a t r e m a in s in th e b o d y d o c s
n o t h a v e a n y d e t e r m i n a t i o n (o f e x is te n c e ) a n d 2 . its r e la tio n to th is b o d y is
ex c lu siv ely d e f in e d a s n e g a tio n f r o m t h e p e r s p e c tiv e o f t h e ( p o litic a l) b o d y , o f
th e o r g a n is m . F o r th e n e g a tio n w h ic h c o n c e iv e s o f th e u n d e t e r m i n e d a s still
d e t e r m i n e d in a d ia le c tic a l w ay, s till d e s c r ib e s in th is s e n s e a ( p ro to - ) o r g a n ic
r e la tio n . B u t t h is c a n n o t g o fo r th e ra b b le . By its e lf t h e r a b b le is u n d e t e r m i n e d
in a non-dialectical way. B e c a u s e H e g e l n e i th e r k n o w s i f t h e r e is, h a s b e e n o r will
b e th e ra b b le , h is d e s c r ip tio n r e p r e s e n ts th e a t te m p t to g iv e it a d e t e r m in a tio n
to u t court: T h e r a b b le w o u ld t h e n b e th e n e g a tio n o f th e o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r i n g
a s m e r e lo r its e lf o f t h e w ill. T h e r a b b le is in th is s e n s e alw ay s a lr e a d y th e “th e
m o s t h o r r ib l e r a b b le th a t e v e n f a n ta s y c a n n o t im a g in e ” (IIP R V , 22 3 ) b e c a u s e
it a ls o r e f le c ts its o b je c tiv e d is s o lu tio n in te r n a lly . F a n ta sy c a n n o t im a g in e it
b e c a u s e th e r a b b le - a ttitu d e c o n s is ts in th e c la im th a t th e s o c ia l b o n d w h ic h
e n c o m p a s s e s t h e o r g a n ic e th ic a lity o f t h e s ta te is its e lf n o t h i n g b u t a n alw ays
f r a g ile fa n ta sy . T h e lim it o f fa n ta s y is its o w n a b o litio n .48
By w ay o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r a b b le e th ic a lity d e c o m p o s e s in to t h e u n d e r ­
ly in g r a b b le - m a tte r , in to a p u re a n d therefore un-organic m ultiplicity. R a b b le ' is
t h e n a m e o f s o m e th in g p r e s e n t a n d m a te r ia l, o r m o r e p re c is e ly , a r e a l a b o li­
tio n w h ic h d e n o u n c e s t h e e th ic a lity a n d s o c ia lity o f c o m m u n ity a s a m e r e
fa n ta s y , a n d a f r a g ile o n e a t t h a t . T h e r e f o r e t h e r a b b le is s o h o r r i b l e t h a t e v e n
f a n ta s y c a n n o t im a g in e it: th e r a b b le is n o im a g in in g a n d h a s n o t h i n g f a n ta s ­
tic a l a b o u t it, r a t h e r it a s s u m e s a p o s itio n w h ic h s u s p e n d s a n y f a n ta s y o f th e
e th ic a l a n d s o c ia l— o n e c a n sav th a t th r o u g h h im it b e c o m e s c l e a r t h a t th e
s o c ia l is s e c o n d a r y . It is p r e s e n t, m a te r ia l a n d a t t h e s a m e w ith o u t d e t e r m i n a ­
tio n s a n d th r e a t e n s to s e v e r th e s u b s t a n tia l b o n d by h is p e c u l i a r a -s o c ia lity
a n d to u n m a s k it a s m e r e fa n ta s y . It t h r e a t e n s to d is s o lv e t h e r e la tio n s o f th e
s ta te a n d to th e s ta te w h ic h f in d t h e i r d e c is iv e a n d c o n d e n s e d p la c e in t h e a t ti­
t u d e o f t h e s u b je c t. B u t w h a t d o e s it m e a n t h a t t h e r a b b le su b je c tiv e ly r e fle c ts
its o b je c tiv e d is s o lu tio n ?
It m e a n s o n o n e s id e t h a t th e n a m e 'r a b b le ' r e f e r s to s o m e th in g th a t c a n b e
d e s c r ib e d a s a state o f dissolution, t h e a b s o lu te p u tr e f a c tio n in w h ic h a ll d e t e r ­
m in a tio n s a r e d iss o lv e d : th is is th e r a b b le a s t h e m atter o f ethical space. A t th e
s a m e tim e th e r a b b le - a ttitu d e p r e s e n ts o n t h e o t h e r s id e a process, a n activity o f
dissolution w h ic h H e g e l d e s c r ib e s a s in d ig n a tio n : t h is is t h e r a b b le a s a n organ
w ith o u t a body. T h e r a b b le is in th is w ay alw ays a lr e a d y p as siv e, e x te r n a lly d e t e r ­
m in e d b y th e n e c e s s a r y c o n d itio n o f p o s s ib ility o f its e m e r g e n c e (p o v e rty ). B u t
120 Hegel's R abble

t h e r e is a c o m p le te s ta te o f d is s o lu tio n (o b jectiv ely ) o n ly w h e n th is p ro c e s s o f

u n b i n d i n g is c o n v e r te d in to t h e a c tiv ity o f d is s o lu tio n (su b jec tiv e ly ), in s h o r t:
w h e n it is s u b je c tiv iz e d . B u t t h e n a c tiv ity n o lo n g e r m e a n s to p e r f o r m p o s s ib le
a c tio n s a n d to r e a liz e o n e ’s f r e e d o m in th is way, b u t a c tiv ity in th is s e n s e m e a n s
t h a t to subjectively appropriate the impossibility to a c t w h ic h th e p o o r c o n f r o n te d
a lre a d y (o b je c tiv e ly a n d ) e x te r n a lly a n d to d i r e c t o n e ’s v o litio n to w a rd it. T h is
h a p p e n s in in d ig n a tio n w h ic h le a d s to t h e c la im o f a right w ithout right. T h e
w illin g o f th is o b je c tiv e im p o s s ib ility a ls o in d ic a te s t h a t th is im p o s s ib ility lie s at
the g r o u n d o f the ethical. T h is a f f ir m a ti o n is th e im p o s s ib le a c tio n . T o a c t n e i th e r
p u r e ly p assiv ely n o r p u r e ly a c tiv e ly b u t r a t h e r s t a r t i n g to w ill f r o m a n im p o s ­
sib ility, s u s p e n d s th e p re -g iv e n d is t in c t io n o f a c tiv ity a n d p assiv ity , o f a c tio n
a n d a c tiv e r e s is ta n c e . A n d th is is p re c is e ly th e p o in t th r o u g h w h ic h th e r a b b le
m a k e s itself.49
T h e r e b y o n th e o n e h a n d , o b je ctiv ely , t h e c o m p le te d is s o lu tio n o f all d e t e r ­
m in a tio n s o f e x is te n c e ta k e s p la c e a n d o n t h e o th e r , t h e p e c u lia r n e g a tiv ity
su b je c tiv e ly p r e s e n ts its e lf a n d p e r s is ts w ith o u t a n e x is tin g r e la tio n — w ith o u t
b e i n g th e n e g a tio n o f s o m e th in g . In itia lly it se e m s a s i f t h e r a b b le j u d g e s th a t
e v e r y th in g th a t is c a n b e d e c o m p o s e d . H o w e v e r th is j u d g m e n t is n o t th e la s t
w o rd . F o r th e r a b b le is in itself-— a s t h e m a tte r o f t h e e th ic a l r e a lm — th e s ta te
o f c o m p le te d is s o lu tio n a n d h is a t t i t u d e y ie ld s th e fo llo w in g c o n s e q u e n c e s :
1. a n y o n e is— a c c o r d in g to t h e logic o f double latency— la te n tly p o o r a n d t h e r e ­
f o r e la te n tly r a b b le a n d 2. th a t t h e r a b b le is la te n tly c o n t a i n e d e v e ry w h e re a n d
h a s a t th e s a m e tim e n o d e t e r m i n a t i o n — i.e . is a n u n - o r g a n ic p a r t o f a n y e le ­
m e n t o f th e sta te . T h e r e f o r e H e g e l is a t th e s a m e tim e r i g h t a n d n o t r ig h t. If
h e d e lin e a te s t h e r a b b le a s e v il a n d o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n t r a d ic t io n o f
t h e ev il w ill in a w ay th a t d e riv e s f r o m th e n e c e s s a r y u n iv e rs a l d e m a n d w h ic h is
in h e r e n t to a n y p a r ti c u la r i ty w h ic h w a n ts t o r e m a in f o r itself, t h e n h e is rig h t.
B u t h e is n o t r ig h t in s o f a r a s h e d o e s n o t s e e t h a t t h e r a b b le , p re c is e ly b y b e in g
w ith o u t d e t e r m in a tio n , n a m e s a p a r ti c u la r i ty b u t a t th e s a m e tim e a p a r ti c u ­
la r ity w h ic h d u e to t h e logic o f double latency is in its e lf u n iv e r s a l. T h e c o n t r a ­
d ic tio n w h ic h is s u p p o s e d to ta k e p la c e in th e r a b b le is n o t a c o n tr a d ic tio n
w h ic h H e g e l c o u ld reso lv e . T h e r a b b le h a s th e s ta tu s o f a p a r ti c u la r i ty th a t is
im m e d ia te ly u n iv e r s a l, n o t b y a n a c t th a t r e a liz e s f r e e d o m a n d th is m e a n s , n o t
th r o u g h ‘l a b o r / It a f f ir m s th e im p o s s ib ility o f b e i n g u n iv e r s a l b e y o n d a c tio n
a n d r a ti o n a l a c tiv ity — a n d in fa c t w ith o u t d o in g som ething in a n y a c tu a l se n se .
T h r o u g h t h e fa c t t h a t th e d is s o lv in g o f a ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f th e r a b b le la te n tly
c o n c e r n s a n y o n e , it is in th is p a r t i c u l a r in d e te r m in a c y g c n c r a liz a b le , u n iv e r-
s a liz a b le . I f o n e lin k s to g e th e r th e q u e s tio n s o f th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e ra b b le
a n d t h a t o f h is u n iv e rs a lity o n e c a n c la im : th e r a b b le is u n iv e rs a lly im p lie d , it is
a s i n g u l a r u n iv e rs a l. T h e logic o f double latency d e s c r ib e s o n e d im e n s io n o f th is
im p lic a tio n . B u t a s th e r a b b le a s m a tte r o f th e e th ic a l s p a c e r e m a in s fo re v e r in
th is im p lic it d im e n s io n ; t h e r e is n o d ir e c t a c c e ss to th e r a b b le , n o k n o w le d g e
a b o u t h is e x is te n c e . T h a t it m a k e s its e lf is H e g e l’s d e s c r ip tio n o f th is su b je c tiv e
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R abble a n d Stale 121

s id e o f th e p e c u lia r e m e r g e n c e o f m a ile r , o f th is o b je c t o f p u r e im p lic a tio n .50

A lth o u g h t h e H e g e lia n d e s c r ip tio n o f th e r a b b le - a tti tu d e a s m o ra lly ev il a n d
s tr u c t u r a lly a n a lo g o u s to n e g a tiv e u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n n o t b e u p h e ld , h e h a s
m a r k e d a d e c is iv e d im e n s io n w ith it— a n d th is r e p r e s e n ts h is g r e a tn e s s . T h e
r a b b le r e m a in s im p lic it a s lo n g a s th is im p lic a tio n d o e s n o t c o m e to lig h t
th r o u g h a s u b je c t.
T h e d e c isiv e a s p e c t o f t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e r a b b le - a tti tu d e is t h a t H e g e l
c le a rly s e e s th a t t h e c o n t in g e n t in te r v e n tio n o f a s u b je c t, a s u b je c tiv e o p e r a tio n
is n e e d e d to p r o d u c e th is p e c u lia r a n d alw ays n e c e s s a r y im p lic it d im e n s io n .
I f H e g e l m a k e s th e r a b b le in loto in to a n i r r a t i o n a l c o n tin g e n c y , h e lo s e s w h a t
h e a lr e a d y e x p o s e d b e f o r e : th e p la c e a t w h ic h th r o u g h a s u b je c tiv e in te r v e n ­
t io n t h e im p lic it d im e n s io n c a n b e a s n e c e s s a r y as th e im p lic a tio n itself. T h e
c o n tin g e n c y o n ly c o n c e r n s th e e r u p t i o n b u t n o t th e p o s itio n o f t h e r a b b le as
s u c h . I le g e l is r ig h t to m a r k th e c o n tin g e n c y o f t h e r a b b le - a tti tu d e b u t h e is n o t
r ig h t in in t e r p r e t i n g th is c o n tin g e n c y in a w ay t h a t th e r a b b le a s s u c h is m e re ly
c o n tin g e n t. O n e h a s to c la im w ith H e g e l t h a t th e d im e n s io n o f c o n tin g e n c y
is d e c isiv e a n d f u r t h e r th a t it is lin k e d w ith a n a c tiv ity o f t h e s u b je c t. B u t o n e
h a s to c la im against H e g e l th a t th is c a n n o t m e a n th a t t h e r a b b le w o u ld j u s t
b e a m e r e c o n t in g e n t ir r e g u la r it y w h ic h w o u ld n o t h a v e a n y n ec essity . T h is
is fo r t h a t r e a s o n t h a t to w h ic h t h e c o n tin g e n c y o f th e in d ig n a tio n r e f e r s is a
n e c e s s a r y im p lic a tio n w h ic h o n ly b e c o m e s re tro a c tiv e ly c le a r in its n e c e s s ity
t h r o u g h th e c o n t in g e n t g e n e s is o f t h e r a b b le . T h e r e f o r e th r o u g h its a t titu d e ,
w h ic h in t r u t h is n o t a n a t t i t u d e s tr ic to s e n s u b e c a u s e it is n o t h i n g b u t th e d is ­
s o lu tio n (o f th a t w h ic h e x ists), th e r a b b le r e f e r s to a n e q u a lity w h ic h is c a u s e d
b y a n o r g a n ic a lly f o r m e d s t r u c t u r i n g o f a n a t t i t u d e a n d c o u l d b e d e s c r ib e d as
k n o w le d g e a b o u t th e o t h e r ( a n d o n e s e lf a s o th e r ) w ith a n u n c o n s c io u s . R a th e r
it is a n e q u a lity w h ic h in a p e c u lia r w ay lie s ‘b e f o r e ’ t h e H e g e lia n e q u a lity
a l th o u g h it o n ly b e c o m e s v isib le ‘a f te r ’— o r in t h e p ro c e s s — o f th e p r o d u c tio n
o f e th ic a l e q u a lity th r o u g h a t titu d e , a s a n i n t e r r u p t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s o f th e
s ta te a n d o f a ltitu d e .
T h e a c c e s s o f t h e im p lie d ‘b e f o r e ’ is alw ays r e tr o a c tiv e a n d s ta r ts fro m a
m o m e n t o f r u p t u r e w ith th e o r g a n ic - s ta tis t s tr u c t u r e s . T h e te m p o r a lity w h ic h
t h e r a b b le d e s c r ib e s th r o u g h its a t titu d e is th e fu tu r e anterior.'' A s s o o n a s it
c o n tin g e n tly m a k e s its e lf it b e c o m e s c le a r, in th e s e n s e o f th e logic o f double
latency, w h a t n e c e s s a r ily w ill h a v e b e e n im p lie d ‘b e f o r e ’ its e m e r g e n c e — th e
r a b b le a s m a t t e r o f th e e t h ic a l s p a c e . In th is p a s s a g e o f H e g e l’s sy stem o f p h i­
lo s o p h y - o b je c tiv e s p ir it— h e d e a ls w ith th e h is to r ic a l sp e c ific ity o f so c ial-
e th ic a l liv in g to g e th e r , w ith p o litic s a n d c o n f r o n ts s o m e th in g th a t h e n e i th e r
c a n fu lly e x p la in w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e specificity o f s o c ia l d y n a m ic s n o r t h e s p e ­
c ificity o f historical d y n a m ic s . E n c a p s u la tin g th e p r o b le m o n e c a n say: u n d e r
h is to ric a l c o n d i tio n s a n d in th e e c o n o m ic m o v e m e n t o f m o d e r n civ il so c iety
s o m e th in g c a n e m e r g e t h a t 1. c a n n o t b e (fu lly ) d e r iv e d f r o m th e s e c o n d itio n s
a n d th is m o v e m e n t a n d 2 . t h a t y ie ld s th e in s ig h t t h a t it w ill alw ay s a lr e a d y h a v e
122 Hegel's R abble

b e e n im p lie d a n d p o s s ib le ‘b e f o r e ’ th e s e c o n d itio n s . W h a t h a s e m e r g e d in th e
i n t e r r u p t i o n o f th e s tr u c t u r e s a n d o f th e w o rld o f a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e e th ic a l is
t h e m a t t e r o f e th ic a lity its e lf w h ic h a t t h e s a m e tim e c a n o n ly c o m e f o r w a r d
b e c a u s e o f a su b je c tiv e in te r v e n tio n , a s u b je c tiv e o p e r a tio n . I n H e g e l’s sta te ,
w ith th e r a b b le t h e r e e m e r g e s a n e q u a lity w h ic h b r e a k s w ith th e d e t e r m in a te
a n d d e t e r m i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s b e c a u s e it w ill h a v e b e e n ‘b e f o r e ’ t h e e q u a lity o f
a t t i t u d e b e lo n g in g to th e e th ic a l c o m m u n ity a n d (la te n tly ) in c lu d e s a n y o n e
d u e to its c o n s titu tiv e in d e te r m in a c y . F ro m a n d in t h e h is to r ic a l m o v e m e n t
s o m e th in g e r u p t s w h ic h c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d o u t o f t h e n e c e s s a r y m o v e m e n t
o f h isto ry , b u t is r a t h e r a n in te r r u p ti o n o f r a d ic a l c o n tin g e n c y in to it. F ro m
a n d in h is to ry s o m e th in g a - h is to ric a l e m e r g e s b e c a u s e th e m a tte r o f t h e e t h i­
c a l b r e a k s in to h is to r y a s th a t w h ic h w ill h a v e lie d ‘b e f o r e ’ t h e e th ic a l a n d th e
s ta te ; s o m e th in g th a t is, o r b e t te r : w ill h a v e b e e n e t e r n a l. W h a t in a n d fro m
t h e d ia le c tic a l m o v e m e n t is p r o d u c e d is s o m e th in g tr a n s h is to r ic a l. O r to p u t
it d if fe r e n tly : o n e c a n le a r n f r o m H e g e l’s m a r k in g o f th e p la c e o f th e r a b ­
b le w h a t it m e a n s to th in k stasis. O n ly th r o u g h t h e d ia le c tic a l m o v e m e n t is
s o m e th in g p r o d u c e d w h ic h c a n b e r e tr o a c tiv e ly u n d e r s to o d a s lo g ic a lly p r io r
to it a n d w ith o u t w h ic h it w o u ld n o t b e th in k a b le /* 2 T o ta k e u p a f o r m u la tio n
b y M a rc u s e , i f th e “p o s s ib le is o n ly th a t w h ic h c a n b e d e r iv e d f r o m t h e v ery
c o n t e n t o f t h e re a l,”53 t h e n th e r a b b le is s o m e th in g t h a t w ith d r a w s fro m s u c h a
d e r iv a tio n . T h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e r a b b le c a n n o t b e d e r iv e d f r o m t h e h is to ric a l
m o v e m e n t o f civil s o c ie ty 01 th e s ta te b e c a u s e it re lie s o n ly o n a r a d ic a l s u b je c ­
tiv e c o n tin g e n c y . It m a r k s t h e p o in t in w h ic h th e d e r iv a tio n r a ils , f a lte r s a n d
s o m e th in g u n d e r iv a b le , c o n t in g e n t c o m e s in to p lay : t h e r a b b le m a r k s a p o in t
o f im p o s s ib ility ( o f d e d u c tiv e d e r iv a tio n ) .
H e g e l w r o te in h is Aesthetics— s p e a k in g a b o u t th e tr a n s i tio n f ro m th e
r o m a n tic to t h e n o v el— t h a t to n o t r e m a in in th e m e r e s u b je c tiv e fo r its e lf o n e
“n e e d s to p u n c h a h o le in th e [e x is tin g ] o r d e r o f th in g s , to c h a n g e t h e w o rld ”
(H V A E 2 , 219); h e r e , th is r e m a r k g a i n s a d if f e r e n t m e a n in g . F o r it is n o t so
m u c h th a t t h e r a b b le d o e s p u n c h a h o le in th e e x is tin g o r d e r b u t r a t h e r it is
its e lf th e hole in the order. It is th e h o le in w h ic h a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s d isso lv e ; a
h o le in t h e s t r u c t u r e o f th e s ta te . In th is c o n te x t a n o t h e r o f H e g e l’s w o rd s , th is
lim e o f t h e e a rly H e g e l, c a n b e ta k e n u p a n d it c a n b e c la im e d th a t a ll in s titu ­
tio n s in th e s ta te a n d th e s ta te its e lf g e t “s tr u c k o n th e h e a d lik e b e i n g s tr u c k
b y a n in v is ib le h a n d ”— b y th e organ w ith o u t body— a n d th e y “d o n o t k n o w w h at
is h a p p e n in g .”54
I f th e r a b b le - a tti tu d e m a r k s th e p o in t in w h ic h th e d is s o lu tio n w h o s e c o n d i­
tio n s a r e c o n s ta n tly p r o d u c e d in th e s ta te a r e r e f le c te d b a c k o n to it a n d th is
p re c is e ly f r o m a p la c e o f w h ic h th e s ta te is u n a b le to k n o w a n y th in g , t h e n it
b e c o m e s c l e a r t h a t th is is n o t o n ly a p r o b le m o f civil so c iety . F o r in it th e b o n d
w ith th e s ta te is to r n a p a r t a n d th is in a w ay t h a t a n im m a n e n t u n iv e rs a lity
o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r p o s itio n o f t h e r a b b le o p e n s u p w h ic h is m ore u n iversa l than
the state. T h e i n t e r r u p t i n g e m e r g e n c e o f t h e r a b b le c a n n o t b e s u b la te d in an y
 W ith o u t A ttitu d e ? R ubble a n d Stale 123

H e g e lia n w ay a n y m o r e b e c a u s e it b r e a k s w ith t h e s ta tis t e q u a lity o f a t titu d e

a n d p o sits a f u n d a m e n ta l e q u a lity w ith o u t d e t e r m in a tio n s , a n e q u a lity o f th e
p u r e u n d e t e r m i n e d m u ltip lic ity a g a in s t it. T h e n e g a tiv ity t h a t th e c o m p le te ly
p u tr e f ie d , absolute rabble is, c a n n o t b e n e g a te d , b u t its e lf ta n ta liz e s e v e r y th in g
a n d d iss o lv e s it. T h e r a b b le is a n e t h ic a l p r o b le m because it is th e p e c u l i a r m a t­
t e r o f th e e th ic a l s p a c e . I t is a p r o b le m o f th e s ta te because it is m o r e u n iv e rsa l
a n d q u e s tio n s fo r a ll a n d in a n in-different w ay t h e r e la tio n s to th e s ta te b y e n a ­
b lin g th e in s ig h t in to a f u n d a m e n ta l e q u a lity w h ic h lie s b e y o n d s ta tis t e th ic a l-
ity. H o w e v e r th is d o c s n o t r e f e r to a p o s itio n o f a b s o lu te e x te r n a lity , r a t h e r th e
r a b b le ‘a p p e a r s ’ o n ly in a p la c e w h ic h is c o n s ta n tly p r o d u c e d b y t h e m o v e m e n t
o f c iv il s o c ie ty in itse lf. T h e r a b b le e m e r g e s a t a lo c a l p la c e , a t th e e d g e of s o c i­
ety, a s p a r ti c u la r i ty w h ic h is a t t h e s a m e tim e m o re u n iv e r s a l th a n t h e s ta tis t
c th ic a lity . F ro m t h e r e la tio n s o f civil so c iety , t h e s ta te a n d its in s titu tio n s s o m e ­
th in g e m e r g e s t h a t c a n n o t b e d e r iv e d f r o m its r e la tio n s . T h is is t h e re a s o n w hy
H e g e l c la im s th e r a b b le m a k e s itself . T h e p o ssib ility o f th is r e s u lts n e c e s s a rily ,
b u t its r e a liz a tio n a p p e a r s a t th e s a m e tim e alw ay s s e e m s im p o s s ib le b e c a u s e
t h e p o s s ib ility o f t h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r a b b le m a rk s th e p la c e in w h ic h t h e r e
is th e im p o s s ib ility of a c tio n a n d r e a liz a tio n — fo r "it b e c o m e s im p o s s ib le fo r
p o v e rty to b r in g s o m e th in g in f r o n t of itse lf.”55 T h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r a b b le
is th e r e f o r e a t th e s a m e tim e e x te r n a lly p o s s ib le a n d im p o s s ib le 01 m o r e p r e ­
cisely: it is n e c e s s a r y a n d im p o s s ib le . B u t to p u r s u e t h e q u e s tio n a s to th e way
i n w h ic h th is d is s o lu tio n ta k e s p la c e in , f r o m a n d w ith t h e r a b b le , o n e h a s to
fo llo w a n o t h e r q u e s tio n w h ic h a llo w s to in v e s tig a te t h e s ta tu s o f im p o s sib ility :
H o w is it p o s s ib le fo r th e r a b b le to fa ll o u t o f rig h t? H o w c a n h e u n b in d h im s e lf
f r o m th e s ta tis t r e la tio n s o f r ig h t a n d d u ty ?
 C h a p te r 10

W ithout Right, W ithout Duty— Rabble,

Right without Right, or Un-Right

J u s tic e ” is a philosophical word— a t least i f we leave aside, as one should, its ju rid ica l
signification, which is entirely the preserve o f the police a n d the magistracy.
(A la in B a d io u f

lia s the rabble to stay . . . H e is a fa c t b u t no right.

(E d u a rd G a n s f

“[ E s s e n t i a l l y it h o ld s g o o d t h a t w h o e v e r h a s n o r ig h ts h a s n o d u tie s , a n d vice
v ersa" (H P M , 218). T h is is h o w H e g e l s u m m a r iz e s h is p r e v io u s e x p l a n a tio n s in
p a r a g r a p h 4 8 6 o f h is Encyclopedia. H e r e s u m e s t h e r e ex negativo w h a t h e h a d
p re v io u s ly d e l in e a te d , n a m e ly th a t r ig h ts a n d d u tie s a r e alw ays in a r e la tio n ­
s h ip o f m u tu a l c o n d i tio n in g a n d h a v e to h e u n d e r s to o d re c ip ro c a lly . B u t how
is th is r e c ip ro c ity e s ta b lis h e d s u c h t h a t it m a k e s it p o s s ib le to a lr e a d y a n tic ip a te
w h a t it s ig n ifie s to fu lly fall o u t o f th is m u tu a lly b in d in g r e la tio n ? It m e a n s n o t
t o c o u n t a s a p e r s o n , fo r, a s a lr e a d y m e n tio n e d , th e f u n d a m e n ta l im p e r a tiv e o f
t h e Philosophy o f R ig h t d e m a n d s : " H e n c e th e im p e r a tiv e o f r ig h t is: ‘B e a p e r s o n
a n d r e s p e c t th e o th e r s a s p e r s o n s ’” ( H O P R , 5 5 ). H o w is th is c o m m a n d m e n t
ju s tifie d ? T h e s ta r t in g p o i n t o f r ig h t * is th e f r e e w ill a n d th e “s y ste m o f r i g h t ”
p r e s e n ts f o r H e g e l “t h e r e a lm o f f r e e d o m m a d e a c tu a l . . .” ( Ib id ., 2 6 ). T h is is
t o sa y t h a t f r e e d o m s h o u ld n o t b e u n d e r s to o d m e re ly n eg a tiv e ly , a s a c a p a c ity
t o re s is t in c lin a tio n s a n d d e s ire s , a s “f r e e d o m not to act,"* b u t n e c e s s a r ily as
f r e e d o m b e c o m in g a c tu a l. R ig h t is “s p ir it m a k in g its e lf a c t u a l . . (H G P R , 81).
F ro m h e r e it b e c o m e s in te llig ib le w hy th e im p e r a tiv e e v e n ta k e s th e f o r m o f a n
im p e r a tiv e . F o r w ith o u t r e a liz a tio n , f r e e d o m is n o t f r e e d o m a n d th e fo rm o f
t h is r e a liz a tio n is r ig h t: realized freedom is ju rid ifie d freedom .
T h e r e f o r e it is n e c e s s a ry , if o n e is to b e a t a ll a b le to r e a liz e f r e e d o m a s o n e 's
o w n , to b e a s a p e r s o n a n d r e s p e c t a ll o th e r s a s p e r s o n , a s f ig u re s o f r e a liz e d
f r e e d o m . T h is im p e r a tiv e a s t h e c e n tr a l im p e r a tiv e o f r ig h t is a t t h e s a m e tim e
a n im perative o f freedom . F o r if a w ill is d is r e s p e c tfu lly d ir e c te d a g a in s t a n o th e r ,
i t is a t th e s a m e tim e d ir e c te d a g a in s t th e e n t itle m e n t o f r e a liz in g o n e ’s ow n
 W ith o u t R ig h t, W ith o u t D u ly

f r e e d o m w h ic h a ls o d e t e r m in e s itself; it is u ltim a te ly d ir e c te d a g a in s t itself.

H e r e a m o m e n t o f “r e fle x iv ity ”5 c o m e s in to play. R e fle x iv ity n a m e s t h e c o n s ti­
tu tiv e r e la tio n o f t h e le g a l s u b je c t to itse lf, th e le g a l s u b je c t w h o k n o w s h im s e lf
a s b o th a le g a l s u b je c t a n d a b e a r e r o f d u tie s . T h is re fle x iv e r e la tio n o f th e
s u b je c t to its e lf w h o se m o s t o r ig in a l f o r m is d e s c r ib e d in H e g e l a s f r e e will
f o rm s “th e u n iv e rs a l le g a l c a p a c ity o f m a n a s m a n ” w h ic h a t t h e s a m e tim e is
“th e e le m e n ta r y c o n c e p t o f rig h t."* F o r “r ig h t i s . . . th e existence [D asein\ o f the
fre e will.” It is “f r e e d o m a s I d e a ” ( II O P R . 46).
“T h e id e a " o f f r e e d o m a n d th u s o f r i g h t , a s H e g e l c la r if ie s f u r t h e r , “m u s t
d e t e r m i n e its e lf w ith in its e lf c o n tin u a lly , s in c e in t h e b e g i n n i n g it is n o m o r e
th a n a n a b s tr a c t c o n c e p t” ( Ib id ., 4 9 ). T h is a b s tr a c t a n d in itia l c o n c e p t c o r ­
r e s p o n d s a c c o r d in g ly a ls o to a m e re ly a b s tr a c t r a t h e r t h a n a fu lly d e t e r m i n e d
c o n c e p t o f r ig h t: a b s tr a c t r ig h t. It is th e firs t c o n c e p t o f r ig h t to a p p e a r ; th e
a s y e t in c o m p le te r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m . B u t a lre a d y , a b s tr a c t r i g h t h a s th e
f u n c ti o n o f l i b e r a t i n g th e f r e e w ill fro m th e m e r e a r b i t r a r i n e s s o f d e t e r m i n a ­
t io n a n d ta k e s o n a d e c is iv e f u n c ti o n in t h e w h o le o f s ta tis t c o m m u n ity . It is
h e lp f u l to r e c o n s tr u c t th is p r i m a r y level to s e e w h a t it c a n m e a n to b e a lre a d y
e x c lu d e d f r o m a b s tr a c t r ig h t a n d th e d u tie s lin k e d to it.7 A b s tr a c t r ig h t is in
I le g e l th e firs t o b je c tiv e ( a n d th e r e f o r e e x t e r n a l) fo rm o f a p p e a r a n c e a n d o f
t h e r e if ic a tio n o f t h e f r e e w ill. “R ig h t is in th e f ir s t p la c e t h e im m e d ia te e x is t­
e n c e w h ic h f r e e d o m g iv e s its e lf ” ( H O P R , 5 6 ) a n d in th is s e n s e it is a n o t h e r
e m b o d i m e n t o f w h a t H e g e l c a lls “p e r s o n a l i t y . . . ” ( Ib id ., 5 0 ). H e r e o n e s h o u ld
p a y c a r e f u l a t te n t io n to t h e fo llo w in g : t h e id e a o f f r e e d o m d e v e lo p s a ls o in
t h e s p h e r e o f a b s t r a c t r ig h t in t h r e e d if f e r e n t s ta g e s , w h ic h p r e s e n t t h r e e d if ­
f e r e n t e m b o d im e n ts o f p e r s o n a lity . In itia lly , o b je c tiv e is h e r e to b e u n d e r ­
s to o d a s “p o s s e s s io n w h ic h is p r o p e r ty - o w n e r s h ip ," t h e n it r e la te s to a n o t h e r
p e r s o n in th e c o n t r a c t— t h e s e c o n d s ta g e — a n d u ltim a te ly a p p e a r s a s a d if ­
f e r e n c e n o t o f d if f e r e n t f r e e w ills b u t a s a d if f e r e n c e o f t h e w ill “a s r e la te d
t o its e lf ” ( I b id ., 5 6 ), a s w r o n g d o i n g a n d c r im e . I n a d d i t i o n it is i m p o r t a n t
t h a t th e s e a b s tr a c t le g a l r e la tio n s a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n s f o r H e g e l c a n p r im a ­
rily b e u n d e r s t o o d w h e n b e i n g c o n s id e r e d a s p a r t o f th e lo g ic a lly p r i o r sta te .
A b s tr a c t r ig h t is p a r t o f th e s ta te a n d d o e s n o t ju st d e l in e a te a h is to r ic a l in d e x
o f h is g e n e s is .8 B u t w h a t is p e r s o n a lity ? It is “th e b a s is ( its e lf a b s tr a c t) o f th e
sy ste m o f a b s tr a c t a n d th e r e f o r e f o r m a l r ig h t” a n d in v o lv e s a s s u c h “th e c a p a c ­
ity fo r r ig h ts . . .” ( H O P R , 5 5 ). It m e a n s t h a t “a s this p e r s o n : 1 a m c o m p le te ly
d e t e r m i n e d o n e v e r y s id e . . . a n d f in ite , y e t n o n e t h e le s s I a m s im p ly a n d so lely
s e lf- r e la tio n , a n d th e r e f o r e in f in itu d e I k n o w m y s e lf a s s o m e t h i n g infinite,
u n iversal a n d free" ( Ib id ., 54).
T h u s H e g e l w a n ts to c la im t h a t p e r s o n a lity d e s c r ib e s a p u r e s e lf-re la tio n .
A s f u n d a m e n t o f r ig h t, p e r s o n a lity is in th is r e la tio n to its e lf p u r e ly a b s tr a c t
b e c a u s e it is s till c o m p le te ly u n d e t e r m in e d . S in c e it is d e r iv e d f r o m f r e e w ill
a n d th e f r e e w ill is o n ly t h e n tr u ly f r e e if it is re lie v e d o f a ll h e te r o n o m o u s
d e t e r m i n a t i o n — o f n e e d s , d e s ire s — o n e c a n c la im t h a t a b s tr a c t p e r s o n a lity 9
1 2 (3 Hegel's R abble

o n th is lev el is “a p u r e n e g a tiv ity " 10 T h e f r e e p e r s o n is in t h is p a s s a g e o n ly

d e t e r m i n e d b y t h a t w h ic h it is n o t. F o r th e s a m e r e a s o n t h e r ig h t is a ls o lim ite d
i n th is s p h e r e to th e p u r e ly n e g a tiv e : to " n o t in f r i n g e p e r s o n a lity a n d w h a t
p e r s o n a lity e n ta ils ” ( II O P R , 5 5 ). D u e to its a b s tr a c tn e s s it c o n ta in s t h e capac­
ity fo r r ig h ts a s a p o ssib ility . B u t to n o t o n ly h a v e th is capacity f o r r ig h t in a
m e re ly a b s tr a c t way, o n ly a s p o ssib ility , o n e n e e d s a n a c tu a liz a tio n o f it. I n th is
s e n s e o n e c a n say: “le g a l s u b je c tiv ity is, th e r e f o r e , b o th in te r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l
t o o u rse lv e s.”11 It is i n t e r n a l a s p o s s ib ility a n d e x t e r n a l a s r e a lity a n d a c tu a li­
z a tio n o f th is p o ssib ility . T h e o b je c tiv ity s ig n ifie s th e r e a lity o f th e p o ssib le .
O n ly th e o b je c tific a tio n m a k e s t h e p o s s ib ility a p p e a r a s s o m e th in g e ls e t h a n a
m e re ly a b s tr a c t a n d p u r e ly n e g a tiv e d e t e r m in a tio n , a s m e r e p o ssib ility .
F r e e d o m e x is ts o n ly a s o b je c tify in g , r e a liz e d f r e e d o m ; th is is H e g e l’s f u n ­
d a m e n ta l in s ig h t. A t th e s a m e tim e th e c ite d c o m m a n d m e n t o f r ig h t c a n b e
u n d e r s t o o d a t a n o t h e r , d e e p e r lev el. It is a d u ty to b e a p e r s o n to r e a liz e o n e ’s
o w n f r e e d o m . It is th e r e f o r e a d u ty n o t to r e m a in in a b s tr a c t in f e r io r ity a n d
d r a w b a c k in to o n e ’s a b s tr a c t p e r s o n a lity a n d m e r e capacity o f r ig h t, b u t r a th e r
t o o b je c tify it. T h e r e f o r e in th e Encyclopedia I le g e l c a n g iv e a d if f e r e n t, m o r e
c o n te n t- r e la te d f o r m to th e c o m m a n d m e n t o f r ig h t w h ic h is a lre a d y im p lie d
i n th e fo rm it re c e iv e s in th e Philosophy o] Right: “ [i]s a d u ty to p o sse ss th in g s as
p r o p e r ty , i.e. to b e a p e r s o n . W h e n it is p o s ite d in t h e r e la tio n s h ip o f a p p e a r ­
a n c e , o f r e la tio n to a n o t h e r p e r s o n , it d e v e lo p s in to t h e d u ty o f o th e r s to r e s p e c t
m y r ig h t” (H P M , 218). P r o p e r ty is th u s th e “ in itia l m e d ia to r ”12 w h ic h n e c e s s a r ­
ily h a s to a p p e a r in t h e f o r m i n g p r o c e s s o f p e r s o n a lity s in c e it m a r k s t h e first
a n d d e c is iv e m o m e n t o f t h e a c tu a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m . O r d if f e r e n tly p u t: th e
p e r s o n a s f r e e w ill d o e s n o t a p p e a r in th e w o rld o f o b je c tiv ity a s lo n g a s it d o e s
n o t b e c o m e o b je c tiv e fo r itse lf. “S o p e r s o n s r e la te to e a c h o t h e r th r o u g h th e
m e d ia o f th in g s .”15 F o r, a s e x p la in e d , “th e f r e e w ill is n o t to r e m a in a b s tra c t,
it m u s t in th e first p la c e give its e lf a n e x is te n c e . . ." (H O P R , 51). O n ly in th e
o b je c tific a tio n h a s th e p e r s o n r e a c h e d o b je c tiv e e x is te n c e . “I n p r o p e r t y th e
p e r s o n is j o i n e d to g e th e r w ith its e lf ” (H P M , 217), s in c e o n ly th r o u g h p r o p e r ty ,
o n ly th r o u g h “‘th is ' o r ‘m in e ”' ( H O P R , 62) d o e s th e p e r s o n b e c o m e o b je c ­
tiv e, it b e c o m e s this ( d e te r m in e d ) p e r s o n . In th is w ay w ill b e c o m e s “a n a c tu a l
w i l l . . ." ( Ib id ., 61). A s l c a n n c L o r r a in e S c h r o e d c r r ig h tly s ta te s:

P r o p e r ty is a m e a n s by w h ic h th e a b s tr a c t p e r s o n o b je c tifie s itse lf. T h e se lf

a s a b s tr a c t w ill c la im s to b e e s s e n tia l re a lity , b u t th e e x is te n c e o f e x t e r n a l
th in g s , th a t is, o b je c ts a n d o u r d e p e n d e n c e o n e x t e r n a l r e a lity c o n tr a d ic ts
th is . T h e s e lf th e r e f o r e , n e e d s to a p p r o p r i a t e e x t e r n a l o b je c ts — it m u s t
o w n p r o p e r ty . T h e s e lf b e c o m e s p a r ti c u la r i z e d a n d c o n c r e te , r a t h e r t h a n
a b s tr a c t, th r o u g h o w n e r s h ip . P o te n tia lity b e c o m e s a c tu a lity ."

P r o p e r ty m a r k s in a ll r e g a r d s th a t w h ic h is p r o p e r to th e p e r s o n b e c a u s e it
g iv e s it a n e x is te n c e w h ic h is d is t in g u is h e d — th r o u g h p r o p e r ty — f r o m o th e r
 W ith o u t R ig h t, W ith o u t D u ly 127

p e r s o n s . “T h e r e w ith t h e a b s tr a c t , e x t e r n a l s p h e r e o f p r o p e r ty , p o s ite d in p r i­
v a te r ig h t is c o n c e iv e d o f a s a c o n d itio n o f p o s s ib ility f o r t h e r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e ­
d o m in its e n tire ty ." 15 I f t h e p e r s o n b e c o m e s this p e r s o n , a t a ll a p e r s o n w h ic h
is its e lf o b je c tiv e th r o u g h p r o p e r ty , th is m e a n s th a t m e r e p o s s e s s io n is n o t su f­
fic ie n t. T h e tr a n s i tio n f r o m p o s s e s s io n to p r o p e r ty is p e r f o r m e d in a w ay th a t
m y p o s s e s s io n is r e c o g n iz e d a s le g itim a te in a f o r m in w h ic h I r e c o g n iz e th e
o t h e r ’s p o s s e s s io n a s le g itim a te . H e r e in th is tr a n s i tio n ,16 th e im p e r a tiv e o f th e
Philosophy o f R ig h t r e p e a ts its e lf: b e a s p o s s e s s o r a p r o p e r ty - o w n e r a n d r e s p e c t
o t h e r p o s s e s s o r s a s ( e q u a l) p r o p e r ty - o w n e rs . P r o p e r ty d e s c r ib e s a g e n e r a liz e d
r e a liz a tio n o f f re e d o m . It h a s th e f u n c ti o n o f “e m b o d y [ in g ] o n e ’s w ill" 17 w h ic h
is a ls o t h e r e a s o n w h y H e g e l h a s to “j e t t i s o n th e tim e - h o n o r e d d is tin c tio n in
p e r s o n a l a n d law o f p r o p e r ty w h ic h K a n t w as a b le to ta k e o v e r w ith o u t h e s ita ­
t io n ” (R H S , 107). F o r th in g s a r e o n ly a s p o s s e s s io n s o f p e r s o n s in w h o m th e ir
o w n w ill b e c o m e a n o b je c t f o r th e m . It is i m p o r t a n t to ta k e in to a c c o u n t th a t
w ith th e p o s s e s s io n t h e o r ig in a l a b s tr a c tn e s s o f t h e f r e e w ill h a s e n t e r e d in to
o b je c tiv ity . T h e w ill w ills s o m e th in g a s h is . B u t a p o s s e s s io n o f w h ic h o n ly I
k n o w a n d w h ic h o n ly I w ill a s m y p o s s e s s io n , is a p o s s e s s io n w h ic h c a n b e
ta k e n f r o m m e o r lo st a t a n y tim e , s in c e it h a s n o t y e t b e c o m e p r o p e r ty .18 W h a t
is p r o p e rty ?
H e g e l m a r k s t h r e e a s p e c ts w h ic h p r o p e r ty h a s to c o n ta in : p o s s e s s io n , u sa g e ,
r e lin q u is h in g . T h e f u n d a m e n ta l e le m e n t is p o s s e s s io n , w h ic h d e s c r ib e s a n
in te rs u b je c tiv e ly re c o g n iz a b le r e la tio n o f a n o b je c t w ith a s p e c ific p e r s o n .
O b je c t s ig n ifie s “a n y b o d ily t h i n g ( r e s c o r p o r a lis ) in s o f a r a s it c a n le g a lly tr a f ­
fic” (R H S , 2 6 9 ). P o sse ss io n f o r H e g e l is in a ll r e s p e c ts r e la tio n a l a n d alw ays
a lre a d y o r i e n t e d to w a r d in te r s u b je c tiv e r e la tio n o f r e c o g n itio n . It d e lin e a te s
t h e lin k f r o m w h ic h o n e c a n u n d e r s t a n d w h a t it m e a n s to b e a p e r s o n a n d
r e s p e c t th e o th e r s a s p e r s o n s . F o r p o s s e s s io n n a m e s f o r H e g e l th e in te r s u b je c -
tiv e r e la tio n , b y m e a n s o f w h ic h a n o b je c t is a t t r i b u t e d to a s u b je c t a n d th e re b y
e x c lu d e s o t h e r s u b je c t f r o m t h e p o s s e s s io n s o f th is o b je c t. P o ss e ss io n e x c lu d e s
o th e r s b u t o n ly to c r e a te th e p o s s ib ility o f th e r e c o g n itio n o f o th e r s .19 B u t p o s ­
se ssio n n e e d s th e le g a l r e c o g n itio n o f o th e r s . A lth o u g h it in c lu d e s “th e p r o m ­
ise o f r e la tio n s h ip ,”20 a m e r e p r o m is e is n o t th e r e a lity o f th is r e la tio n s h ip .
T h e s e c o n d e le m e n t o f p r o p e r t y is its u s e . I n it th e p e r s o n r e la te s a c tiv e ly
t o t h e o b je c t in h is b e l o n g in g . B ut h o w t h e u s a g e lo o k s d e p e n d s o n th e s p e ­
c ific ity o f th e o b je c t its e lf, a n d th e r e f o r e it is a t t h e s a m e tim e th e so lip sistic
m o m e n t o f p r o p e r ty a n d p o s its t h e p e r s o n a s d e p e n d e n t u p o n it. H e n c e as
a m o m e n t o f h e t e r o n o m y e n t e r s in to th e c o n s titu t io n o f t h e f r e e w ill, th a t
H e g e l c o n s e q u e n tly a tte m p ts to s u b la te b y t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f r e lin q u is h in g .
T h e w ill d e p e n d s to o m u c h o n th e sp e c ific u s e v a lu e t h a t h e d o e s n o t h im s e lf
d e t e r m in e . T h e r e li n q u is h in g a g a in p o s its th e n u llity o f t h e o b je c t o r th in g
a g a in s t t h e f r e e w ill o f th e p e r s o n . I f th e u s e w as h e te r o n o m o u s ly d e t e r m i n e d
b y t h e p o s s e s s io n , in r e li n q u is h in g it th e f r e e w ill lib e r a te s its e lf f r o m th is
h e t e r o n o m y a n d p o s its its e lf a s r e f le c te d in h is f r e e d o m . T h e w ill a g a in g a in s
128 Hegel's R abble

h is d o m i n a n c e o v e r t h e o b je c t a n d t h e f r e e d o m f r o m it. A s I le g e l w rite s : “T h e
r e a s o n I c a n a l ie n a te m y p r o p e r t y is t h a t it is m i n e o n ly in s o f a r a s I p u t m y w ill
i n to it. H e n c e I m a y a b a n d o n ( derelinquiere) a s o w n e rle s s a n y t h in g th a t I h a v e
o r y ie ld it to t h e w ill o f a n o t h e r a n d s o in to h is p o s s e s s io n , p r o v id e d alw ays
th a t th e t h i n g in q u e s tio n is a t h i n g e x t e r n a l b y n a t u r e ” ( II O P R , 77).
It is n e c e s s a r y to e m p h a s i z e t h e o b je c ti f ic a t io n o f t h is r e l i n q u i s h i n g to
a v o id r e l i n q u i s h i n g t h e ( e x te r n a l) e x is te n c e o f t h e p e r s o n a l o n g w ith it. T h e
p o s s ib ility o f e v a d in g th is c o m p le te f o r m o f r e l i n q u i s h i n g c o n s is ts in a t t a i n ­
i n g th e o b je c tiv e c o n f ir m a tio n ( o f th e r e l i n q u i s h i n g ) b y a n o t h e r o b je c tiv e
p e r s o n s o t h a t th e r e l i n q u i s h i n g o f a t h i n g b y a s u b je c t in tc r s u b je c tiv c ly g a in s
o b je c tiv ity . I le g e l d e s c r ib e s t h is p r o c e d u r e in h is h a n d w r i t t e n n o te s b e g i n ­
n i n g w ith t h e n o tio n o f u s e a s fo llo w s: I m y s e lf a t h i n g — p u r p o s e t h a t I
p e r is h a s t h i n g , n a t u r e a n d b e c o m e f r e e — r e s u r r e c t— th is is m y p u r p o s e . . . ”
( II G P R , 143). T h e r e s u r r e c t i o n o f t h e f r e e p e r s o n a s a n o b je c tiv e r e li n q u is h ­
i n g o f th e o b je c t e n a b le s t h e c o n t r a c t . F o r t h e c o n t r a c t u n i t e s tw o p e r s o n s
i n t h e c o m m o n w ill w h ic h a t t h e s a m e tim e c o n c e iv e s o f b o t h a s s e p a r a t e d
f r o m o n e a n o t h e r , e a c h h a v in g r ig h ts a n d d u tie s . P o s se ss io n h a s b e c o m e r e c ­
o g n iz e d p r o p e r ty . T h e c o n t r a c t u a l p a r t n e r s a r e b o th e q u a l a n d d if f e r e n t;
t h e y a c tu a liz e t h e id e n tity o f id e n tity a n d d if f e r e n c e . T h is m o m e n t o f r e li n ­
q u is h i n g a n d t h e m o m e n t o f t h e e x c h a n g e o f p r o p e r ty a r e d e c is iv e lo r th e
r e a liz a tio n o f p e r s o n a lity b e c a u s e it is th e m o m e n t o f o b je c tiv ity a n d m a k e s
it u n d e r s t a n d a b l e th r o u g h t h e in te r s u b je c tiv e r e la tio n s o f m u ltip le p e r s o n s
t o e a c h o th e r.
T h e lo g ic o f p r o p e r t y alw ays a lr e a d y r e lie s o n a p r e e x i s t e n t r e la tio n a l
s t r u c t u r e w h ic h c o n t a i n s th e p o s s ib ility o f m u tu a lly r e c o g n iz in g p e r s o n s .
P r o p e r ty c a n n o t b e t h o u g h t in d e p e n d e n tly o f e th ic a lity : p r o p e r t y is b y d e f in i­
t io n s o c ia l. Yet t h e s e r e c ip r o c a l r e la tio n s o f r e c o g n itio n h a v e t o b e c o n s ta n tly
r e i n i t i a t e d , a c tu a liz e d a n d th e r e b y r e p r o d u c e d in t h e i r r e a lity . S c h r o e d e r
c o r r e c tly c la im s t h a t “p r o p e r t y s e rv e s a f u n c t i o n in th e c r e a tio n o f s o c ia lity
b y g iv in g t h e p e r s o n s u f f ic ie n t c o n t e n t to b e a r t h e w e ig h t o f s u b je c tiv ity .”21
T h e s u b je c tiv ity o f t h e p r o p r i e t o r is s o c ia l a n d th is s o c ia lity f o r m s its e lf v ia
t h e m u tu a l in te r s u b je c tiv e r e la tio n s h i p s w h ic h p r o p e r t y in tr o d u c e s . H e r e
o n e c a n s e c w h a t it m e a n s n o t to b e u n d e r th e le g a l c o m m a n d m e n t a n d to
w ith d r a w f r o m th e im p e r a tiv e to b e a p e r s o n : it m e a n s n o t o n ly to fa ll o u t o f
t h e s p h e r e o f o b je c tiv ity b u t a ls o to f a ll o u t o f th e s p h e r e o f in te rs u b je c tiv ity .
N o t to b e a p e r s o n m e a n s n o t to r e a liz e o n e ’s f r e e d o m , to b e u n f r e c , a -s o c ia l
a n d th u s to h a v e n o r ig h ts a n d n o d u tie s . F o r f r e e d o m a s r e a liz e d is alw ay s
e m b e d d e d in to in te r s u b je c tiv e r e la tio n s t h a t e n a b le th is r e a liz a tio n in th e
f ir s t p la c e , b u t o n ly b e c o m e s e ffe c tiv e th r o u g h p r o p e r t y r e la tio n s . T o f a ll o u t
o f th e s e r e l a t i o n s s ig n if ie s to f a ll o u t o f f r e e d o m a n d th e r e f o r e n o t to h a v e
e n o u g h c o n t e n t to b e a r th e w e ig h t o f s u b je c tiv ity . F o r o n ly p r o p e r t y e n a b le s
" a s c o p e f o r a c tio n a n d m a k e s p o s s ib le th e e x t e n d i n g a n d e x p a n d i n g o f p e r ­
s o n a lity . [. . .] P r o p e r ty r e m a in s a p e r m a n e n t a p p a r a t u s f o r t h e in d iv id u a l
 W ith o u t R ig h t, W ith o u t D u ly 129

to c a r r y o u i a lif e - p la n , lo g iv e r e a lity to a c o n c e p t io n o f h is o w n g o o d , h is
f u r t h e r d e v e lo p m e n t." 22
B u t to b e a b l e to d is c u s s th is , it is h e lp f u l to d e v o te s o m e th o u g h ts to w h a t fo r
H e g e l is th e f ir s t p o s s e s s io n , th e firs t e x t e r n a l w ay in w h ic h th e p e r s o n a p p e a r s :
t h e b o d y . F o r “I p o s s e s s m y life a n d m y b o d y , lik e o t h e r th in g s , o n ly a s m y w ill is
i n th e m ” (IIO P R , 110). S o h e r e o n e m a y d e m o n s tr a te s o m e th in g w h ic h I h a v e
a lre a d y g r a s p e d b y m e a n s o f th e n o tio n o f th e organ w ithout a body. T h e r a b b le
h a s n o e x t e r n a l a p p e a r a n c e . C a n o n e th u s c la im th a t th e r a b b le is w ith o u t
b o d y in a s e n s e th a t h e h im s e lf d o c s n o t possess a b o d y ?
F o r I I e g e l a n y o n e is a s p r o p r i e t o r “ in n a t u r a l lif e " i n s o f a r a s “ I f in d m y s e lf
in possession'' (H G P R , 111) o f m y b o d y . B u t t h i s im m e d i a t e p o s s e s s io n h a s to
b e c o m e a w ille d p o s s e s s io n to c o n s t i t u t e o n e s e l f a s a p e r s o n . “I n s o f a r a s th e
b o d y is a n im m e d i a t e e x i s t e n t , it is n o t in c o n f o r m ity w ith s p i r i t . If it is to
b e t h e w illin g o r g a n a n d s o u l- e n d o w e d i n s t r u m e n t o f s p i r i t , it m u s t f ir s t b e
ta k en in to possession b y s p i r i t ” ( I I O P R . 6 2 - 3 ) . T h e n a t u r a l i t y a n d im m e d ia c y
o f t h is f ir s t p o s s e s s io n h a s to b e s u b l a t e d a n d t h e b o d y h a s to b e t r u l y ta k e n
i n t o p o s s e s s io n if it is to b e c o m e a w illin g o r g a n . It is o n ly w h e n t h i s h a p ­
p e n s t h a t t h e “h u m a n b e i n g . . . ta k e s p o s s e s s io n o f h i m s e l f a n d b e c o m e s
h is o w n p r o p e r t y a n d n o o n e e l s e ’s" ( I b id ., 6 9 ). In t h i s s e n s e t h e b o d ily
t a k i n g p o s s e s s io n is t h e “firs t m o d e o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n . ”23 If it d o e s n o t ta k e
p la c e , t h e w ill r e m a i n s in a n e x t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to h is i m m e d i a t e fo rm
o f a p p e a r a n c e . H e r e w ith t h e c e n t r a l p a s s a g e f o r t h e r a b b le - d i s c u s s io n is
g iv e n . F o r “t h e p o s s e s s io n o f o u r b o d y a n d s p i r i t w h ic h w e c a n a c h ie v e
t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n , s tu d y , h a b i t , e tc ., a n d w h ic h e x is ts a s a n in w a r d p r o p ­
e r ty o f s p i r i t ” ( I b id ., 5 9 ) h a s to b e p r e c e d e d by a p r i o r a p p r o p r i a t i o n w h ic h
b r e a k s w ith t h e i m m e d i a t e p r e s e n c e o f t h e b o d y . F o r t h e b o d i e s to b e c o m e
a n in w a r d p r o p e r t y o f s p ir it o n e h a s to “ f o r m a h a b i t in t h e m " ( H G P R , 122).
1 h a v e e l a b o r a t e d u p o n t h is p r o c e s s o f a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f t h e b o d y in th e
d is c u s s io n o f t h e lo g ic o f h a b i t . I t c o n s is ts in th e p e r p e t u a t e d r e - f o r m a tio n
o f t h e s u p p o s e d f ir s t n a t u r a l i t y o f t h e b o d y in t h e s e c o n d m e d i a t e d n a t u r a l ­
ity o f h a b it w h ic h p r o d u c e s t h e u n i t y o f w ill a n d b o d y . O n ly t h r o u g h h a b i t
d o e s t h e w ill k n o w t h e b o d y a s h is e x i s te n c e a n d t h e v o litio n o f t h e b o d y
b e c o m e p a r t o f h is s e lf- f e e lin g . H e g e l c la r if ie s t h e m a t t e r a s fo llo w s: “m a n
s t a n d s o n ly b e c a u s e a n d o n ly s o lo n g a s h e w ills it; s t a n d i n g is t h e r e f o r e th e
h a b i t o f t h e w ill to s t a n d ” (H P M , 5 7 ). B u t i f o n e r e c a lls H e g e l ’s j u d g m e n t to
t h e e f f e c t t h a t , “i f m a n m a k e s h i m s e l f to b e w i t h o u t r i g h t s a n d a ls o k e e p s
h i m s e l f u n b o u n d o f d u t i e s . . . t h e n th is is t h e r a b b l e ” (H P R V , 2 2 2 ), it fo llo w s
a s a n i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s t h a t t h e r a b b le w h o u n b i n d s its e lf
f r o m r i g h t a n d d u ty , a l s o u n b i n d s i t s e l f f r o m t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f p o s s ib ility
f o r b e i n g a p e r s o n , s in c e it e v e n s u s p e n d s t h e p o s s ib ility o f p r o p e r t y a c q u i­
s it io n . I t c o n s e q u e n tly n e g a te s t h e p e r s o n a l i t y a n d p r e s e n t s a s a r e s u l t th e
a c t u a l a n d c o m p le t e n e g a t i o n o f t h e c a p a c ity f o r r ig h ts : “ca p itis d im in u tio "
( H O P R , 5 7 ) m a x im a .
130 Hegel's R abble

T h a t H e g e l’s r e f e r e n c e to th e u n b i n d i n g is c o h e r e n t b e c o m e s in te llig ib le
w h e n o n e r e c a lls th e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s ib le d e f in itio n o f d u tie s f r o m h is h a n d ­
w ritte n n o te s : “d u tie s a r e b in d in g r e la tio n s , r e la tio n s h ip s to s u b s ta n tia l e th ic a l­
ity . . " (IIG P R . 3 0 4 , m y e m p h a s is ). U n b in d in g m e a n s to lo s e t h e r e la tio n s h i p to
s u b s ta n tia l e th ic a lity , a n d th e re b y a ls o o n e ’s o w n f r e e d o m . F o r H e g e l, property
entails obligations a n d th is m e a n s t h a t to la k e a p o s itio n w h ic h e v e n s u s p e n d s
th e p o s s ib ility o f p r o p e r ty a c q u is itio n is to b r e a k o f f f r o m th e r e c ip r o c ity o f th e
d ia le c tic o f r ig h ts a n d d u tie s . Property entails obligations; not to h a ve the possibility
o f a cquiring property deprives one o f rights. In th is p o s itio n o n e is u n b o u n d : fro m
th e m u tu a lity o f r e la tio n s o f r e c o g n itio n ; f r o m o n e ’s p e r s o n a lity a n d th u s fro m
th e d u tie s to w a rd o t h e r p e r s o n s a s w ell a s to w a r d o n e ’s o w n r ig h ts . F o r "I w o u ld
n o t lo n g e r b e a p e r s o n a n d w o u ld p la c e m y s e lf o u ts id e th e r e a lm o f rig h t,"
b e c a u s e th e p e r s o n “is a p e r s o n o n ly by v ir tu e o f h is p r o p e r ty .”24 B u t if t h e r e is
o n ly f r e e d o m w ith in th e r e c ip r o c a l r e la tio n s to o t h e r p e r s o n s , th e n th e r a b b le
is u n f r e e s in c e it h a s lo st th e r e la tio n to th e e th ic a l a n d f u n d a m e n ta l ly a ls o to
r ig h t a n d d u ty . B u t o n e n e e d s to a c c e n tu a te h e r e th a t a n im p o s s ib ility o f a c t­
in g a lre a d y ta k e s p la c e w ith t h e p o o r a n d th is im p o s s ib ility d o e s n o t h a v e to d o
so le ly w ith o n e ’s d u tie s . T h is m e a n s th a t a lre a d y in p o v e r ty o n e d e a ls w ith a n
im p o s s ib ility o f p r o v id in g o n e ’s o w n s u b s is te n c e th r o u g h o w n la b o r — to r e a l­
ize o n e ’s f r e e d o m a n d in th is w ay to f u lfill o n e ’s d u ty a n d a c q u ir e p r o p e r ty —
w h ic h d o e s n o t a t a ll h a v e its o r ig in in a s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n o f th e f r e e will
b u t in th e m o v e m e n t o f civil so c iety . B ut tw o p o in ts m u s t b e n o t e d . T h e firs t
c o n c e r n s t h e b o d y ; t h e s e c o n d is lin k e d to H e g e l's d ia g n o s is t h a t t h e r a b b le
d e s p ite f a ilin g to p r o v id e fo r itse lf, n e v e r th e le s s c la im s th e “r ig h t to re c e iv e
s u b s is te n c e ” ( H O P R , 221).
T h e r a b b le , a l t h o u g h e m e r g i n g f r o m th e b i n d i n g a n d b o u n d r e la tio n s o f
e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity , u n b i n d s its e lf f r o m th e m . T h is u n b i n d i n g 1 h a v e s p e c i­
fie d w ith t h e c o n c e p t o f th e organ w ith o u t a body. N o w th e q u e s tio n a r is e s
o f h o w to c o n c e iv e o f t h e b o d y le s s n e s s w ith r e g a r d to t h e f irs t, im m e d ia te
p o s s e s s io n o f t h e w ill: th e b o d y . T h e e a r ly H e g e l d e l in e a te s a f u n d a m e n ta l
a s p e c t o f p o v e r ty b y c l a i m i n g t h a t it “b e c o m e s im p o s s ib le f o r p o v e r ty . . . to
b r i n g s o m e t h i n g b e f o r e its e lf . . . ”25 T h is c la r if ie s th a t th e p o o r r e m a i n in
t h e i r m e r e p h y s ic a lity .26 T h e y b e c o m e lazy, f o u l, s in c e a n e x t e r n a l im p o s ­
s ib ility to b r i n g s o m e t h i n g b e f o r e th e m s e lv e s is im p o s e d o n th e m a n d th is
r e n d e r s h a b it p o sitiv e : th is im p o s s ib ility o f b r i n g i n g s o m e t h i n g b e f o r e o n e ­
s e lf s ig n if ie s t h a t f o r t h e p o o r it is o n ly p o s s ib le to r e m a in in t h a t w h ic h
th e y a r e : m e r e b o d ie s . T h e p o o r p e r s is t in th e h a b i t o f t h e i r o w n b o d y th a t
b e lo n g s to t h e i r s e lf-fe e lin g , b u t it is im p o s s ib le f o r th e m to ‘r e a liz e ’ th is in
a n y w ay o t h e r t h a n a b o d ily w ay. I n p o v e r ty h u m a n b e i n g is r e d u c e d to h is
m e r e p h y s ic a lity a s t h e s o le r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m .27 T h is b e c o m in g - p o s itiv e
o f h a b it p ro d u c e s th e p ro c e ss o f p u tre fa c tio n a t w h o se e n d n o d e te rm in a tio n
o f e x is te n c e r e m a in s . D o e s th is n e c e s s a r ily m e a n t h a t t h e r a b b le d o e s n o t
h a v e a bo d y ?
 W ith o u t R ig h t, W ith o u t D u ly 131

Yes a n d n o . Yes. b e c a u s e it is in a w ay b o d ile s s in t h e s e n s e t h a t a ll d e t e r m i ­

n a t io n s o f e x i s te n c e h a v e b e e n d is s o lv e d a n d it n o l o n g e r a p p e a r s e x t e r n a ll y
i n a b o d y p r o p e r to it. It c a n n o t e x p e r i e n c e a n y r e s id u a l f o r m o f in te r s u b je c -
tiv e r e c o g n i t i o n — n o t e v e n o f t h e o w n b o d y a s p r o p e r ty . C o m p le te ly u n b o u n d
f r o m th e b i n d i n g r e la tio n s o f t h e e t h i c a l c o m m u n ity th is f u l l u n b i n d i n g
le a v e s, a c c o r d in g to t h e H e g e lia n lo g ic , n o d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e x is te n c e le ft,
n o t e v e n t h a t o f t h e b o d y . N o . b e c a u s e it is s till p r e s e n t in th is in - e x is te n c e
a n d d o e s n o t s im p ly d is a p p e a r : it is p r e s e n t, h a s a p e c u l i a r b e i n g - t h e r e w h ic h
is n o t a l e g itim a te o n e . I t its e lf n e v e r a p p e a r s a s e x i s te n t, a s a c t u a l , s in c e it
o n ly a p p e a r s in a n d a s th e p o o r . H e g e l c a n th u s n e v e r b e s u r e i f t h e r a b b le
is, a s w as o r w ill b e r e a lly p r e s e n t. H e s e e s t h e p o o r a n d m a rk s in th e m th e
possible-impossible place o f the rabble: a p r e s e n c e w h ic h d o c s n o t fo llo w t h e law s
o f e x is te n c e . H e m a r k s w ith th e n a m e ‘r a b b l e ’ t h e p o s s ib ility o f a p o s s ib ility
w h ic h lie s in t h e b o d y o f t h e p o o r — a n d s o in a n y o n e , la te n tly — o f w h o m th e
r a b b le is a n d r e m a in s in d is tin g u is h a b le . Its o n ly a p p e a r a n c e is th e r e f o r e at
t h e s a m e t im e its d i s a p p e a r i n g (in t h e in d is tin g u is h a b ility ) . B u t o n e c a n n o t
g r o u n d a n y d ia le c tic s o f r ig h ts a n d d u tie s o n in d is tin g u is h a b ili ty o r a p p ly
t o it. T h e r e a r e n o r e s o u r c e s to c a ll th a t r a t i o n a l a n d r e p r e s e n t t h a t w h ic h
c a n n o t b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d .28 A t th e s a m e t im e it b e c o m e s c l e a r th a t t h e r a b b le
c a n n o t p o s s ib ly a p p e a r a s e x i s tin g a s lo n g a s th o s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f e x is t­
e n c e a r e u p h e l d w h ic h a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r H e g e l: r a t i o n a l e x t e r n a l r e a lity as
a n o b je c tif ic a tio n a n d r e a liz a tio n o f th e f r e e d o m o f th e w ill w h ic h in th is
w ay p o s its its e lf i n a r a ti o n a l r e l a t i o n to itse lf. T h a t th e r a b b le d o e s n o t h a v e
a p o s s e s s io n , i.e . n o t e v e n o f a b o d y — b e c a u s e h is b o d y is t h e b o d y o f th e
p o o r — c la r if ie s a g a in t h a t t h e r a b b le a s m a t t e r o f t h e e t h ic a l s p a c e c a n n o t b e
o n e b o d y a m o n g o t h e r s . In a n d w ith t h e r a b b le o n e c a n f o r e s e e t h e c o n c lu ­
s io n t h a t it c a n n o t a p p e a r s in c e a lr e a d y t h e p o o r is o n ly c a p a b l e o f a p p e a r i n g
i n a r e d u c e d w ay. I f t h e p o o r is s ti ll b o d y — a l t h o u g h th is is a ll th a t is le f t o f
h is ( e th ic a l-s o c ia l) a p p e a r a n c e — t h e r a b b le is b o d ily s in c e it e m e r g e s w h e r e
th e q u e s tio n a r is e s a s to w h e th e r th e b o d y o f t h e p o o r m ig h t b e n o t h i n g
m o r e t h a n a m e r e p o s s e s s io n a n d is in n o w ay in te r s u b je c tiv e ly r e c o g n iz e d
p r o p e r ty . H e n c e f o r H e g e l: “I f m y b o d y d id n o t b e l o n g to m e , I c o u l d n o t
m a n if e s t m y w ill in t h e w o rld , b e c a u s e t h e w o rd s a n d a c tio n s e m a n a t i n g f r o m
m e w o u ld n o t b e m i n e .”29
W h a t w o u ld b e a p r o p e r ty (o r p o s s e s s io n ) w h ic h I a m p r e v e n te d f r o m r e lin ­
q u is h in g o t h e r t h a n a b o d y f o r w h ic h th e p o s s ib ility to a c t is e x te r n a lly m a d e
im p o s s ib le ? A b o d y o f w h ic h th e p o s s ib ility to b e a w illin g o r g a n — a n d to r e a l­
iz e th e f r e e d o m o f th e w ill th r o u g h la b o r— is ta k e n . T h e p o o r a r e b o d ie s th a t
h av e lo st th e p o s s ib ility o f r e a liz in g t h e i r f r e e d o m th r o u g h la b o r fo rc e . B u t
t h e p o o r a r e s till p e r s o n s s in c e th e y r e m a in th e p r o p r ie to r s o f t h e i r b o d y . T h e
r a b b le is s itu a te d a t t h is lo g ic a l p a s s a g e o f th e a n tin o m y . It is a t th e s a m e tim e
t h e possibility a n d impossibility o f its appearance. T h is s t r u c t u r e is n a m e d by th e
n o tio n o f th e organ w ith o u t body w h ic h h e r e ta k e s a c l e a r e r s h a p e . S in c e th e
132 Hegel's R abble

o r g a n n a m e s t h e p o s s ib ility o f a p p e a r in g ; th e (d o u b le ) b o d ile s s n e s s — w h ic h is
e x p r e s s e d in th e p r o b le m o f in d is tin g u is h a b ility — n a m e s its im p o ssib ility . T h e
a p p e a r i n g o f th e r a b b le is its d is a p p e a r in g .
B u t w h a t r ig h t m a y b e c la im e d by th e o n e w h o is in th is w ay is u n b o u n d fro m
r ig h t? H e g e l’s a n s w e r is c le a r : n o n e . B e c a u s e th e r ig h t a s lir s t im m e d ia te e x ist­
e n c e o f f r e e d o m r e q u ir e s a t le a s t o n e th in g : f r e e d o m w a n tin g to b e r e a liz e d .
B u t th e r a b b le s till a d d r e s s e s s o m e th in g a s its rig h t: its o w n s u b s is te n c e . T h e
r a b b le s ta te s in h e r e m e r e b e in g - h c r e , in its m e r e p r e s e n c e b a r e o f a ll d e t e r m i­
n a t io n s a right w ith o u t rig h t w h ic h c a n n o t b u t a p p e a r a s ir r a tio n a l to H e g e l; as
a r b it r a r y d e m a n d . B u t f o r H e g e l, a n d th is is a g a in i m p o r t a n t to r e c a ll, alw ays
o n ly a p p e a r th e p o o r . I f o n e v u lg a riz e s h is c ritic is m o f th e r a b b le o n e c a n
c la im t h a t it s e e m s to b e n o th in g — a lth o u g h th is d ia g n o s is in all r e g a r d s c o n ­
tr a d i c ts H e g e l’s o w n d e d u c tio n — b u t th e p o o r w h o is n o lo n g e r w illin g to w o rk
a n d p u lls b a c k to a p o s itio n th a t h e s h o u ld b e p r o v id e d for. B u t h e r e m a tte rs
s ta n d d if fe re n tly . I f I le g e l u n d e r li n e s th a t th e la c k w h ic h t h e r a b b le a r ti c u ­
la te s o n ly u n d e r c iv ic c ir c u m s ta n c e s “im m e d ia te ly ta k e s t h e f o r m o f a w ro n g ”
b e c a u s e “a g a in s t n a t u r e a h u m a n b e i n g c a n c la im n o r ig h t" ( II O P R . 221) h e
u n w illin g ly n o te s a n in s ig h t w h ic h r u n s c o u n t e r to h is o w n c r it iq u e o f t h e r a b ­
b le . B u t i f th e w ro n g , t h a t is th e la c k lo r th e p o o r , is a d d r e s s e d by t h e r a b b le in
a w ay w h o s e lo g ic is th e fo llo w in g : if s o c ie ty is th e e x is te n c e o f l e g a l r e la tio n s
a n d th e s e p r o d u c e a t th e s a m e t im e a w ro n g , th e s e le g a l r e la tio n s a r e n o th in g
b u t ille g a l r e la tio n s ; th is is w hy t h e r a b b le o p p o s e s th e e x is tin g c ir c u m s ta n c e s
a n d a r ti c u la te s a r ig h t w h ic h g o e s a g a in s t e x is tin g r ig h t. S in c e th e right w ithout
right w h ic h th e r a b b le a d d r e s s e s n a m e s t h e p o s itio n o f a “right not to need rights,
n o t to use rights orbe used a n d used u p by th e m ’'™ A r ig h t o f s u b s is te n c e w h ic h d o e s
n o t rely o n c r it e r ia , a c c o m p lis h m e n ts o r o t h e r th in g s , b u t is r a t h e r f r e e d fro m
a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s o f e x is te n c e w h ic h s h o u ld b e a s s ig n a b le to it s b e a r e r . A right
w ithout right t h a t is n o t c a llin g f o r a n y d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f e x is te n c e p r o d u c e s a n
i n t e r n a l in f in itiz a tio n o f t h e ju d g m e n t b e c a u s e t h e r e is n o p o s s ib ility e i t h e r o f
a t t r i b u t i n g it o r n o t a t t r i b u t i n g it, d u e to e x is tin g d e t e r m in a tio n s . T h e ra b b le -
r ig h t is a r ig h t w ith o u t le g a l c o m f o r t, w ith o u t le g a l e n t itle m e n t. It is r a t h e r th e
u n f u lf illa b lc e n t itle m e n t o f a n in f in ite j u d g m e n t th a t d o c s n o t r e f e r to a n y
d e t e r m in a b le s u b je c t o f t h is r ig h t; a r ig h t o f e x is te n c e w h ic h is n o n e ; a r ig h t o f
m e re p rese n ce.
In itia lly o n e m ig h t s u s p e c t t h a t th e r a b b le d o c s n o t a r ti c u la te a p o s itiv e
j u d g m e n t w h o se c o n t e n t a n d f o r m w o u ld b e th e c o n f ir m a tio n o f th e e x is tin g ,
d e t e r m i n e d fa c ts b u t r a t h e r a n e g a tiv e j u d g m e n t w h o s e c o n t e n t w o u ld b e its
in d ig n a tio n a g a in s t th e s e fa c ts . B u t t h e r a b b le -p o s itio n is n o t ta k e n u p in a
n e g a tiv e ju d g m e n t. R a t h e r t h e r a b b le - a ttitu d e o n ly a p p e a r s f o r H e g e l a s a n e g ­
a tiv e ju d g m e n t; n e g a tio n o f o b je c tiv ity o r a s m o r a l ev il. F o r H e g e l, d u e to th is
r a d ic a l c la im , th e r a b b le alw ays a p p e a r s a s m e r e p a r tic u la r ity , a s re s e n tm e n t-
r a b b le . B u t th e lo u tis h right w ithout right w h ic h d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d to th e
H e g e lia n c o n c e p t o f r ig h t c a n b e r e a d a s a su b je c tiv e a f f ir m a tio n o f th e m e r e
 W ith o u t R ig h t, W ith o u t D u ly

p r e d ic a te le s s , a ttr ib u te le s s , i.e. fu lly in d e t e r m i n a t e in - e x is te n c e o r p r e s e n c e . It

is in t h is r e g a r d a d e m a n d lo r th e im p o s sib le .
O n e c a n a p p e n d th e s e r e m a r k s s in c e I l e g e l d e a ls w ith c r im e in a n a lo g y w ith
t h e f o r m s o f j u d g m e n t . l i e d is t in g u is h e s t h e n o n m a lic io u s w ro n g , f r a u d , a n d
c r im e , a n d sh o w s th e m to c o r r e s p o n d w ith th e f o r m s o f j u d g m e n t o f n e g a tiv e ,
p o s itiv e ly -in fin ite a n d n e g a tiv e ly -in fin ite j u d g m e n t . T h e n o n m a lic io u s w ro n g
“is th e m o s t v e n ia l o f th e ty p e s o f w ro n g d o in g " b e c a u s e it a p p e a r s m e re ly a s a
n e g a tio n o f th e p a r t i c u l a r a n d n o t o f “th e g e n u s .” “I f I say ‘a r o s e is n o t r e d ’, I
still r e c o g n iz e th a t it h a s a c o lo u r ” ( II O P R , 9 5 ). I n e g a te t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o lo r
w ith o u t f u n d a m e n ta l ly n e g a tin g th a t t h e r o s e e n ta ils t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
c o lo r. T h e n o n m a lic io u s w ro n g c o m p ris e s “t h e s p h e r e o f civil s u its ” in w h ic h
t h e “r e c o g n itio n o f th e r ig h t a s t h e u n iv e rs a l a n d d e c is iv e f a c to r ” ( Ib id ., 95)
is a s s u r e d — o n ly o n e b e lie v e s th e r o s e is b lu e , t h e o t h e r th a t it is r e d — a n d
t h e r e f o r e t h e r e is n o p u n is h m e n t fo r n o n m a lic io u s w ro n g s . It is "a s tr a ig h tf o r ­
w a rd n e g a tiv e j u d g m e n t , w h e r e , in th e p r e d ic a te ‘m in e ’, o n ly t h e p a r t i c u l a r is
n e g a t e d ” ( Ib id .) . T h e n o n m a lic io u s w r o n g is lik e a n illn e s s w h ic h n e g a te s a
p a r t i c u l a r s ta te o f h e a lth , b lo c k s th is o r t h a t lif e - f u n c tio n , b u t n o t t h e u n iv e r ­
sa l o f life a s s u c h . T h e u n iv e rs a l is r e s p e c te d , th e p a r t i c u l a r n e g a te d . T h e fra u d
h o w e v e r r e s p e c ts “t h e p a r ti c u la r w ill . . . b u t u n iv e rs a l r ig h t is n o t” (Ib id ., 96).
T h e u n iv e rs a l is v io la te d in a w ay th a t in its p la c e a n a b s tr a c t s e m b la n c e o f th e
u n iv e rs a l is p o s ite d . T o f r a u d c o r r e s p o n d s a j u d g m e n t o f th e fo rm a w o m a n is
n o t a tr e e ,’ 't h e ta b le is a ta b le ’ w h ic h s e e m to p r e s e n t f o r m s o f j u d g m e n t a n d
p r e s e n t c o r r e c t s e n te n c e s b u t d o n o t p o s tu la te a t r u e b u t o n ly a m e re ly a b s t r a c t
u n iv e rsa lity . T o r e f e r to a c l e a r c o m m e n t o n th is f o r m o f " in f in ite j u d g m e n t
e x p r e s s e d p o sitiv e ly o r a s a ta u to lo g y ” ( Ib id .) a s f o r m u l a te d b y M a rk T u n ic k :
“T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g j u d g e m e n t in o u r c a s e o f f r a u d is s o m e th in g lik e : 't h e
a m o u n t y o u s h o u ld g iv e m e fo r th is d ia m o n d is t h e a m o u n t y o u a r e w illin g to
g iv e m e fo r th is d ia m o n d .’ S o m e o n e w h o r e c o g n iz e s th e u n iv e rs a l id e a o f r ig h t
w o u ld say s o m e th in g else: ‘th e a m o u n t y o u s h o u ld g iv e m e f o r th is d ia m o n d is
t h e a m o u n t it is w o r t h ’.”31
F r a u d p o s its th e a b s tr a c t s e m b la n c e o f a u n iv e r s a l a g a in s t th e t r u e u n i ­
v e r s a l, b u t d o e s n o t n e g a te t h e p a r t i c u l a r w h ic h r e m a i n s r e s p e c t e d in its
d e m a n d f o r u n iv e r s a lity a n d r i g h t . T h e s u b s t itu tio n o f th e r a t i o n a l u n iv e r ­
s a lity o f th e r ig h t b y a s e e m i n g u n iv e r s a lity r e p r e s e n t s a v io la tio n o f it a n d is
t h e r e f o r e p u n is h e d . C r im e is u lti m a t e ly a “n e g a tiv e ly - in f in ite j u d g m e n t . ” F or
h e w h o c o m m its "a th e f t . . . d o e s n o t, a s in a s u it a b o u t c iv il r ig h ts , m e re ly
d e n y t h e p a r t i c u l a r r ig h t o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n to s o m e o n e d e f in i te th in g . H e
d e n i e s t h e r i g h t o f t h a t p e r s o n in g e n e r a l . . . ” ( H L H , 3 0 7 ). C r im e a l to g e t h e r
n e g a te s th e u n iv e r s a lity o f r i g h t ’s c la im to le g itim a c y . It th e r e f o r e n o lo n g e r
r e s e m b le s t h e illn e s s b u t r a t h e r th e " d e a t h ’’ in w h ic h “s u b je c t a n d p r e d i ­
c a te u tte r ly d iv e r g e ” ( Ib id .) . W h a t c a n it m e a n a g a in s t t h is b a c k g r o u n d th a t
t h e r a b b le in s c r ib e s a n in f in it iz a tio n o f t h e j u d g m e n t ? T h e d e c is iv e f a c to r is
t h a t t h e r a b b le n e i t h e r e s ta b lis h e s a n e g a tiv e ly - in f in ite ju d g m e n t— it is n o t
134 Hegel's R abble

a c r i m i n a l — n o r a p o s itiv e ly -in fin ite j u d g m e n t , b u t r a t h e r a s o r t o f infinitely-

in fin ite ju d g m e n t.
T o b e c l e a r h e r e : H e g e l’s c r itic is m o f t h e r a b b le is a c r it iq u e w h ic h c a n b e
r e a d e i t h e r a s c r it iq u e o f t h e p o s itiv e ly -in fin ite j u d g m e n t , s in c e th e r a b b le
c la im s a u n iv e rs a l w h ic h is m e re ly a b s tr a c t o r a s a c r it iq u e o f th e n e g a tiv e ly -
i n f in it e j u d g m e n t s in c e it n e g a te s th e u n iv e rs a lity o f e x is tin g le g a l r e la tio n ­
s h ip s a n d u n b in d s h im s e lf f r o m th e m . B u t it is n e i t h e r a f r a u d n o r a c r im in a l;
it r a t h e r fa lls o u t o f t h e r ig h t by u n ty in g its e lf f r o m it. It m a r k s a w r o n g d o in g
th a t d o c s n o t fa ll u n d e r t h e H e g e lia n c a te g o r ie s o f w ro n g d o in g s . H e r e o n e
c a n s e e t h e r a n g e of t h e r a b b le ’s u n b i n d i n g f r o m r ig h t. F o r H e g e l th e r a b b le
is n o t r ig h t w ith o u t b e in g a b le to o f f e r a c a te g o r y w h ic h c o u l d c o m p r is e h im .
F o r th e r a b b le fa lls n e i t h e r u n d e r t h e n e g a tin g c a te g o r ie s o f a b s tr a c t rig h t
( n o n m a lic io u s w ro n g , f r a u d , c r im e ) n o r u n d e r t h o s e o f m o ra lity . T h e r e w ith it
u n b i n d s its e lf e v e n f r o m t h e d is tin c tio n in to p o s itiv e ly -a n d n e g a tiv c ly -in fin ite
j u d g m e n t : it e s ta b lis h e s a n i n f initely-infinite ju d g m e n t. If e th ic a lity r e p r e s e n ts
t h e s u b la tin g m e d ia tio n o f m o r a lity a n d r i g h t in th e s ta te , th e p r o b le m o f c a t­
e g o r iz a tio n d o e s n o t a p p e a r o n ly o n th e s ta g e o f m o r a lity o r r ig h t b u t a ls o o n
t h e s ta g e o f t h e i r m e d ia t io n — t h e e th ic a l. H e n c e t h e r e is a f u r t h e r p e r s p e c ­
tiv e i f o n e ta k e s se rio u s ly W e r n e r H a m a c h e r ’s lin k b e tw e e n t h a t w h ic h I call
right w ith o u t rig h t a n d th e in f in it e — in fin ite ly -in fin ite —j u d g m e n t . T h e r a b b le
ta k e s th e p o s itio n o f a n un-right. T h e p r e f ix ‘u n ' o f u n -rig h t x h c n r e f e r s n e i th e r
to th e w r o n g in s c r i b e d in r ig h t n o r to a p o s itiv e ( n a tu r a l ) r ig h t.
T h e r a b b le n e i t h e r r e f e r s to a right before the right n o r d o e s it ta k e , a s H e g e l
te n d s m o s t o f te n to s u g g e s t, a n illegal p o s itio n , i.e. a n ir r a tio n a l p a r t i c u l a r
p o s itio n . R a t h e r it ta k e s t h e p o s itio n o f a n u n -rig h t w h ic h is m o r e a n d less
t h a n th e H e g e lia n c o n c e p t o f t h e w r o n g / Unrecht]. T h e rig h t w ith o u t right o f
t h e r a b b le is a n tin-right in s u c h a w ay t h a t it e v e n u n d e r m i n e s th e d is tin c tio n
o f r ig h t a n d w ro n g . N e it h e r is it r ig h t— w h ic h w o u ld a m o u n t to a p o s itiv e
j u d g m e n t — n o r is it w ro n g — w h ic h w o u ld a m o u n t to a c r im e , i.e . a n e g a tiv e
j u d g m e n t. R a th e r it is a r i g h t beyond r ig h t a n d w ro n g ; a r ig h t t h a t o n ly ta k e s
t h e m e re ly i n d e t e r m i n a t e p r e s e n c e a s t h e s o le s t a r t i n g p o in t f r o m w h ic h to
d e n o u n c e th e la c k ta k in g p la c e w ith in e x is tin g le g a l r e la tio n s a s a w ro n g . A t
t h e s a m e tim e s u c h a n u n -rig h t is a r ig h t beyond g o o d a n d ev il, fo r t h e ‘u n ’
s u s p e n d s th e s e m o r a l d is tin c tio n s . D u e to th is d o u b le s u s p e n s io n ( o f m o r a lity
a n d rig h t) th e u n -rig h t p r e s e n ts a n in fin iU ly -in fn ile ju d g m e n t. S u c h a n u n -rig h t
w h ic h d o c s n o t re ly u p o n a n y d e t e r m i n a t i o n e x c e p t th e m e r e p r e s e n c e o f a n
i n d e t e r m i n a t e in - e x is te n c e w h ic h is n o t h i n g b u t t h e r e , a n d n e c e s s a r ily g e n ­
e r a te s a n u n b i n d i n g o f t h e e x is tin g r e la tio n s h i p s o f r ig h ts a n d d u t i e s / 2 T h e
u n -rig h t h a s n o t h i n g p r o p e r to it; it d o e s n o t s t a r t f r o m a n y d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d
t h e r e f o r e a p p e a r s a s im p o s s ib le ; im p o s s ib le r ig h t; r ig h t o f th e im p o s s ib le . I t is
n o t b a s e d o n a n y e x te r n a lly p r e s e n t p r o p e r ty , n o t e v e n t h a t o f t h e b o d y . A n d
a t th e s a m e tim e it is in its e n t i t l e m e n t n o t o n ly t h e n e g a tio n o f a l l d e t e r m i­
n a t io n s , n o t s im p ly a n e g a tiv e j u d g m e n t . A s d e m o n s tr a te d , t h e r a b b le is less
 W ith o u t R ig h t, W ith o u t D u ly 135

th a n a m e r e p a r t i c u l a r i t y b e c a u s e it h a s e v e n lo st t h e n o n a m b ig u ity o f its
p a r t i c u l a r i t y a n d it is m o r e t h a n a m e r e p a r t i c u l a r i t y b e c a u s e it m a k e s its e lf
a n d is im m e d ia te ly u n iv e r s a l. T h e u n -rig h t o f t h e p a r tic u la r - u n iv e r s a l r a b b le
is c o n n e c t e d to a n y o n e . T h e u n -right alw ays c o n t a in s a u n iv e r s a l d im e n s io n .
T h e r e f o r e it is a n u n -rig h t to equality. D u e to th is u n iv e rs a lity it is a ls o a n un-
right to justice.
F ro m w h a t w e h a v e e l a b o r a te d s o fa r, t h e q u e s tio n a r is e s a s to h o w th e r a b b le
r e la te s to th e d e c isiv e c o n c e p t w h ic h t h e H e g e lia n Philosophy o f R ig h t ta k e s a s its
s ta r t in g p o in t: f r e e w ill. D o c s th e r a b b le h a v e a f r e e w ill? C a n it h a v e o n e ?
 C h a p te r 11

To Will N othing or Not to Will Anymore:

T he Rabble as Will and Representation?

A g a in st the idea o f n orm al desires, w e m u st sustain the fig h tin g idea o f a desire which
always affirm s as ex istin g w h a t is w ith o u t nam e. Because it is the com m on p a r t o f
o u r historical existence, w e m u st affirm the existence o f w h a t is w ith o u t nam e as the
genetic p a r t o f this historical existence: th a t is probably the revolutionary conception
today, w ith the possibility th a t th a t sort o f transform ation w o u ld be a local one, a n d
n o t alw ays a general on e or a total one. A n d , as y o u ca n see, it's n o t a t a ll desire
a g a in st law . T h e fo r m u la is genetic w ill aga in st norm al desires.
(A lain B a d io u )1

The psychological problem . . . is, how can he, who to a n u nheard o f degree says No,
does N o to everyth in g . . . ca n never the/ess be the opposite of a nay-saying spirit.
(Friedrich Nietzsche)2

T h c Philosophy o f R ig h t is a p h ilo s o p h y o f f r e e d o m , b u t a s f r e e d o m f o r H e g e l
c a n o n ly b e c o n c e iv e d o f a s f r e e d o m o f t h e w ill, il is to th e s a m e d e g r e e a
p h ilo s o p h y o f th e (fre e ) w ill. In t h is firs t q u a lif ic a tio n o n e c e n tr a l c o m p o n e n t
o f H e g e l's c o n c e p t io n is a lr e a d y a r ti c u la te d : f r e e d o m is n o a c c id e n ta l d e t e r ­
m in a tio n o f th e w ill t h a t w o u ld b e c o n t in g e n t o r e x t e r n a l to it. It is r a t h e r "its
s u b s ta n c e a n d its e s s e n c e .”* T o d ra w n e a r e r to t h e q u e s tio n o f h o w th e ra b b le -
p o s itio n r e la te s to th e 'a to m ' o f th e Philosophy o f R ig h t I w ill in itia lly r e c o n s tr u c t
t h e c o n c e p t o f f r e e w ill t h a t H e g e l d e lin e a te s a n d t h e n d e t e r m i n e w h e th e r o r
n o t th e r a b b le c a n h a v e a f r e e will.
T r u e f r e e d o m c a n o n ly b e a s f r e e d o m o f th e w ill; t r u e w illin g e x ists o n ly
a s f re e . A s H e g e l f o r m u la te s th is in a n e a r ly K a n tia n m a n n e r : "W ill w ith o u t
f r e e d o m is a n e m p ty w o rd , w h ile f r e e d o m is a c tu a l o n ly a s w ill, a s s u b je c t.”
W ith o u t s u b je c t, w ith o u t w ill n o f r e e d o m a n d w ith o u t f r e e d o m th e w ill is o n ly
a n e m p ty sh e ll. T h is is w h y H e g e l c a n c o m e u p w ith th e in f a m o u s a n a lo g y th a t
" f r e e d o m is j u s t a s f u n d a m e n ta l a c h a r a c t e r o f th e w ill a s w e ig h t is o f b o d ­
ies" ( H O P R , 26). H e w a n ts to b e c le a r h e r e th a t f r e e d o m is n o t a c o n tin g e n t
e x t e r n a l q u a lity o f th e w ill b u t its u n iq u e a n d e s s e n tia l q u a lity . T h is a n a lo g y
 To W ill N o th in g or not to W ill A n y more 137

p o in ts to th e f a c t th a t th e b o d y is j u s t a s little c o n tin g e n tly h e a v y a s t h e w ill is

c o n tin g e n tly f re e . I n th e r e a lm o f n a t u r e w e ig h t is th e f u n d a m e n t, w h ile th e
o b je c tiv e w o rld is a “w o rld o f f re e d o m " (IIP R V , 4 2 ). B u t th is a ls o p o in ts to a n
e s s e n tia l d if fe r e n c e : if a b o d y h a s t h e p r o p e r t y o f b e i n g h e a v y in a w ay w h ic h it
c a n n e i t h e r b e k n o w n to it n o r w ille d by h im , t h e w ill c a n a n d m u s t k n o w a n d
w ill its o w n f r e e d o m . T h is m e a n s f r e e w ill is o n ly tr u ly f r e e w ill i f it k n o w s its e lf
a s f r e e w ill a n d i f it a d ju s ts its w illin g to i t s e l f T h is a ls o m e a n s t h a t m a n is n o t
“o n t h e o n e h a n d , th o u g h t a n d , o n th e o th e r, w ill, a n d th a t h e k e e p s th o u g h t
in o n e p o c k e t a n d w ill in a n o t h e r ,” s in c e th e w ill is its e lf “th i n k i n g tr a n s la tin g
its e lf in to e x is te n c e , th i n k i n g a s th e u r g e to g iv e its e lf e x is te n c e ” (IIO P R , 26).
B e c a u s e o f th is d e f in itio n H e g e l c a n c la im th a t th o u g h t a n d w ill a r c b o th :
im m a n e n tly in te r tw in e d b u t a t th e s a m e tim e d if f e r e n t f r o m o n e a n o t h e r — as
th e un ity o f the difference o f p r a c tic a l a n d th e o r e tic a l b e h a v io r . B e tw e e n th e m
t h e r e is a c o n s ta n t m o v e m e n t o f m e d ia tio n . W ill a n d th o u g h t a r e a s p e c ts o f
t h e s a m e t h a t e x is t in a d if f e r e n tia l u n ity . T h e m o v e m e n t o f th is d if fe r e n tia l
u n ity is e l a b o r a te d b y H e g e l in t h r e e s te p s: in itia lly H e g e l d e t e r m in e s th e w ill
in g e n e r a l (u n iv e rs a lity ), t h e n h e d e t e r m in e s t h e p a r ti c u la r , th e n a t u r a l a n d
r e f le c te d w ill ( p a r tic u la r ity ) , a n d fin a lly h e d e t e r m in e s th e w ill th a t is in a n d
fo r itself f re e ; th e w ill t h a t c a n b e c o n s id e r e d a s a tr u ly f r e e w ill (sin g u la rity ).
In itia lly w ill is “p u r e t h o u g h t ” (IIP R V , 43) a s it h a s t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
w h ic h it in itia lly g iv e s its e lf o n ly a s “s o m e t h i n g in w a r d ” ( I I O P R , 2 7 ), a s id e a .
W ith th is firs t d e l i n e a t i o n o f t h e w ill H e g e l h a s n a m e d a n e s s e n tia l c r it e r io n
w ith w h ic h to d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n m a n a n d a n im a l: th e a n i m a l , a lth o u g h
a ls o e s s e n tia lly p r a c tic a l, h a s n o id e a o f t h a t w h ic h it d e s ir e s a n d w ills to
r e a liz e o r satisfy . I m a g i n a t i o n a l o n e m a k e s m a n h u m a n .4 B u t it is n e c e s s a ry
t h a t th is im a g in a tio n is t r a n s l a t e d : f r o m t h e i n t e r i o r to e x is te n c e . O n ly in
s o d o i n g c a n th e w ill b e in a c c o r d a n c e w ith its o w n c o n c e p t , b e c a u s e f r e e ­
d o m is o n ly f r e e d o m a s r e a liz e d f r e e d o m . B u t i f w ill is in it ia l ly i n t e r i o r th e n
t h is d is p o s itio n is lin k e d to th e c a p a c ity f o r a b s tr a c t io n : it c a n w illin g ly se t
a s id e a ll p a r t i c u l a r d e t e r m i n a t i o n s — o f d r iv e s , d e s ir e s , e tc .— a n d k n o w its e lf
a t th is f ir s t s ta g e a s i n d e p e n d e n t a n d a b s tr a c tly f r e e — a s u n iv e r s a lity a g a in s t
t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r i z a t i o n s . T h e w ill c a n o u tp a c e a ll p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s a n d in a
f ir s t s te p k n o w a n d w ill h is f r e e d o m c o m p le te ly in d e p e n d e n t l y o f th e m . T h e
w ill in its u n iv e r s a l d i m e n s o n , a s w ill to u t c o u r t , a p p e a r s a s f r e e d u e to th is
c a p a c ity . F r e e d o m h e r e m e a n s : f r e e d o m fro m a ll p a r t i c u l a r d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
In th is w ay th e w ill is a u n iv e r s a lity t h a t h a s “e x t i n g u i s h [ c d ] ” ( H O P R , 29)
a ll p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s . It is t h e “p u r e th o u g h t o f o n e s e lf ” ( I b id ., 2 8 ). I f th i n k i n g
m e a n s “to g e n e r a l i z e ” ( I b id ., 2 7 ) it is c l e a r w h y th e w ill is h e r e p u r e th o u g h t.
T h e w ill g e n e r a liz e s its e lf. H e is a b le to e n g e n d e r a p u r e in d e t e r m i n a c y in
i ts e lf a n d k n o w s h is f r e e d o m a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t c a n a b s tr a c t f r o m a n y c o n ­
c r e te c o n d i tio n . B u t th is “p o s s ib ility to r e n o u n c e o f r e n o u n c i n g e v e r y th in g "
(H V O R L 4 , 112) is w h a t m a k e s h u m a n b e i n g h u m a n ; a m e re ly n e g a tiv e f r e e ­
d o m — o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e f r e e d o m to a b s tr a c t f r o m e v e r y th in g t h a t is
138 Hegel's R abble

c o n c r e te is t h e p o s s ib ility o f b e i n g f r e e , a f r e e d o m o f ( in n e r ) im a g in a tio n
th a t is a lo n g w ay f r o m its o w n r e a liz a tio n .
T h e w ill h a s to p a s s o v e r f ro m th is a b s o lu te p o s sib ility o f d e t e r m in a tio n in to
t h e p o s itin g o f d e t e r m in a tio n ; o th e rw is e it r e m a in s in a b s tr a c tio n — a ls o in
a b s tr a c tio n f r o m f r e e d o m . T h is p a r ti c u la r i z a t io n o f th e w ill m a k e s it s te p in to
e x is te n c e . T h is is p o s s ib le o n ly if it w ills something. B u t w hy is th is tr a n s itio n
n e c e s sa ry ? B e c a u s e , I le g e l a n sw e rs, i f it w e re to r e m a in in a b s tr a c tio n f r o m all
p a r tic u la r itie s , k n o w in g its e lf in p u r e s e lf-re la tio n , th e w ill w o u ld e n c o u n te r
a c o n tr a d ic tio n : w illin g its e lf a s u n iv e rs a lity w ith o u t d e t e r m in a tio n s t h is u n i­
v ersa lity w o u ld its e lf b e c o m e a m e r e p a r ti c u la r i ty b y b e c o m in g a n (a b stra c t)
n e g a tio n o f d e te r m in a tio n s . A u n iv e rs a lity w h ic h is th e n e g a tio n o f a n o t h e r —
o f d e t e r m in a tio n fo r e x a m p le — is n o t u n iv e rs a lity b u t a p a r tic u la rity . F o r as
in d e te r m in a te it b e c o m e s th e a b s tr a c t c o n t r a r y o f d e t e r m in a tio n a n d to th a t
e x te n t— s in c e o n e c a n say t h a t p u r e p o s s ib ility is th e c o n t r a r y o f re a lity — th is
in d e te r m in a c y is n o t u n iv e rs a l b u t a n ( in d e te r m in a te ) p a r tic u la r . In th is way
o n e g e ts tw o p a r tic u la r itie s : t h e d e t e r m in a tio n a n d th e in d e te r m in a c y b u t n o
u n iv e rs a l. T h e u n iv e rs a lity o f u n d e t e r m i n a t e f r e e d o m in te r n a lly c o n v e r ts in to
t h e p a r ti c u la r i ty o f d e t e r m in a tio n — o f b e in g c o m p le te ly a b s tr a c t, o f b e in g th e
n e g a tio n o f d e t e r m in a tio n , o f b e i n g in d e te r m in a te ly d e t e r m in e d . A b s tr a c t w ill
o n ly w ills n o t h i n g b u t t h is n o t h i n g is its e lf o n ly th e n e g a tio n o f s o m e th in g . T h e
v o litio n o f th e a b s o lu te p o s s ib ility t h a t se e m s lim itle ss c o n f in e s t h e w ill to w ill­
in g ‘s o m e th in g ’ p a r tic u la r , i.e. t h e n e g a tio n o f s o m e th in g . I n d e te r m in a c y is n o t
t r u e f r e e d o m b u t lim ita tio n s in c e it is o n ly “o n e s id e o f tw o ” (H PR V , 45). “O n e
te lls a m a n — h e s h o u ld k e e p h is w ill b o u n d le s s , n o t w ill a n y t h in g d e t e r m in a te .
. . it is b e f ittin g — d is s a tis fa c tio n — h e s h o u ld n o t w ill a n y t h in g . . . ’’ (H G P R , 53).
T h e w ill w illin g n o t h i n g is n o w ill a n y m o r e fo r H e g e l. By s u r m o u n tin g th is c o n ­
t r a d i c tio n , th e w ill r e a c h e s t h e s e c o n d lev el a t w h ic h it p o sits its d e te r m in a tio n .
T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w ill th e re b y n e g a te s th e firs t n e g a tio n o f all d e t e r m in a ­
tio n s a n d s u h la te s it. T h e w ill a r r iv e s a t th e p o s itin g o f a d e t e r m in a tio n . T h e
w ill th a t in th e firs t s ta g e o n ly th o u g h t its e lf n o w g a in s a d ir e c tio n b y w illin g
" s o m e th in g — a s m in e ” (Ib id ., 53). It o r ie n t s its e lf to w a rd s o m e th in g a n d th is
le a d s it f r o m its p u r e m o v in g in its e lf to its p a r tic u la r iz a tio n .
B u t th is a ls o c o n ta in s a lim ita tio n . A s p u r e n e g a tio n i n t r o d u c e d a lim ita tio n
t o th e w ill, th e p u r e a f f ir m a ti o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r d e t e r m in a tio n d o e s s o , to o ,
b e c a u s e th e w ill lo se s its e lf in it. T h e r e i n th e c o n te n t o f th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n c a n
d e r iv e c i t h e r f r o m t h e n a t u r e o f m a n , h is d r iv e s , n e e d s , p r e f e r e n c e s o r “fro m
t h e c o m c e p t o f s p ir it, th e r ig h t o r th e e t h ic a l” ( H V O R L 4 ,117). T h e p o s itin g is
h e r e n o t a h e te r o n o m o u s d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w ill a s it m a k e s s o m e th in g ‘h is ,' i.e.
it fre e ly p o s its a c o n t e n t a s t h a t w h ic h it w ills. M a n is f o r H e g e l th is c o n tr a d ic ­
t io n o f a b s o lu te in d e te r m in a c y a n d p o s ite d d e t e r m in a tio n . T h e u n io n o f b o th
a s p e c ts H e g e l c a lls “p a r ti c u la r i ty r e f le c te d in to its e lf a n d s o b r o u g h t b a c k to
u n iv e rsa lity , i.e. it is in d iv id u a lity" ( H O P R . 31). T h e w ill th a t k n o w s its e lf a s fre e
i n th e c o n c r e te d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d n o n e th e le s s p o sits a d e t e r m i n a t i o n s u b la te s
 To W ill N o th in g or not to W ill A n y more 139

t h e o n e - s id e d n e s s o f th e firs t tw o s ta g e s a n d is t h e p a r ti c u la r i ty a s u n iv e rsa lity ,

t h e u n iv e rs a lity a s p a r tic u la rity . W h y th is tr a n s i tio n is n e c e s s a r y is o b v io u s: if
t h e w ill is lim ite d in b e i n g a b s o lu te b y in d e te r m in a c y a n d in b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r by
d e t e r m in a c y it k n o w s t h a t th e s e lim ita tio n s d o n o t c o r r e s p o n d to h is e s s e n c e .
If it w a n ts to u n d e r s t a n d its e lf a s f r e e it e n t e r s in to c o n t r a d ic t io n a s lo n g a s it
d o c s n o t t h i n k b o th to g e th e r b u t a s m e re ly c o e x is tin g .5 It is i m p o r t a n t n o t to
m is p e rc e iv e t h e in te r le a v in g o f u n iv e r s a lity a n d p a r ti c u la r i ty in th e f r e e w ill in
a w ay t h a t th e u n iv e r s a l d im e n s io n o f f r e e d o m r e m a in s p r e s e n t s u c h th a t th e
w ill c o u ld w ith d r a w a t a n y tim e f r o m its p a r ti c u la r i z a t io n . R a th e r , H e g e l e n u ­
m e r a te s d if f e r e n t e x a m p le s w h ic h c la r if y h o w th e d ia le c tic a l lin k a g e o f u n iv e r ­
s a lity a n d p a r ti c u la r i ty in th e s in g u la r ity of t h e w ill h a v e to b e c o n c e iv e d o f. H e
c a lls lo v e a n d f r ie n d s h ip 6 p a r a d ig m s o f t h e in d iv id u a lity o f t h e w ill. T h is m a rk s
t h a t th e w ill w a n ts s o m e th in g o t h e r t h a n h im a n d is to t h is e x t e n t d e t e r m in e d ,
a t th e s a m e tim e it is in th is d e t e r m i n a t e r e la tio n w ith itself a n d w ills its e lf as
fre e . T h is m e a n s t h a t d e t e r m i n a t i o n of th e w ill is n o t o n ly c o n te n t- r e la te d b u t
a ls o f o rm - r e la te d : ‘s o m e th in g ’ h a s b e c o m e a n e n d o f th e w ill.
‘E n d ' t h e n s ig n ifie s p r im a r ily a n i n n e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e w ill w h ic h c a n
b e c o n s c io u s a s e a sily a s it c a n b e u n c o n s c io u s . B u t th is is in itia lly a p u re ly
s u b je c tiv e e n d a n d it h a s to b e c o m e o b je c tiv e a n d r e a liz e d . T h e r e f o r e in c o n ­
s e q u e n c e t h e e n d le a d s to a c tio n b u t th is a c tio n is s u b o r d i n a t e d to t h e laws
of th e o b je c tiv e w o rld . T o b e a p r o p r i e t o r is in itia lly a m e re ly s u b je c tiv e e n d
t h a t s h o u ld u ltim a te ly b e r e a liz e d . B u t th e r e a liz a tio n o f th is e n d a n d o f o n e 's
o w n f r e e d o m a s a p e r s o n h a v e to c o r r e s p o n d w ith th e o b je c tiv e p o s s ib ilitie s o f
p r o p e r ty . “W e th u s h a v e a w o rld , a n o b je c t, a m a te r ia l in f r o n t o f u s in w h ic h w e
c a n p e r f o r m o u r e n d . . .” (H V O R L 4 , 123). I n th is w ay t h e e n d g a in s th r o u g h
its b e i n g p e r f o r m e d a d if f e r e n t, o b je c tiv e f o rm . A s m e re ly in te r n a l th e a im
r e m a in s in s u f f ic ie n t, a n d to s u b la te th is la c k th e w ill e n t e r s in to ac tiv ity . I n th e
r e a liz a tio n o f its a im t h e w ill c o n s ta n tly r e m a in s w ith its e lf s in c e it is o n ly a c tiv e
to r e a liz e its a im o b je ctiv ely . “W h e n I a m h u n g r y m y s e n s a tio n is d if f e r e n t f r o m
m y w ill to b e s a te d . M in e is n o w th e activ ity , th is d e v ic e to s u b la te th is la c k a n d
p u t m y s u b je c tiv ity in th e f o r m o f o b je c tiv ity .” (H P R V . 46)
T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e e n d a n d i ts c a r r y i n g o u t is h e r e p u r e ly f o rm a l
b e c a u s e t h i s s t r u c t u r e m a r k s t h e f o u n d a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e w ill a n d is in
t h e b e g i n n i n g c o m p le te ly i n d e p e n d e n t o f te r m s o f c o n t e n t . H o w d o e s H e g e l
d e t e r m i n e th e c o n t e n ts o f t h e w ill? I n itia lly o n e c a n n o te t h a t t h e e n d c a r ­
r i e d o u t d o e s n o t lo s e a n y t h in g in its b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t; r a t h e r it is a n e c e s ­
s a r y d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e w ill w h ic h r e m a i n s t h e s a m e in its p e r f o r m a n c e . In
t h is w ay t h e “r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l i t y o f th e w ill is its e lf d e t e r m i n e d ” (H V O R L 4 ,
125). B u t a ls o th e c o n t e n t is im m e d ia te ly a n d n a t u r a l l y g iv e n to t h e w ill ( f r e e
w ill in its e lf ) a n d n e c e s s a r ily p a s s e s f r o m t h e im m e d ia c y o v e r t o th e m e d ia ­
t io n ( f r e e w ill f o r its e lf ) . A c c o rd in g ly t h e f r e e w ill in its e lf is a w ill w h ic h
is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e im m e d ia c y o f t h e n a t u r a l — b y “t h e im p u ls e s , d e s ire s ,
in c lin a tio n s '' ( H O P R , 35).
140 Hegel's R abble

O n th is s ta g e th e f r e e d o m o f th e w ill is alw ay s in d a n g e r o f h a n d i n g its e lf

o v e r to a r b itr a r in e s s . A s I le g e l r e m a rk s : " N o t a l l im p u ls e s a r e r a tio n a l, b u t all
r a ti o n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f t h e w ill a ls o e x is t a s im p u ls e s ” (H V O R L 4 , 128).
T h a t th e w ill p o s its a im s f o r itse lf, m e a n s th a t it p o s its a n d d e t e r m in e s th e
d riv e — a n d th is d if f e r e n tia te s m a n f r o m a n i m a l— a s its d riv e . B u t t h is m o m e n t
o f th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n is o n e th a t n e c e s s a r ily s u r m o u n ts th e n a t u r a lily o f th e
im p u ls e . F o r th e d e t e r m in a tio n o f t h e d r iv e b y th e w ill, in w h ic h its r a tio n a lity
a n d f r e e d o m lie s, b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y s in c e a n y d r iv e “e x ists a lo n g s id e o th e r s
w h ic h a r c lik e w ise a ll ‘m in e ', a n d e a c h o f w h ic h is a t th e s a m e tim e s o m e ­
th in g u n iv e r s a l a n d i n d e te r m in a te , a i m e d a t all k in d s o f o b je c ts a n d s a tia b le
in a ll k in d s o f w ays” ( II O P R , 3 6 ). T h e w ill b e c o m e s re s o lv in g , d e c id in g w ill by
p o s itin g a c o n te n t— o f its s a tis f a c tio n — in th e u n d e t e r m i n e d u n iv e rs a lity as
w h ic h th e im p u ls e a p p e a r s a n d ta k e s it a s its a im . T h e r e f o r e th e c o n te n ts o f
t h e w ill a r c in n o w ay e x t e r n a l. A lth o u g h th e w ill in itia lly s e e m s — a s n a tu r a l
w ill— to b e im m e d ia te ly b o u n d to e x t e r n a l c o n te n ts — th e w ill to b e s a te d is
im m e d ia te ly b o u n d to a sp e c ific s e n s a tio n — b u t t h e w ill g iv e s th e s e im m e d ia te
s e n s a tio n s “t h e f o r m o f ‘r a tio n a lity ’ ” a n d th is m e a n s “g iv in g th e m th is fo rm
m a k e s th e m fin a lly ‘m i n e ' . . . ”7 T h e re s o lv in g is a f o r m o f in d iv id u a lity s in c e
t h e w ill m a in ta in s its e lf in th e d e c is io n — " t h e o r ig in a l s e e d o f a ll d e t e r m in a te
e x is te n c e ” ( H O P R , 3 6 ) — a n d s till d e t e r m in e s its e lf. T h e w ill th e r e b y b e c o m e s
t h e w ill o f a d e t e r m i n a t e in d iv id u a l. T h e Ί d e c id e ’ s ig n ifie s t h e f o r m u la o f s in ­
g u la rity : th e w ill th a t d e c id e s a n d th e r e b y r e f e r s to ‘s o m e th in g ’ th a t is im m a ­
n e n t to th e d e c is io n . T h e w ill h a s m a d e its e lf fin ite b y m o v in g f r o m th e m e r e
p o s s ib ility o f d e t e r m i n i n g its e lf to d e c is io n itse lf, b u t r e m a in s in m e r e f o rm a l
f r e e d o m , s in c e t h e c o n t e n t w h ic h it d e c id e s to ta k e o n d o e s n o t c o m e fro m
its e lf b u t fro m n a t u r e .
T h r o u g h t h is c o n t r a d ic t io n b e tw e e n f r e e s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n o f t h e w ill a n d
h e te r o n o m o u s n a t u r a l c o n t e n t th e w ill is d r iv e n in to r e f le c tio n : it c a n leave
t h e h e t e r o n o m o u s d e t e r m in a tio n th a t it h a s ta k e n u p a n d ta k e a n o t h e r . T h e
w ill b e c o m e s b y k n o w in g a b o u t th e p o s s ib ility to f r e e its e lf a “c h o o s in g w ill"
(H V O R L 4 , 130). T h a t it c a n c h o o s e m e a n s t h a t it p o s its n o t o n ly a p re -g iv e n
c o n t e n t a s its o w n b u t f u r t h e r m o r e is a b le to c h o s e b e tw e e n t h e m u ltip lic ity
o f g iv e n c o n t e n ts o f im p u ls e s . It d e c id e s its e lf in a tw o fo ld m a n n e r : 1. f o r a n
a lre a d y g iv e n im p u ls e a n d 2 . f o r a p o s s ib ility o f its s a tis f a c tio n w h ic h a t t h e sa m e
t im e r e m a in s c o n d i tio n e d b y th e im p u ls e itse lf. T h is is th e stru ctu re o f choice. In
it t h e in d e te r m in a c y a n d d c t e r m in a c y o f c o n t e n t c o in c id e . A r b i tr a r in e s s s ig n i­
fies “c o n tin g e n c y a s it is a s w ill” ( Ib id ., 131). F or, in it t h e w ill is u n f r e c b e c a u s e
it c o n ta in s th e f o rm a l f r e e d o m to a b s tr a c t f r o m a n y c o n t e n t a n d to c h o s e a n y
o th e r , b u t its c o n t e n ts a r e s till e x te r n a lly g iv e n . T h e w ill h e r e is s till d e p e n d e n t
u p o n th e g iv e n n e s s o f t h e c o n te n t— fo r e x a m p le th e f o o d -im p u ls e d e t e r m in e s
t h e c o n t e n t o f its s a tis f a c tio n . T h is w ay o f g iv e n n e s s o f th e c o n t e n t d o e s n o t
c o r r e s p o n d to th e f r e e d o m o f t h e w ill. It is f r e e in its c a p a c ity to c h o o s e a n d it
is u n f r e e in its d e p e n d e n c e o n th e c o n tin g e n tly g iv e n c o n te n t. A r b itr a r in e s s
 To W ill N o th in g or not to W ill A n y more Ml

is th e r e f o r e “r a t h e r th e w ill a s contradict ion'' (IIV O R L 2 , 142) s in c e , in it. f r e e ­

d o m a n d u n f r e e d o m m e r g e . F o r th is r e a s o n th e w ill w h ic h c a n a b s tr a c t f r o m
a n y c o n te n t u ltim a te ly d o e s n o t s u r m o u n t th e g iv e n a n d n e c e s s a r ily f in ite c o n ­
te n ts . "I d o n o t s u r m o u n t f in itu d e e v e n if I d o n o t d e c id e a t a l l” (H V O R L 4 ,
132). F or, a s sh o w n , th e a b s o lu te a b s tr a c t io n f r o m a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s is o n ly a
o n e - s id e d d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f r e e d o m o f th e w ill— th e i n t e r n a l lim ita tio n o f
in d e te r m in a c y . T h e m ix t u r e o f f r e e d o m a n d u n f r e e d o m th a t is a r b it r a r in e s s
h e r e m ir r o r s in t h e n a t u r e o f h u m a n b e in g s , th e d riv e s. F o r t h e d r iv e s c o u n t
o n th e o n e h a n d a s p o s itiv e s in c e th e y le a d im m a n e n tly to e n d s , i.e. d ir e c tio n s
o f th e w ill, w h ile o n t h e o t h e r h a n d a n y sin g le d r iv e is n e g a tiv e , e v il, s in c e it is
a n ex c lu siv e u n i t y w h ic h n e g a te s t h e o t h e r d r iv e s a n d in its u n h i n d e r e d effee-
tiv ity fin a lly h a s th e n e g a tio n o f lif e a s its c o n s e q u e n c e . T h e r e w ith t h e d riv e s
a r c d r iv e n o u t o f t h e im m a n e n t c o n t r a d ic t io n a n d “t h e d e m a n d fo r t h e fm riji-
calion o f im p u ls e s ” (I IO P R . 4 0 ) a ris e s . T h is d e m a n d m a k e s a w h o le o u t o f th e
m u tu a lly ex c lu siv e d r iv e s by m e a n s o f t h e id e a o f a r e f le c te d to ta liz a tio n 8 a n d
p r o d u c e s t h e id e a l o f a n a l l- a r o u n d , h a r m o n i o u s s a tis fa c tio n : t h e e u d a im o n ic
“id e a l o f b liss” (H V O R L 4 , 135).
T h is id e a l “ in th is e x te r n a l m a n n e r p u r if ie s it o f its c r u d ity a n d b a r b a r ity ” by
p r o d u c in g a u n iv e rs a lity in th i n k i n g w h ic h s u r p a s s e s th e lo g ic o f e a c h sin g le
d riv e . B u t a t t h e s a m e tim e th is t h i n k i n g r e f le c tio n in w h ic h lies “t h e a b s o lu te
v a lu e in ed u ca tio n'' ( H O P R . 41), i.e. t h e p r o d u c tio n o f a u n iv e rs a l, is in its e lf
c o n t r a d ic t o r y s in c e it r e m a in s b o u n d to th e n a t u r a lity o f t h e d riv e s — e v e n if
o n a m o r e u n iv e rs a l level— a n d im a g in e s a c o m p le te s a ts if a c tio n o f a ll o f th e m .
B e y o n d th a t t h e r e is n o u n if y in g p r in c i p le o f d e t e r m in a tio n . In im a g in a tio n
t h e m u ltip lic ity o f d r iv e s a p p e a r s a g a in in th e u n iv e rs a lity th a t g e ts p r o d u c e d
a n d t h is p re c is e ly in t h e id e a o f b liss: 1. it is c o n c e iv e d o f a s h a r m o n i c sa t­
is f a c tio n in a w ay t h a t s till fo llo w s th e m o d e l o f th e s a tis f a c tio n o f im p u ls e s
a n d r e m a in s in to o c o n t in g e n t a f o r m , a f o r m w h ic h d e p e n d s u p o n e x te r n a l
m e a n s f o r th is s a tis f a c tio n ; 2. it c a n n o t o f f e r a u n iv e rs a l p r in c ip le o f its e lf a n d
r e m a in s c o n s t it u tiv e ly in a m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r f o r m b e c a u s e in it 3 . “t h e r e is
still n o t p r e s e n t . . . a n y g e n u i n e u n ity o f f o r m a n d c o n t e n t” (Ib id .). T h e b liss
u n ite s tw o a s p e c ts : u n iv e rs a lity w h ic h s h a ll b e fo r m e a n d t h e d e t e r m in a tio n
t h a t u n iv e rs a lity is n o t e m p ty o r a b s tr a c t. B u t it ta k e s its d e t e r m i n a t i o n so le ly
f r o m th e d riv e s.
O u t o f v o la tility th e d e m a n d fo r a u n iv e rs a lity c o m e s to lig h t, a u n iv e rs a l­
ity w h ic h w o u ld a c q u ir e th e d e t e r m i n a t i o n n o t o u t o f s o m e th in g c o n t in g e n t
b u t o u t o f itse lf. D e te r m in a t io n a n d u n iv e rs a lity s h a ll n o lo n g e r b e in s u c h a
c o n t r a d ic t o r y r e la tio n s h i p b u t s h o u ld p r o c e e d to a ''sell-determ ining universal­
ity” (Ib id .). I n s h o r t: w ill a n d f r e e d o m a n d n o t b liss s h o u ld b e c o m e t h e e n d .
T h is tr a n s i tio n is in s e r t e d b y th e c o n t r a d ic t io n in tr o d u c e d b y b liss itse lf. B u t
how to a n s w e r to th e d e m a n d th a t a u n iv e rs a lity is d e t e r m i n e d in a w ay th a t is
a p p r o p r ia t e to it? H e g e l's a n s w e r is: b y t h o u g h t a l o n e . “T h e se lf-c o n s c io u s n e s s
w h ic h p u r if ie s its o b je c t, c o n t e n t, a n d a im , a n d ra is e s th e m to th is u n iv e rs a lity
 Hegel's R abble

e f f e c ts th is a s th i n k i n g asserting its e lf in th e w ill. M e re is th e p o in t a t w h ic h it

b e c o m e s c le a r th a t it is o n ly a s th i n k i n g in te llig e n c e th a t t h e w ill is g e n u in e ly
a w ill a n d f re e .” ( Ib id ., 42)
H e g e l r e a c h e s t h e p o in t a t w h ic h h e d e r iv e s f r o m th e d ia le c tic a l m o v e m e n t
w h a t h e s ta te d a t th e b e g i n n in g : th o u g h t a n d w ill a r e th e s a m e in a n u m b e r
o f d if f e r e n t r e g a r d s . T h e fa c t th a t t h e w ill n o w h a s s p lit in to tw o, r e la te s b a c k
t o its e lf a n d d e t e r m in e s its e lf, I le g e l c a lls t h e t r u e w ill. It is d iv id e d f r o m its e lf
a s th e u n ity o f t h e tw o. It is t r u e s in c e “c o n c e p t a n d r e a lity c o r r e s p o n d .” T h is
m e a n s th a t th e w ill d e t e r m in e s its e lf in a w ay th a t th e c o n t e n t o l its v o litio n is
itse lf, “t h a t is to say, f r e e d o m w ills f r e e d o m ” (Ib id .). T h e r e a lity is th e f r e e will
a n d th e c o n c e p t is th e f r e e w ill w h ic h r e la te s its e lf to th is re a lity . T h is “a g r e e ­
m e n t” ( H V O R I .4 ,142) o f r e a lity a n d c o n c e p t o f th e w ill is t h e t r u t h o f th e w ill.
T h e w ill h a s b e c o m e its o w n o b je c t a n d a ls o b e c o m e a c tu a l.
It r e a c h e s f r e e d o m b e c a u s e it h a s e n tir e ly d e t e r m i n e d its e lf a n d h a s lib e r­
a t e d th e c o n te n t a n d f o r m o f th is d e t e r m i n a t i o n f r o m c o n tin g e n c y . It is th e
u n ity in d if f e r e n c e to itself. T h e r e w ith t h e w ill fre e ly d e t e r m in e s w h a t it w ills
a n d th is d e t e r m in a tio n c o n c e r n s u n iv e rs a lity itself: th e f r e e w ill w ills its e lf in
t h e fo rm o f f r e e d o m . “T h is id e a h a s to b e k e p t a n d th e w h o le o f s c ie n c e a n d
t h e e th ic a l life c o n s is t t h e r e i n to r e a liz e i t . . . T h is id e a m a y s e e m v a g u e , i.e . w e
d o n o t h a v e a n im a g e o f it. n o e x a m p le , n o p o s s ib le c a se s, w e c a n , a s o n e says,
n o t t h i n k o f a n y t h in g ” (H P R V , 54).
T h e f r e e w ill h a s b e c o m e its o w n e n d w h ic h H e g e l a ls o c a lls th e ‘w ith its e lf ’9
o f t h e w ill. I n t h i s re fle x iv ity o f t h e w ill h a v in g b e c o m e its o w n o b je c t th e w ill
a t th e s a m e tim e h a s its t r u e re a lity , s in c e h e p a s s e d o v e r to d e t e r m i n a t i o n
a n d r e m a in s n e i t h e r in t h e m e r e p o s s ib ility o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n n o r in a n e x t e r ­
n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n , in th is r e t u r n to its e lf, it d o e s n o t s t a n d a g a in s t s o m e ­
t h i n g f o r e ig n to it. to a lim it t h a t w o u ld m a k e it f in ite . T h e w ill h a s s te p p e d
o u t o f th e lim ita tio n s a n d h a s b e c o m e “th e in fin ite in a c tu a lity (in fin itu m actu),
b e c a u s e . . . its o b je c tiv e e x t e r n a l i t y is in w a r d n e s s its e lf " ( H O P R . 4 2 ). T h e
i d e a w h ic h c a n b e g a i n e d f r o m th is in f in it e - a c tu a l a r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e d if ­
f e r e n t s ta g e s o f t h e Philosophy o f R ight: a b s t r a c t r i g h t , m o r a lity , e th ic a lity . O n
a ll s ta g e s w h a t is d e a lt w ith is t h e a c tu a l in f in ity o f t h e f r e e w ill w h ic h w ills
i ts e lf a s f re e .
W h y c a n H e g e l say th a t th e w ill is u n iv e r s a l d e s p ite t h e fa c t th a t it a p p e a r s
a s d e t e r m in e d ? H e in itia lly e x c lu d e s d if f e r e n t n o tio n s o f u n iv e rs a lity w h ic h
d o n o t c o n c e r n w ill a t th is s ta g e : 1. t h e c o m m u n a lity w h ic h s ta r t s f ro m c o m ­
m o n d e t e r m in a tio n s ; 2. th e “all-ness" ( Ib id ., 43) w h ic h p r e s e n ts th e w h o le o f all
d e t e r m in a tio n s ; 3. t h e a b s tr a c t u n iv e r s a lity “lik e b lu e w h ic h d o e s n o t e x is t as
s u c h " (H V O R L 4 , 142) b u t o n ly as th e c o lo r o f a n o b je c t. B e y o n d th e s e t h r e e
c o n c e p ts o f u n iv e rs a lity h e a im s a t s h o w in g t h a t th e f r e e w ill h a v in g b e c o m e
its o w n o b je c t m a r k s a “u n iv e rs a lity c o n c r e te in c h a r a c t e r ”: “t h e c o n c e p t o f th e
f r e e w ill — is th e u n iv e rs a l w h ic h e m b r a c e s its o b je c t, th o r o u g h ly p e r m e a te s its
d e t e r m in a tio n a n d th e r e in r e m a in s id e n tic a l w ith its e lf" ( H O P R , 4 4 ).10 H e g e l
 To W ill N o th in g or not to W ill A n ym o re 143

d e f in e s t h e s id e of th e r e a lity o f th e w ill a s th e s id e o f th e s u b je c tiv e w ill a n d

t h e o t h e r a s th e c o n c e p t o f t h e w ill. T h e r e w ith it is im p e r a tiv e to r e c a ll th a t
b o th sid e s a r e in a n id e n tity o f d if fe r e n c e .
H e r e t h e w ill a g a in — o n t h e s u b je c tiv e a n d o b je c tiv e s id e s — d is i n te g r a t e s
i n to t h e a lre a d y d e r iv e d d e t e r m in a tio n s . T h e s u b je c tiv e w ill is 1. th e c e r ta in ty
o f its e lf a s f r e e w ill a n d t h a t is a s s e lf- c o n s c io u s n e s s ," a s H e g e l a ls o c la im s ,
w h ic h is e x p r e s s e d b y t h e e q u a tio n “I = I" ( II O P R . 4 4 ); s u b je c tiv ity a s self-
c e r ta in ty ; 2. th e p a r t i c u l a r w ill a s a r b i t r a r i n e s s f r o m w h ic h th e p o s s ib ility o f
ev il a ls o a p p e a r s ; s u b je c tiv ity a s p a r ti c u la r i ty ; 3. t h e o n e - s id e d f o r m s in c e th e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a n e n d o f th e w ill in its e lf h a s a m e r e ly i n t e r n a l a n d n o t a n
o b je c tiv e f o r m ; s u b je c tiv ity a s a n e n d w h ic h is n o t c a r r i e d o u t. O b je c tiv e w ill,
t h e c o n c e p t o f w ill, d is i n te g r a t e s in to : 1. t h e a b s o lu te ly o b je c tiv e w ill, w h ic h is
th e t r u e w ill; 2 . t h e o b je c tiv e w ill w h ic h is f in ite b e c a u s e it la c k s th e d is ta n c e
t o its o b je c t a n d th e r e b y la c k s t h e s u b je c tiv e f o r m . It is in “t h e w ill a b s o r b e d
in its o b je c t o r c o n d itio n . . . t h e w ill o f t h e c h ild , t h e e th ic a l w ill a n d a ls o th e
w ill o f t h e slave, t h e s u p e r s t itio u s p e r s o n ” ( II O P R . 4 4 ) 12; 3. t h e o b je c tiv ity as
o n e - s id e d f o rm a s o p p o s e d to t h e s u b je c tiv ity th a t s ig n ifie s th e im m e d ia c y
o f e x t e r n a l e x is te n c e . A f t e r th is t o u r d e fo rc e th r o u g h th e H e g e lia n lo g ic o f
w ill it is n o w n e c e s s a r y to in v e s tig a te t h e e x t e n t to w h ic h t h e f a m o u s b u t a ls o
“c r y p tic f o r m u la ”13 w h ic h d e lin e a te s H e g e l's d e f in i tio n o f t h e f r e e w ill in a n d
f o r itse lf, t h e t r u l y in f in it e w ill— "the free w ill which w ills the free w ill” (H O P R .
4 6 ) — is s u s p e n d e d b y t h e r a b b le . I h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d th a t in t h e ra b b le -
a t t i t u d e a d is s o lv in g c o n t in u e s to w r ite its e lf w h ic h m a k e s a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s
o f e x is te n c e d is a p p e a r . C a n o n e h e r e c la im t h a t t h e r a b b le w ills t h e n o th in g ?
Is th e r a b b le a m e re ly a b s tr a c t w ill? P o ssib ly th e m o s t f a m o u s h is to r ic a l fig u re
o f s u c h a n a b s tr a c t w ill w h ic h H e g e l d is c u s s e s is s it u a te d b y h im in th e F re n c h
R e v o lu tio n . It is t h e r e f o r e in s t r u c tiv e to e x a m in e H e g e l's d e s c r ip tio n .

Excursus: H eg el’s C riticism o f th e F ren ch Revolution

T h e F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n m a rk s fo r H e g e l th e h is to r ic a l in d e x o f t h e w o rld -
h is to r ic a l e v e n t in w h ic h “m a n ’s e x is te n c e c e n tr e s in h is h e a d , i.e . in T h o u g h t,
i n s p i r e d b y w h ic h h e b u ild s u p th e w o rld o f r e a lity ” ( H P H , 4 4 7 ). T h i s e v e n t
a c q u ir e s w o rld -h is to ric a l r e le v a n c e b e c a u s e in it “f o r t h e f ir s t tim e r e a l e x is t­
e n c e a n d v a lid ity h a d b e e n c o n f e r r e d o n a b s tr a c t r ig h t.”14 B u t th is a b s tr a c t­
n e s s w h ic h re c e iv e s h is to r ic a l v a lid ity in th e F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n is t h e re a s o n
f o r its fa ta lity . F o r in it a w ill t h a t is d i r e c t e d a g a in s t e v e r y th in g t h a t e x ists
e x p r e s s e s its e lf a n d n o t o n ly p ro v e s to b e c a p a b le o f a b a n d o n i n g a ll c o n ­
c r e te d e t e r m i n a t i o n s — t h is m a k e s it e v e n ta l— b u t t h e r e i n a ls o p ro v e s to b e
d e s tr u c tiv e , f a n a tic a l. I f t h e F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n fo r H e g e l is a r e v o lu tio n o f th e
f r e e w ill, s in c e it h is to r ic a lly p ro v e s o n e o f th e c o n s titu tiv e d im e n s io n s o f its
o w n f r e e d o m , th e a b s tr a c t io n f r o m a ll c o n c r e te d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a ls o m a r k s a
144 Hegel's R abble

p e c u l i a r la c k th a t in f e c ts it a n d is s till p r e s e n t in t h e d e d u c t i o n o f th e f r e e w ill
i n t h e Philosophy o f Right™ F o r t h e n e g a tio n o f a l l d e t e r m i n a t i o n s c r e a te s a n
in te r n a lly lim ite d p o s itio n w h ic h is n o t a b le to p r o d u c e a n y “( in n o r g a n iz a ­
tio n " ( I I P I I . 3 6 9 )— a s s e r tin g a b s tr a c t io n s in r e a lity m e a n s to d e s tr o y re a lity .
A n y c o n c r e te d e t e r m i n a t i o n , a n y c o n c r e te o r g a n iz a ti o n h a s b y d e f in i tio n to
f a ll s h o r t o f th e d e m a n d o f a b s tr a c t f r e e d o m a n d h a s to a p p e a r to t h e w ill
a s m e r e s e m b la n c e . F o r “w h e n d is t in c t io n s a p p e a r , it f in d s th e m a n t a g o n is ­
tic to its o w n in d e te r m in a c y a n d a n n u l s th e m ” ( II O P R . 30). T h e r e b y f r e e
w ill r e m a in s in a “fetish istic. c irc le o f s e lf-re ify in g n e g a tio n ”16w h ic h is c a p a b le
o f b e h o l d i n g a m is c o n d u c t in a n y a t t e m p t a t c o n c r e tc d e t e r m i n a t i o n . T h is
l im ita tio n o f a b s tr a c t f r e e d o m c a n o n ly e x te r n a lly r e c o g n iz e in a n y d e t e r m i­
n a t io n its o w n lim ita tio n . A ll c o n c r e tio n falls s h o r t o f it a n d a n y c o n v ic tio n
w h ic h a t te m p ts to g iv e a n o b je c tiv e fa c e to f r e e d o m is s u s p ic io u s . “It is th e
e s s e n c e o f f a n a tic is m to b e a r o n ly a d e s o la tin g d e s tr u c tiv e r e la tio n to th e c o n ­
c r e te " ( H P I I , 3 5 8 ) b e c a u s e t h e o n ly i n t e r i o r a n d p u r e p o s s ib ility o f f r e e d o m
h a s n o o b je c tiv e c r i t e r i a o f e v a lu a tio n . R a th e r th e c o n v ic tio n a n d a t t i t u d e c a n
o n ly b e j u d g e d b y a t t i t u d e a n d c o n v ic tio n a n d th e r e f o r e “s u s p ic io n r e ig n s ”
( I b id ., 4 5 0 ).
F o r w ith o u t o b je c tiv e c r i t e r i a w ith w h ic h t h e s u b je c t c a n j u d g e su b je c tiv e
a t titu d e s a n d s in c e a t titu d e s a r e o n ly i n te r n a l, s u s p ic io n a r is e s t h a t t h e a t ti­
t u d e m ig h t n o t c o r r e s p o n d w ith t h e p u r ity o f f r e e d o m . T h e c a p a c ity of th e
w ill to a b s tr a c t f r o m e v e r y th in g , w h ic h h is to ric a lly a p p e a r s f o r th e firs t tim e
w ith th e F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n , is n o t o n ly d i r e c t e d a g a in s t o b je c tiv e im p u r i­
tie s w h ic h n e c e s s a r ily in a n y a t te m p t to d e t e r m i n e f r e e d o m , b u t a ls o a g a in s t
t h e s u b je c tiv e im p u r it ie s o f w h ic h th e a b s tr a c t f r e e w ill c a n n o t k n o w a n y ­
t h in g . It h a s to c o n s ta n tly d o u b t w h e th e r its p u r ity m ig h t h a v e b e e n in f e c te d
w ith s e e d s o f im p u r ity . F o r H e g e l th e w ill o f t h e F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n is a p u r e
w ill w h ic h , to s u s t a in p u r ity , h a s to e v a c u a te a ll— o b je c tiv e o r s u b je c tiv e —
c o n t a m i n a ti o n s . T h i s is w hy th is w ill h a s a destructive character. T h is is w h y “th e
law o f s u s p e c ts . . . fo r H e g e l [is] n o t a d i s t o r t i o n o r a c o n t in g e n t d e v ia tio n
f r o m t h e r e v o lu tio n b u t its e s s e n tia l o u tc o m e a n d f in d s its p e r f e c t c o r o lla r y
i n th e m a s s - p r o d u c tio n o f t h e c o r p s e — th e th e o r e tic a l s n if f in g o u t o f a lte r ity
h e r e im p ly in g its p r a c tic a l s n if f in g o u t in th e w ill’s o w n cy c le o f ta u to lo g ic a l
s e lf- a ff ir m a tio n .”17
T h e F re n c h R e v o lu tio n o f fe rs th e h is to r ic a l p a r a d ig m o f a w ill th a t d o e s
n o t w a n t to k n o w a n y th in g b u t itse lf. T h e a b s tr a c t io n t h a t it is d e f in e d b y c a n
t h e r e f o r e le a d o n ly in to t e r r o r w h ic h c o n s id e r s a n y r e a liz a tio n a s b e tra y a l.
T h is is t h e d e f in itio n o f fa n a tic is m , fo r “f a n a tic is m is j u s t t h e r e f u s a l to give
s c o p e to p a r t i c u l a r d if fe r e n c e s " ( H O P R , 2 5 5 ). P u r e f r e e d o m o f t h e w ill, s u c h
a “f r e e d o m o f th e v o id " ( Ib id ., 29) w h ic h le a d s to a fa n a tic is m o f f r e e d o m is
t h e r e f o r e t h e p h ilo s o p h ic a l e x p l a n a tio n o f r e v o lu tio n a r y v io le n c e . P u r e f r e e ­
d o m is alw ays p u r e t e r r o r f o r H e g e l: “a f u r y o f d e s tr u c tio n " ( Ib id .) a s a p a r a ­
n o id w ill w h ic h s u s ta in s its o n e p u r ity a g a in s t a n y c o n c r e tio n ; a d e s tr u c tio n
 To W ill N o th in g or not to W ill A n y more 145

o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s a n d r e la tio n s w ith t h e a i m o f m a in ta in in g th e a b s o lu te

p o s s ib ility o f f r e e d o m ; a p u r e a s c e tic w ill. A s B a d io u h a s r e m a r k e d , H e g e l’s
th e s is is u n a m b ig u o u s :

t h e R e v o lu tio n p r e s e n ts th e su b je c tiv e f ig u r e o f a b s o lu te f r e e d o m . . . In th e s e
c o n d itio n s w h a t is t h e o n ly c e r ta in ly ? N o th in g n e s s . O n ly th e n o t h i n g is n o t
s u s p e c t . . . T h e lo g ic o f p u r if ic a tio n , a s H e g e l a s tu te ly r e m a r k s a m o u n ts to
b r in g in g a b o u t th e n o th in g . U ltim a te ly d e a th is th e s o le p o s s ib le n a m e o f
p u r e f r e e d o m , a n d “d y in g w ell” th e o n ly t h i n g t h a t e s c a p e s s u s p ic io n . T h e
m a x im . . . is t h a t . . . it is im p o s s ib le to s e e m to d i e .18

T h e w ill w h ic h a p p e a r s in t h e R e v o lu tio n is a n ih ilis tic w ill s in c e it w ills th e

N o th in g .19 B u t a t t h e s a m e tim e it is im p o r ta n t t h a t th e h is to r ic a l a p p e a r a n c e
o f th e p u r e f r e e d o m o f th e w ill c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d to a m e r e c o n tin g e n c y .
R a th e r its a p p e a r a n c e w ill h a v e b e e n h is to ric a lly n e c e s s a ry b e c a u s e : 1. it p o se s
in a r a d ic a l w ay th e q u e s tio n o f th e p o litic a l r e a liz a tio n o f f r e e d o m — a p r o b ­
le m w h ic h it is n o t a b le to reso lv e20; 2 . it c o n c e iv e s o f t h is q u e s tio n in te r m s o f
t h e w ill’s s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n — w h ic h is th e d e c isiv e p r in c i p le f o r t h e H e g e lia n
d e f in itio n o f t h e s ta te ; 3. h is to ry is fo r I le g e l its e lf t h e g r o u n d o n w h ic h th e
id e a h a s to r e a liz e its e lf— t h e F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n is a historical sign f o r a n e s s e n ­
tia l a s p e c t o f t h e w ill a n d f r e e d o m . F o r th e r e v o lu tio n c la r if ie s th a t f r e e d o m
is a u n iv e rs a l r ig h t o f a ll m e n a n d d o e s n o t r e s p e c t a n c e s tr y o r c la ss. T h is is its
w o rld -h is to ric a l im p o r ta n c e . S o th e “a b s tr a c t r ig h t g a in s it lo g ic a l fo rc e a n d
its o n to lo g ic a l s ta tu s f r o m th e fa c ts t h a t it a b s tr a c ts aw ay f ro m a ll t h a t h a s
m e re ly c o m e to b e h i s t o r i c a l . . T h e F re n c h R e v o lu tio n m a r k s th e h is to ric a l
g e n e s is o f a p r in c i p le o f tr a n s - h is to r ic a l v a lid ity : t h e r a d ic a l a n d c o m p le te (ly )
( a b s tr a c t) c h a r a c t e r o f t h e f r e e d o m o f th e w ill.

N o w , c a n o n e c o n c lu d e f r o m w h a t h a s b e e n s a id s o f a r t h a t t h e r a b b le
h a s a f r e e w ill? S t a r t i n g f r o m th e a s s u m p tio n th a t it h a s o n e , o n e c a n s itu ­
a t e m o r e p r e c is e ly w h ic h ty p e it w o u ld b e : t h e w ill o f t h e r a b b le c a n n o t b e
a w ill t h a t s im p ly d o e s n o t w ill a n y t h i n g a n y m o r e o r t h a t w ills th e n o t h i n g
a s s u c h , s in c e t h e r a b b le d o e s n o t ta k e t h e p o s it io n o f a c o m p le te n e g a tio n
o f e x i s tin g r i g h t , b u t t h e p o s it io n th a t u n d e r m i n e s t h is d is t in c t io n , t h e p o s i­
t io n o f u n-right. T h e c la im t h a t is p r o p e r to its w ill is n o t c o m p le te ly a b s tr a c t
b u t r a t h e r q u ite c o n c r e te . T h e r a b b l e d e m a n d s t h e g u a r a n t e e o f s u b s is te n c e
w h ile ig n o r i n g a ll a t t r i b u t e s a n d p r o p e r tie s : a n u n -rig h t o f e q u a lity f o r a n y o n e
a n d o f ju s tic e f o r a n y o n e . T h e lo u tis h in s is te n c e o n t h e a s s u r a n c e o f its o w n
s u b s is te n c e m a r k s a c o n c r e te d e m a n d w h ic h o n ly a b s tr a c t s a l l d e t e r m i n a t i o n
w h e n it c o m e s to th e q u e s tio n f o r w h o m th is u n -rig h t is v a lid . T h is m e a n s
t h a t it a b s tr a c t s f r o m e v e r y th in g c o n c r e te s in c e its w ill r e f e r s to a r ig h t w h ic h
b e f its a n y o n e . T h e lo u tis h in s is te n c e o n th e a s s u r a n c e o f its o w n s u b s is te n c e
m a r k s a c o n c r e te d e m a n d w h ic h o n ly a b s tr a c t s aw ay a l l d e t e r m i n a t i o n w h e n
it c o m e s to th e q u e s tio n f o r w h o m th is u n -rig h t is v a lid . T h is m e a n s t h a t it
146 Hegel's R abble

a b s tr a c t s f r o m e v e r y th in g c o n c r e te s in c e its w ill r e f e r s to a r i g h t w h ic h b e f its

anyone.
T h e w ill o f t h e r a b b le is o n o n e s id e d if f e r e n t f r o m th e su b je c tiv e w ill o f
t h e F r e n c h R e v o lu tio n s in c e it d o e s n o t c o n s id e r a n y c o n c r e tio n a s a f a ilu r e
a n d th e r e f o r e p e r s is t in t h e p u r e p o ssib ility , b u t r a t h e r in tr o d u c e s a c o n c r e te
d e m a n d . B u t it is o n th e o t h e r s id e s im ila r to it, s in c e t h e ra b b le -w ili is a ls o
m a r k e d by a r a d ic a l ig n o r a n c e o f c o n c r e te d e t e r m in a tio n s . B u t th is a b s tra c ­
tio n o n ly c o n c e r n s th e b e a r e r , th e s u b je c t o f th e un-right t h a t it c la im s . T h e
c la im o f t h e u n -rig h t is a c o n c r e te d e m a n d f o r s u b s is te n c e lo r a n a s s o c ia tio n
o f in d e te r m in a te ly a n y o n e . S u c h a d e m a n d d o e s n o t e n d u p in c o n tr a d ic tio n s
w h e n r e a liz e d , i.e. in t h e p r o c e s s o f its u n iv e rs a liz a tio n . R a th e r th e d e m a n d o f
th is un-right is r e a liz a b le w ith o u t lim ita tio n s . T h e r a b b le c a n n o lo n g e r h a v e a
f r e e w ill w h ic h o u t o f f r e e s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n a b s tr a c ts f r o m a ll c o n c r e tio n s o f
t h e w ill. R a th e r it is in itia lly m a r k e d b y a f u n d a m e n t a l p a s siv ity t h a t r e m a in s
in s c r ib e d in its p o s itio n d u e to t h e m a te r ia l c o n d itio n o f p o s s ib ility fo r its
e m e r g e n c e , i.e. p o v e rty . T h e w ill o f t h e r a b b le c a n n o t b e a f r e e w ill b e c a u s e it
is alw ays a lr e a d y d e t e r m i n e d by a n im p o s s ib ility o f a c tin g w h ic h is p r e s e n t in
p o v e rty . T h e r a b b le is p r im a r ily a f ig u r e o f passivity.
T h is m e a n s th a t o n e c a n n o te a firs t a s p e c t o f th e w ill o f t h e r a b b le : its w ill is
s e p a r a t e d f ro m t h e c o n c e p t o f f r e e d o m . It is alw ay s a lre a d y d e t e r m i n e d by th e
n e c e s s a r ily p r e s e n t o b je c tiv e , m a te r ia l c o n d i tio n o f h is e m e r g e n c e . T h is is w hy
it d o e s n o t a c c o r d w ith th e c o n c e p t w ith w h ic h H e g e l b e g i n s h is Philosophy o f
R ight. T h e w ill o f t h e r a b b le re s e m b le s , d u e to its p assiv ity , m o r e a w illin g t h a n
a w ill.-- T h e r a b b le d o e s n o t w ill freely, n o t s e lf-d e te rm in a te ly . R a th e r it w ills
d u e to a n o b je c tiv e im p o s s ib ility su b je c tiv e ly s o m e th in g im p o s s ib le ; it w ills a n
u n -rig h t o f e q u a lity w h ic h e x p r e s s e s a c o m p le te ly c o n c r e te d e m a n d a s w ell as
in tr o d u c in g a c o m p le te ly i n d e te r m in a te , a ttr ib u te le s s b e a r e r o f o f t h is un-right.
O n e c a n sa y t h a t s u c h a w illin g e n a b le s u s to th in k a c o n c e p t o f f r e e d o m w h ic h
alw ays a n d n e c e s s a r ily s ta n d s u n d e r th e c o n d itio n s o f its m a te r ia l g e n e sis . If
o n e c a n s p e a k o f f r e e d o m a t a ll t h e n th is f r e e d o m is a f r e e d o m to w ill th e
im p o s sib le ; a f r e e d o m w ith c o n d itio n s 21*; a f r e e d o m w h ic h is a t th e s a m e tim e
n o lo n g e r th e c e n tr a l e le m e n t o f th e w ill.
B u t h o w to c o n c e iv e o f t h e c o m b in a t io n o f c o n c r e te d e m a n d a n d th e i n d e ­
t e r m i n a t e s u b je c t o f th is d e m a n d ? T h e u n -right w h ic h th e r a b b le c la im s is first
a n un-right o f th e g u a r a n t e e o f o n e ’s o w n s u b s is te n c e . T h e u n -rig h t w hich th e
r a b b le w ills is d ir e c te d to a s u b s is te n c e w ith o u t d e t e r m in a tio n s a n d d u e to
t h is in d e te r m in a c y th e u n-right is hic et n u n c u n iv e rs a l. It in c lu d e s — w ith o u t
e x c e p tio n — a n y o n e b e c a u s e t h e r a b b le is o n ly d ir e c te d to w a r d its e lf in its
w illin g o f t h e un-right. B u t h e is d u e to th e logic o f double latency a n d d u e to
h is in d e te r m in a c y n o m e re ly p a r t i c u l a r f ig u r e . By c la im in g its o w n su b sist­
e n c e a s its r ig h t a n d w illin g s u c h a n u n -right, th is w illin g o f its o w n s u b s is te n c e
r e v e rs e s in te r n a lly to b e c o m e th e w illin g o f th e s u b s is te n c e o f a ll. T h is m e a n s:
1. t h a t t h e w illin g o f t h e r a b b le is d ir e c te d to w a r d s o m e th in g c o n c r e te (its ow n
 To W ill N o th in g or not to W ill A n y more 147

s u b s is te n c e ) w h ic h 2 . in its p a r ti c u la r i ty a n d c o n c r e tio n is n o t m e re ly p a r ti c u la r
b u t d u e to its in d e te r m in a c y u n iv e rs a l. T h e r a b b le d o e s n o t w ill t h e n o t h i n g as
a b s tr a c t io n f r o m a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s b u t it w ills its e lf a n d it h a s n o d e t e r m in a ­
tio n s . O n e c a n e m p h a s iz e h e r e t h a t t h e r a b b le w ills its e lf a s N o th in g ; it w ills
its e lf a n d i n s o f a r a s it h a s n o d e t e r m in a tio n s — it is N o th in g . T h e r a b b le w ill­
i n g its e lf a s N o t h i n g d o e s n o t w ill a n in te r n a lly lim ite d a n d a b s tr a c t, e m p ty
f r e e d o m b u t r a t h e r it w ills th e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f its o w n w illin g a n d th is w ill­
i n g is u n iv e rs a l. T h e r a b b le w ills its e lf a s N o th in g a n d r e la te s to a n y o n e in so
d o in g .24 T h e r a b b le -w illin g is n o t in te r n a lly m a r k e d b y a n y lim ita tio n r e s u ltin g
f r o m a b s tr a c tio n a n d it h a s its f o u n d a ti o n n o t in a f r e e s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n o f
th e w ill. It is r a t h e r f u n d a m e n ta lly d e t e r m i n e d b y a n im p o s s ib ility f ro m a n d
a t w h ic h it a p p e a r s , w h ic h it tr a n s f o r m s in to a im p o s s ib le d e m a n d , in to a n un-
right o f e q u a lity .
F ro m t h e p r e v io u s r e m a r k s t h e r e r e s u lts t h e fo llo w in g fiv e fu n d a m e n ta l char­
acteristics o f the w illin g o f the rabble: 1. th e w illin g o f t h e r a b b le d o e s n o t d e c id e
a n y t h in g , it d o e s n o t re so lv e a n y th in g , it d o e s n o t j u d g e . T h is is w h y th e r a b b le
h a s a w illin g r a t h e r t h a n a w ill. T h e u n -rig h t t h a t it c la im s im p lie s n o j u d g ­
m e n t, n o d e c is io n w ith r e g a r d to th o s e f o r w h o m it is v a lid . 2 . T h e w illin g o f
t h e r a b b le is a n d r e m a in s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m th e p la c e w h e r e it c a n e m e r g e . It is
p r e c is e ly in th is s e n s e n o t fre e . R a th e r th e c o n c e p t o f f r e e d o m i n t r o d u c e d by
t h e r a b b le is t h e f r e e d o m o f t h e im p o s s ib le d e m a n d o f t h e u n -rig h t o f e q u a l­
ity w h ic h alw ays a lr e a d y is d e t e r m i n e d b y its m a te r ia l, o b je c tiv e c o n d itio n .
T h e w illin g o f t h e r a b b le d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d to th e H e g e lia n w ill. 3 . It w ills
n o t h i n g p o s s ib le . R a th e r it is d i r e c t e d o n to s o m e th in g th a t s e e m s im p o s s ib le
a n d r e m a in s im p o s s ib le fo r H e g e l. B u t th is im p o s s ib ility is n o t a n im p o s s ib il­
ity o f a b s tr a c t io n b u t t h e r a b b le -w illin g is d u e its m a te r ia l lo c a liz a tio n a n d
d e t e r m in a te n e s s a w illin g o f a c o m p le te ly c o n c r e te , d e t e r m i n a t e im p o s s ib le ,
o f a p o i n t o f im p o s s ib ility (o f t h e H e g e lia n s ta te ) . 4 . T h e r a b b le -w illin g is
d i r e c t e d to s o m e th in g c o n c r e te — o n to itself-— b u t th is p a r t i c u l a r is d u e to its
in d e te r m in a c y r e v e r s e d to b e c o m e a u n iv e rs a l. T h e im p o s s ib ility w h ic h th e
r a b b le w ills b y c la im in g h is o w n s u b s is te n c e a s u n -rig h t is n o t lim ite d to itself.
R a th e r, d u e to th e logic o f double latency its in d e te r m in a c y is t h e r e a s o n w hy
t h e r a b b le in its w illin g is d i r e c t e d o n to a n e q u a lity o f a n y o n e w ith a n y o n e
w h ic h d o c s n o t k n o w a n y lim ita tio n — n o t e v e n t h e lim ita tio n o f e x is te n c e . 5 .
T h e w illin g o f t h e r a b b le is t h e r e f o r e lin k e d to w h a t H e g e l c a lls in d ig n a tio n .
W illin g a n d in d ig n a tio n a r c n e c e s s a r ily lin k e d s u c h t h a t th e r a b b le is in d ig ­
n a n t ly w illin g — w illin g th e a b o litio n o f t h e c o n d i tio n o f p o s s ib ility o f its o w n
e m e r g e n c e . T h u s th e w illin g o f th e r a b b le is n o t a u n iv e r s a l c a p a c ity , r a t h e r it
o c c u r s lo c ally — in th e p o o r — a n d w ill o n ly a s s u c h a lo c a l w illin g h a v e b e e n
u n iv e rs a lly im p lie d . I f o n e c a n sa y fo r H e g e l t h a t th e c o n c e p t o f f r e e w ill
d e t e r m in e s t h e e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity , th e s ta te a n d fin a lly p o litic s , it b e c o m e s
c l e a r t h a t th e w illin g o f t h e r a b b le im p lie s a d if f e r e n t p o litic s , a d if f e r e n t f o r m
o f e q u a lity a n d c o m m u n ity .
148 Hegel's R abble

T h is p o litic s c a n first n o t b e a p o litic s w h ic h b e g in s f r o m a lin k a g e o f will

a n d f r e e d o m . R a th e r in it, e q u a lity a n d n o t f r e e d o m is p r im a r y . T h is is to say
s e c o n d ly th a t th is p o litic s c a n n o t b e th o u g h t o f a s a p o litic s o f t h e r e a liz a ­
t io n o f th e p o ssib le . Its in s ig n ia is t h e b i r t h in a n d f r o m a n im p o s sib ility . T h is
m e a n s th ir d ly t h a t th is d if f e r e n t p o litic s h a s to b e a s m u c h a p o litic s o f u n i­
v e rsa lity a s is th e H e g e lia n p o litic s . B u t a t th e s a m e t im e th e q u e s tio n a r is e s
a s to w h e th e r it c a n s till b e a p o litic s o f s ta tis t u n ity ? C a n o n e t h i n k a ra b b le -
p o litic s o f e q u a lity — w ith o u t th e s ta te ? T h is q u e s tio n m u s t le a d in to a f u n d a ­
m e n ta l d e f in itio n o f th e H e g e lia n sta te : th e s ta te p r e v e n ts t h e e m e r g e n c e o f
p u r e m u ltip lic ity .
 C h a p te r 12

T h e Sole Aim of th e State and

the Rabble as Un-O rganic Ensemble

T h e S ta te is n o t f o u n d e d u p o n t h e s o c ia l b o n d , w h ic h it w o u ld e x p r e s s , b u t
r a t h e r u p o n u n - b in d in g , w h ic h it p r o h ib its . Or, to be more precise, the separa­
tion o f th e State is less a result o f the consistency o f presentation than o f the d a n g er o f
inconsistency.
(A la in B adiou)l

In th e Encyclopedia, a p a s s a g e c a n b e f o u n d , w h ic h d e f in e s t h e ta s k o f th e s ta te
in a w ay t h a t is u n iq u e in H e g e l’s w ritin g s:

T h e a g g r e g a te o f p r iv a te p e r s o n s is o f te n c a lle d th e people; b u t a s s u c h a n
a g g r e g a te it is v u lg u s , n o t p o p u lu s; a n d in th is r e g a r d it is th e s o le a im o f th e
s ta te th a t a p e o p l e s h o u ld not c o m c in to e x is te n c e , to p o w e r a n d a c tio n as
su ch a n aggregate. S u c h a c o n d i tio n o f la w le ssn e ss, e th ic a l im p o v e r is h m e n t,
o f g e n e r a l ir r a tio n a lity : in th is c o n d i tio n th e p e o p l e w o u ld b e o n ly a s h a p e ­
le ss, w ild , b lin d f o rc e , lik e t h a t o f t h e s to r m y e le m e n ta l s e a , w h ic h d o c s
n o t , h o w ev e r, d e s tro y its e lf, a s th e p e o p l e — a s s p ir itu a l c le m e n t— w o u ld d o .
(H P M , 243)

H e g e l m a k e s o n e in s ig h t a b s o lu te ly c le a r. T h e s ta te f o u n d s th e u n ity w h ic h
m a k e s a p e o p le in to a p e o p le , i.e . it c a n b r in g it to a p p e a r a s a n o r g a n ic u n ity . If
t h is u n ity , w h ic h th e s ta te h a s d u e to its o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r i n g — t h a t r e f e r s to th e
o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r i n g o f th e c o n c e p t itself'— a n d w h ic h is g u a r a n t e e d th r o u g h
t h e u n ity o f th e p e r s o n o f t h e m o n a r c h , is lo st, th e n n o t h i n g r e m a in s b u t a
c o m p le te ly u n b o u n d p e o p le , a v u lg u s, th a t w h ic h t h e r a b b le e v e ry w h e re b r in g s
to lig h t, a s p o ssib ility , a s t h e m a tte r o f th e e th ic a l s p a c e (in a n d fo r its e lf). T h e
p e o p le a s vu lg u s p r e s e n ts a m e re ly a g g r e g a te d , u n s t r u c t u r e d c o n n e c t io n , th e
u n o r g a n ic , u n e t h ic a l a n d ir r a tio n a l m a ss w h ic h is n e c e s s a r ily d r iv e n to self-
d e s tr u c tio n . O r p u t d if fe r e n tly : fo r H e g e l vu lg u s is a m u ltip lic ity w ith o u t u n ity
w h ic h is alw ays a lre a d y v io le n t a n d m e re ly p a r tic u la r . T h e r e f o r e th e o r g a n ic ,
w h ic h is to say, u n if y in g s t r u c t u r i n g o f th e s ta te h a s to p r e v e n t “t h e a p p e a r a n c e
150 Hegel's R abble

o f a mass [Menge] o r a n aggregate a n d s o f r o m a c q u ir in g a n u n o r g a n iz e d o p in ­

io n a n d v o litio n a n d f r o m c r y s ta lliz in g in to a p o w e r f u l b lo c in o p p o s it io n to
t h e o r g a n iz e d s ta te " ( II O P R , 2 9 0 ).2 T h e p e o p le u n b o u n d f r o m s ta tis t u n ity is
a m e r e u n s t r u c t u r e d m a s s w h o s e m a s s -lik e n e s s g iv e s th e r e a s o n th a t it d ec ay s
in to a m e r e a g g r e g a te o f p a r tic u la r itie s . T h e r e f o r e I le g e l c a n c la im th a t th is is
a m is ta k e n c o n c e p t o f p e o p l e b e c a u s e “i f o n e r a ti o n a lly s p e a k s o f t h e p e o p le ,
it is e s s e n tia lly a t t h e s a m e lim e a s ta te . . . th e p e o p l e w ith o u t s ta te d e s e r v e s n o
r e s p e c t . . . ” (H V O R L 4 , 676).
F o r o n e c a n n o t h a v e a u n if ie d a n d o r g a n ic c o n c e p t o f s o m e th in g w h ic h
d o e s n o t k n o w a u n ity a n d o r g a n ic s tr u c t u r i n g . T h e r e b y o n e w o u ld o n ly re a c h
th e id e a o f a m a s s o r a n a g g r e g a te b u t " t h e c o n c e p t h a s n o t h i n g to d o w ith
a n y a g g r e g a te ” ( H O P R , 262). T h e H e g e lia n s ta te e n s u r e s t h e u n ity o f th e
o r g a n iz e d m u ltip lic ity ( o f th e f r e e w ill). T h e r e f o r e in it “n o o n e o f its m o m e n ts
s h o u ld a p p e a r a s a n u n o r g a n iz e d a g g r e g a te [M e n g e ]. T h e m any, a s in d iv id u ­
a ls . . . a r e o f c o u r s e s o m e th in g c o n n e c t e d , b u t th e y a r e c o n n e c t e d o n ly a s a n
aggregate, a f o rm le s s m a s s w h o s e c o m m o tio n a n d a c tiv ity c a n th e r e f o r e o n ly b e
e le m e n ta ry , ir r a tio n a l, w ild , a n d f r ig h t f u l” ( Ib id ., 29 1 ). T h is p a s s a g e is in s tr u c ­
tiv e s in c e it c o n n e c t s d if f e r e n t d e t e r m in a tio n s . I f t h e r e is a m o m e n t th a t is
in o r g a n ic , it is a n in o r g a n ic a g g r e g a te w h ic h h a s m a s s b u t n o t fo rm ( a tio n ) .
S u c h a n u n s t r u c t u r e d , in o r g a n ic s e t o f t h e m a n y is a m e r e a g g r e g a te w h ic h
s e e m s to h a v e n o d e t e r m in a tio n , n o t e v e n t h a t o f a f o rm . It is a fo rm le s s m a ss
w h ic h in tr o d u c e s a p u r e u n s u b s t a n tia l to g e th e r n e s s o f t h e m a n y w h o la c k th e
u n if y in g s tr u c t u r i n g . T h e c o m m o tio n o f t h is m e r e s e t o f t h e m a n y is w ild , e le ­
m e n ta ry , ir r a tio n a l, h o r r ib le . T h e in v e s tig a tio n o f t h e r a b b le a s organ w ithout
body h a s le d u s in to a d is c u s s io n o f t h e m o v e m e n t o f th e r a b b le w h ic h re s o n a te s
h e r e . T h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e in o r g a n ic s e t o f th e m a n y is w ild a n d ir r a tio n a l,
s in c e it d o e s n o t g o in o n e d ir e c tio n b u t is m u ltid ir e c tio n a l: in a lite r a l se n s e ,
e x p lo siv e . It is e l e m e n ta r y a n d f r ig h t f u l , s in c e it d o e s n o t k n o w a n y s to p p in g
p o in t, a p p e a r s e v e ry w h e re a n d p e r p e t u a t e s its e lf e te r n a lly .
O n e c a n n o te : a m u ltip lic ity w h ic h is w ith o u t u n ity a n d a p p e a r s a s a n in o r ­
g a n ic s e t o f t h e m a n y is fo r H e g e l c h a o tic , e le m e n ta r y , u n o r g a n i z e d , a n d
u lti m a t e ly i r r a t i o n a l . ’ B u t a s h a s b e c o m e c l e a r th e r a b b le is 1. u n b o u n d fro m
t h e o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r e s o f th e s ta te a n d 2. e v e n f r o m its o w n p r o p e r a p p e a r ­
in g . T h e r a b b le w o u ld in t h i s s e n s e b e a f o r m le s s m a s s , a m e r e a g g l o m e r a ­
t i o n , a n u n o r g a n i z e d s e t o f t h e m a n y , th e v u lg u s. T h e r a b b le w o u ld a s s u c h
a v u lg u s b e a s m u c h in c lu d e d in t h e s ta te a s e x c lu d e d f r o m it. B u t h e r e o n e
c a n , a lb e it in a w ay t h a t is p e r h a p s f o r c e d , a s k th e q u e s tio n : W h ic h e le m e n ts
d o e s th is s e t o f t h e f o r m le s s m a s s c o n ta in ? H e g e l h e r e u s e s th e n o t i o n o f th e
“M e n g e ” s y n o n y m o u s ly w ith th e n o tio n o f “m a s s ” b u t a n in te r e s ti n g p e r s p e c ­
tiv e r e s u lts i f o n e ta k e s o n e c o n n o t a t i o n o f it— n a m e ly t h e m a th e m a ti c a l c o n ­
n o t a t i o n o f “s e t"— a n d u s e s it a s a s t a r t i n g p o in t. I f th e r a b b le is o n o n e sid e
t h e m a t t e r o f t h e e t h ic a l s p a c e , th e m a t t e r in a n d f o r its e lf, c a n th is m a tte r
w ith o u t f o r m , w ith o u t d e t e r m i n a t i o n , b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a s e t, a s m u ltip lic ity
 T h e A im o f S ta le a n d the R abble as U n -O rg a n ic E nsem ble 151

w ith o u t u n ity ? C a n s u c h a p u r e m u ltip lic ity w ith o u t u n ity b e t h o u g h t a t all?

It is in s t r u c tiv e to u n d e r t a k e h e r e a s h o r t e x c u r s u s t h r o u g h t h e m a th e m a ti c a l
t h e o r y o f s e ts 4 in o r d e r to a c h ie v e a d if f e r e n t p e r s p e c tiv e o n h o w to u n d e r ­
s ta n d t h e i n o r g a n i c s e t o f t h e m a n y . T h e q u e s tio n I s h a ll th u s a t t e m p t to
a n s w e r is: W h ic h e le m e n ts d o c s t h e r a b b le - s e t h av e ? A r e p ly to th is q u e s tio n
p r o m is e s to le t u s c o n c e iv e m o r e p r e c is e ly ju s t w hy t h e r a b b le is a p r o b le m in
t h e H e g e lia n s t a t e .5

Excursus: In ten sio n al a n d E xten sio nal C oncepts o f Sets

A r o u n d 6 0 y e a rs a f te r t h e p u b lic a tio n of H e g e l’s Philosophy o f R ight, th e

C ontributions to the F oundation o f the Theory o f T rans/m ile Num bers w e re p u b lis h e d
b y G e o r g C a n to r . In th e m o n e f in d s a firs t d e f in itio n — f o u n d in g n a ïv e se t
th e o r y — o f w h a t a se t is: "B y se t w h a t is u n d e r s t o o d is th e g r o u p i n g in to a
to ta lity [S] o f q u ite d is tin c t o b je c ts [s] o f o u r in tu itio n o r o u r th o u g h t [w h ich
a r e c a lle d th e elem ents o f S ].”6 T h e r e m a r k a b le t h i n g in th is d e f in itio n is th a t
C a n to r leav es o p e n th e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r t h e g r o u p i n g of o b je c ts w o rk s d u e
t o a c o m m o n p r o p e r ty , a c o n c e p t e n c o m p a s s in g a ll o b je c ts , o r if th e g r o u p in g
is a r e s u lt w h ic h d o e s n o t a s s ig n a c o m m o n a t tr ib u te . T h is m e a n s th a t C a n to r
d o e s n o t r e s p o n d to th e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r th e g r o u p in g is a g r o u p in g o f
s ta te s , c itiz e n , a ll n a t u r a l n u m b e r s e tc . o r if it is c o n c e iv e d in t h e s a m e way
a s t h e g r o u p in g o f a ll th e th in g s th a t r ig h t n o w lie o n a r a n d o m d e s k o r a r e
tr a w le d b y a f is h in g n e t.7 T h e d is t in c t io n b e tw e e n th e s e tw o ty p e s o f g r o u p ­
in g is a r ti c u la te d in B e r t r a n d R u sse ll a s th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n in te n s io n a l
a n d e x te n s io n a l c o n c e p ts o f t h e s e t.8 W h ile t h e in te n s io n a l c o n c e p t io n o f w h at
a s e t is— w h o s e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s w e re in itia lly F re g e a n d R u sse ll— p r e s u p p o s e
t h e p r im a c y o f th e c o n c e p t w ith r e g a r d to its a p p lic a tio n to g iv e n o b je c ts , th e
e x te n s io n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r o c e e d s in th e r e v e rs e o r d e r : “a se t is s im p ly a
r e s u lt, th e r e s u lt o f c o lle c tin g to g e th e r a c e r t a i n b u n d le o f e le m e n ts .”9 A g a in st
t h is b a c k g r o u n d it is n o t d if f ic u lt to c o n c e iv e o f H e g e l's c r it iq u e o f th e s e t as
a m e r e a g g lo m e r a tio n o f th e m a n y a s a c r itic is m o f t h e extensional c o n c e p tio n
o f se ts. A s e t w h ic h o n e c a lls a p e o p le a s a m e re ly a g g r e g a tiv e g r o u p in g is fo r
H e g e l i r r a tio n a l, in o r g a n i c , v u lg a r — vu lg u s a n d n o t p op u lu s. T h e p o p u lu s by
c o n t r a s t r e p r e s e n ts f o r H e g e l a u n i f o r m g r o u p in g d u e to a p r o p e r ty a s s ig n a b le
to all. T h e r e b y f o r th e p e o p le in t h e s ta te it is a t le a s t v a lid to t h i n k o f it as
c o n s titu t in g a u n ity i f o n e p r e s u p p o s e s o n e c o m m o n p r o p e r ty b e lo n g in g to all
o f th e e le m e n ts o f th e c o n t a in e d m u ltip lic ity — t h e f r e e w ill. T h e H e g e lia n p e o ­
p le a r e a n in te n s io n a l a n d n o t a n e x te n s io n a l se t. T h e e x te n s io n a l s e t n a m e s
r a t h e r th e t h r e a t o f d is i n te g r a t io n o f t h e s ta te in th e in o r g a n ic a n d m e re ly
m a ss-lik e to g e th e r n e s s o f t h e m a n y .
B u t th e d e b a te a r o u n d th e — in te n s io n a l o r e x te n s io n a l— d e f in itio n o f th e
c o n c e p t o f s e ts is n o t o n ly a m a th e m a tic a l g a m e . R a th e r a s a c o n s e q u e n c e
 Hegel's R abble

o f it, a n in f lu e n tia l p r o b le m o c c u r r e d fo r t h e in te n s io n a l d e f in itio n o f se ts,

w h ic h b e c a m e k n o w n a s t h e 'R u s s e llia n a n tin o m y .’ F re g e is t h e firs t to d e f in e
u n a m b ig u o u s ly a s e t a s u n ity o f a ll o b je c t to w h ic h a s p e c ific p r o p e r ty c a n
b e a s s ig n e d 10— f o r m a liz a b le as, f o r e x a m p le , λ (a ), w h e re b y λ w o u ld n a m e th e
p r o p e r ty a n d a th e m u ltip lic ity o r o b je c ts w h ic h s h a r e t h e s a m e p r o p e r ty . W ith
th is it is p o s s ib le to 1. c o m p r e h e n d th e n o tio n o f p r o p e r t y in a n a b s o lu te ly fo r ­
m a l w ay a n d 2. c o n c e iv e o f it w ith r e g a r d to a f r e e v a r ia b le w h ic h is d e t e r m i n e d
f r o m it a s th e s o le c o n s ta n t ." T h is m e a n s th a t a n y o b je c t, a n y te r m w h ic h h a s a
c e r ta in p r o p e r ty — f o r w h ic h t h e p r o p o s itio n th a t th e te r m a h a s t h e p r o p e r ty
λ is t r u e — b e lo n g s a s a n e le m e n t to th e s e t o f te r m s w h ic h h a v e th is p r o p e rty .
B u t— a n d h e r e t h e p r o b le m b e g in s — th is a s s u m p tio n p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t 1. t h e r e
a r c o b je c ts , te r m s w h ic h c a n b e g r o u p e d d u e to a p r o p e r t y th e y h a v e in c o m ­
m o n a n d 2. t h a t p r o p e r tie s h a v e to b e u n a m b ig u o u s ly a s s ig n a b le s o t h a t it is
n e v e r a q u e s tio n w h e th e r th e y b e fit th e te r m s o r n o t. A s in n o c e n t a s th e s e tw o
p r e s u p p o s itio n s m ig h t s e e m , th e y p r o d u c e th e s t a r t i n g p o in t o f a f u n d a m e n ta l
m a th e m a tic a l p r o b le m a tiz a tio n o f t h e in te n s io n a l c o n c e p t o f sets.
In 1901 R u sse ll f o rm u la te s a p a r a d o x w h ic h b e g i n s f r o m th e s e tw o p r e m is e s
a n d r e m a in s in s o lu b le fo r th e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f th e in te n s io n a l d e t e r m in a ­
t io n o f se ts. I f o n e a s s u m e s th a t a s e t is c o n s titu te d in te n s io n a lly , th e n o n e c a n
d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n s e ts t h a t b e lo n g to th e m s e lv e s a n d th o s e t h a t d o n o t. T h is
d is tin c tio n d o e s n o t c o n t r a d i c t e i t h e r o f th e tw o p r e m is e s . B u t in c o n s e q u e n c e
t h is m e a n s th a t s o m e se ts a r e s e lf-b e lo n g in g — t h e s e t o f a ll c o lle c tio n s of b o o k s
is its e lf a c o lle c tio n o f b o o k s — a n d s o m e a r e n o t— t h e s e t o f all w o m e n is its e lf
n o t a w o m a n . R u s se ll’s p a r a d o x n o w p o s e s t h e q u e s tio n a s to w h e th e r th e se t
o f a ll se ts b e lo n g s to its e lf.12 W h a t follow s f r o m th is c o n s tr u c tio n is th a t n o
d ir e c t a n s w e r c a n b e g iv e n , s in c e b o th a n s w e rs s e e m to b e e q u a lly v a lid a n d —
w o rse — o n e a n s w e r n e c e s s a r ily im p lie s t h e o th e r. T h e p a r a d o x le a d s to th e
e q u iv a le n c e o f a p r o p o s itio n a n d its n e g a tio n : th e s e t o f a ll se ts b e lo n g s to its e lf
a n d d o e s n o t b e lo n g to its e lf.13 C a n t o r d e s c r ib e s th e c o n s e q u e n c e o f th e p a r a ­
d o x a s follow s: “[ 0 ] n th e o n e h a n d a m u ltip lic ity c a n b e s u c h th a t th e a s s u m p ­
t io n t h a t a ll o f its e le m e n ts 'a r e to g e t h e r ' le a d s to a c o n tr a d ic tio n , s o th a t it is
im p o s s ib le to c o n c e iv e o f th e m u ltip lic ity a s a u n ity , as ‘o n e f in is h e d t h i n g ’.
S u c h m u ltip lic itie s I c a ll absolutely in fin ite o r inconsistent m ultiplicities.”M
W ith th e d e f in itio n o f a n in c o n s is te n t m u ltip lic ity C a n t o r im p lie s n o t a p o s ­
sib le u n ity o f o p p o s ite s in th e w ay th a t th e in c o n s is te n t m u ltip lic ity c o u ld b e
u n if ie d b y its ir r e g u la r ity . H e r a t h e r in sists, a s o n e c a n c la im w ith B a d io u ,
“t h a t th e m u ltip le . . . b e d e liv e r e d w ithout concept" (B B E , 4 3 ). A se t in th e e x te n -
s io n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g d o e s n o t k n o w a n y p r e d e t e r m i n e d c o n d itio n s o f b e lo n g ­
in g . W ith th is d e f in itio n C a n t o r a lr e a d y im p lie s s o m e c h a r a c te r is tic s w h ic h
t h e h is to r ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f s e t th e o r y w ill r e a liz e th e o re tic a lly : 1. t h a t it is
p o s s ib le to t h i n k a c o n c e p t o f m u ltip lic ity w h ic h c a n n o t b e g r o u p e d u n d e r an y
p r o p e r ty a n d w h ic h e v e n s u s p e n d s t h e f u n d a m e n ta l f o r m o f q u a lita tiv e p r e ­
d e t e r m i n e d u n ity ; 2 . t h a t ‘s o m e th in g ’ is n o lo n g e r c o lle c te d in to a u n ity , b u t
 T h e A im o f S ta le a n d th e R abble as U n -O rg a n ic E n sem b le 153

r a l l i e r ih a t t h e r e is n o w ay 10 d is t in g u is h b e tw e e n w h a t is a n a lr e a d y e x is tin g
u n ity a n d w h a t is n o t. S o C a n to r im p lie s t h a t a m u ltip lic ity c a n b e th o u g h t a s a
p u r e m u ltip lic ity , i.e. a s a m u ltip lic ity o f m u ltip lic itie s ; 3 . th is to -b e -c o lle c te d -
in to - a - u n ity d o e s n o t m e a n th a t t h e m u ltip lic ity , th a t is a n e le m e n t o f th e u n ity ,
i.e . o f t h e s e t, its e lf h a s a n y e s s e n tia l a t tr ib u te . R a th e r th e c o lle c tio n in to a se t
w o rk s so le ly a c c o r d in g to t h e m e r e r e la tio n o f b e lo n g in g to th is s e t, i.e. follow ­
i n g a n o p e r a tio n o f c o lle c tio n w h ic h ‘e x te r n a lly ’ h a p p e n s to th e e le m e n ts — fo r
e x a m p le to th e fis h e s in a f is h in g n e t. W h a t is i m p o r t a n t h e r e f o r o u r p u r p o s e s
is t h a t th is th r e e f o ld im p lic a tio n m e a n s t h a t s e t th e o r y — in its c o n s e q u e n c e s —
c a n n o lo n g e r d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n o b je c ts , g r o u p s o f o b je c ts , o r e v e n b e tw e e n
e le m e n ts a n d s e ts .1’ F o r th e c x tc n s io n a l c o n c e p t io n o f se ts le a d s to t h e f a c t th a t
o n e h a s to th in k t h e s u p p o s e d u n ity w h ic h b e c o m e s a n e le m e n t o f t h e s e t its e lf
a s a n c x tc n s io n a l set.
T h u s a n y m u ltip lic ity c o lle c te d in th e f o r m o f a u n ity is its e lf n o th in g b u t
a m u ltip lic ity . T h e d e t e r m in a tio n ‘to b e a n e le m e n t o f s o m e th in g ' is n o t a
q u a lity , n o t a d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f b e i n g a n y m o re , b u t r a t h e r f o u n d s its e lf o n th e
c o n t in g e n t o p e r a tio n w h ic h c o lle c ts th e e le m e n ts t o g e t h e r to fo rm a se t. T h is
d e t e r m i n a t i o n n a m e s a r e la tio n th r o u g h w h ic h ‘s o m e th in g ’ ( th e e le m e n t) is
c o lle c te d b y ‘s o m e th in g e ls e ’ ( th e s e t w h o s e e le m e n t it is) a n d p r e s e n te d as
its e le m e n t. T h is m e a n s th a t t h a t w h ic h is p r e s e n te d a s a n e le m e n t o f a se t
d o e s n o t d is tin g u is h its e lf b y a n y im m a n e n t d e t e r m in a tio n , a n y in tr in s ic p r e d i­
c a te f r o m s o m e th in g else. T h e d if f e r e n tia tio n is a n e f f e c t c r e a te d b y th e c o l­
le c tio n a lo n e — f o r e x a m p le th e b o o k s w h ic h lie o n a d e s k a r e d if f e r e n t fro m
t h o s e t h a t a r e n o t ly in g o n it only d ue to the fa c t th a t th e y a r e ly in g o n t h e d e s k .
U ltim a te ly th is m e a n s th a t th e e x te n s io n a l c o n c e p t io n o f s e ts d o e s n o t p r e s u p ­
p o s e th e e x is te n c e o f q u a lita tiv e ly d e t e r m i n e d o b je c ts . R a th e r a n e x is te n c e
is e x c lu siv ely im p lie d in a w ay t h a t o n e c a n d e d u c e f r o m th e a lre a d y e x is tin g
e le m e n ts t h a t w h ic h w ill h a v e e x is te d c o n tin g e n tly b e f o r e th e c o lle c tio n o f e le ­
m e n ts in to a s e t— th e fish in th e f is h in g n e t a r e p a r t o f th e s e t o f th e fish in th e
s e a w h o s e e x is te n c e o n e c a n o n ly d e d u c e f r o m t h e fish c a u g h t in t h e n e t , s in c e
it is n e c e s s a r ily im p lie d b u t n o t p r e s u p p o s e d .
T h e in tc n s io n a l c o n c e p tio n o f se ts p r e s u m e s th a t s o m e th in g , o b je c ts e x is t,
a n d s o m e o f th e m h a v e a c e r t a i n p r o p e r ty s u c h th a t th e y c a n b e c o m e th e e le ­
m e n t o f a se t; th e c x tc n s io n a l c o n c e p t io n a b a n d o n s t h is a s s u m p tio n o f e x ist­
e n c e . It r a t h e r b e g in s w ith a ( e x is te n tia l ly) u n d e t e r m i n e d a s s u m p tio n : i f t h e r e
is s o m e th in g , i.e. //o b je c ts (fish in th e se a) e x is t, t h e n t h e r e a ls o e x ists a s e t o f
o b je c t to w h ic h a c e r ta in p r o p e r ty c a n b e a s s ig n e d ( c a u g h t b y f is h e r m e n ) a n d
t h a t th e r e f o r e c a n b e c o m e a n e le m e n t o f a s e t ( th e s e t o f fish in t h e n e t). W ith
t h is in d e te r m in a c y , e x is te n c e is n o lo n g e r p r e s u p p o s e d . R a th e r it is im p lie d
t h a t if th e e x is te n c e o f s o m e th in g is g iv e n , t h e n a t th e s a m e t im e th e e x is te n c e
o f s o m e th in g e ls e is im p lie d , th e e x is te n c e o f a p a r t , w h ic h c a n b e a s s ig n e d a
p a r t i c u l a r d e t e r m i n a t i o n .16 O n e d o e s n o t ta k e t h e a s s u m e d e x is te n c e o f th e
f is h in th e s e a to b e in d ic a tiv e o f t h e fish in th e n e t, t h a t a ll h a v e t h e q u a lita tiv e
154 Hegel's R abble

d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f b e in g c a u g h t, b u t th e fish in th e n e t a r e in d ic a tiv e o f th e
im p lie d e x is te n c e o f th e s e t o f f i s h in th e se a . T h is is a ls o to say t h a t o n e c a n
o n ly re tro a c tiv e ly say s o m e th in g a b o u t t h a t w h ic h lie s b e f o r e t h e c o lle c tio n in to
a se t. O n ly w h e n t h e r e is a p a r t f o r w h ic h a d e t e r m i n a t i o n is c o r r e c tly a p p lie d
a n d w h ic h is th e r e f o r e c o lle c te d in to a s e t, c a n o n e say s o m e th in g a b o u t w h a t
lo g ic a lly lie s ‘b e f o r e ’ th is c o lle c tio n . O th e r w is e o n e c a n n o t say a n y t h in g a b o u t
th is ‘b e f o r e ’— n o t e v e n t h a t it e x ists. T h is a ls o m e a n s t h a t th e r e is a n d h a s to
b e alw ays ‘s o m e th in g ’ w h ic h d o c s n o t f u lly c o in c id c w ith th e c o lle c tio n in to a
s e t, i.e. w h o s e e x is te n c e o n e c a n o n ly r e tr o a c tiv e ly c o n c lu d e , a s it is im p lie d .
O th e r w is e t h e r e w o u ld o n ly b e in te n s io n a lly c o n s titu te d sets.
A s a c o n s c q u e n c e , t h e r e h a s to b e ‘so m e th in g * th a t m a rk s t h e c o lle c tio n o f
e le m e n ts in to a s e t a s a n o p e r a tio n . I f t h e c o lle c tio n c o lle c ts c e r ta in th in g s
t o g e t h e r a s e le m e n ts o f a s e t, t h e n t h is ‘s o m e th in g ’ t h a t b e c a m e a n e le m e n t
im p lie s th e e x is te n c e o f ‘s o m e th in g ’ w h ic h c a n o n ly b e th o u g h t re tro a c tiv e ly
a s th a t w h ic h lie s ‘b e f o r e ’ th is c o lle c tio n . T h is d o e s n o t d e s c r ib e a “lo g ic o f a
la c u n a ,” i.e . s o m e th in g w h ic h w o u ld h a v e b e e n “ f o r g o tte n ” (BBF., 54) b y th e
c o lle c tin g o p e r a tio n . R a th e r t h e r e a r e o n ly c o lle c tio n s in th e f o rm o f se ts. B ut
n e v e r th e le s s , s o m e th in g is c o lle c te d w h ic h w ill h a v e b e e n ‘b e f o r e ’ th e c o lle c ­
t io n a n d a t th e s a m e tim e c a n o n ly b e m a d e a c c e s s ib le by a n d f r o m it. B u t if,
a s s e t th e o r y sh o w s, a ll in te r n a l q u a litie s w h ic h th e in te n s io n a l c o n c e p tio n p r e ­
s u p p o s e s a r e s u b tr a c te d , t h e s o le d e t e r m i n a t i o n t h a t is le ft is t h a t o f t h e m u l­
tip lic ity . I f s e t th e o r y th u s p r e s e n ts p u r e m u ltip lic itie s , m u ltip le s o f m u ltip le s ,
t h e n th e q u e s tio n n e c e s s a r ily a r is e s a s to w h a t s e t th e o r y c o lle c ts in to s u c h a
m u ltip lic ity ; *i>Aaiwill h a v e la in ‘b e f o r e ’ th e c o lle c tio n in to a p u r e m u ltip lic ity .
T h is le a d s to t h e fa c t t h a t e v e n th is la s t d e t e r m i n a t i o n h a s to b e s u b tr a c te d
s in c e th a t w h ic h lie s b e f o r e m u ltip lic ity c a n n o t be a m u ltip lic ity : o n e n e e d s to
t h i n k a m u ltip lic ity w h ic h is n o t a m u ltip lic ity (as th e r e a r e o n ly m u ltip lic itie s).
S e t th e o r y so lv es th is p r o b le m w ith t h e in t r o d u c t i o n o f a n a x io m : th a t o f th e
e m p ty set.
T h is a x io m is th e o n ly a x io m o f s e t th e o r y t h a t c la im s a n e x is te n c e : th e e x ist­
e n c e o f t h e v o id . T h a t w h ic h w ill h a v e la in ‘b e f o r e ’ th e p u r e m u ltip lic ity a n d
w h ic h is o n ly p r e s e n ta b l e w ith in it in th e f o r m o f a n a m e . F o r t h e v o id o f th e
e m p ty s e t is in s e r t e d a s a n a m e w h ic h c la im s th e e x is te n c e o f t h a t w h ic h is n o t
p r e s e n ta b le , e v e n a f te r th e s u b tr a c tio n o f a ll p o s s ib le d e t e r m in a tio n , e v e n o f
m u ltip lic ity . T o c la rify , o n e c a n r e c o n s tr u c t th e p a t h f r o m th e in te n s io n a l to
t h e e x te n s io n a l c o n c e p tio n a s fo llow s: i f in te n s io n a l s e ts c o lle c t th e ir e le m e n ts
d u e to s h a r e d p r o p e r tie s , th e e x te n s io n a l c o n c e p t io n s u b tr a c ts th e s e p r o p e r ­
tie s a n d c la im s th e e x is te n c e o f n e i t h e r p r o p e r tie s n o r g iv e n o b je c ts . It o n ly
p r e s u p p o s e s t h a t e v e r y th in g w h ic h a p p e a r s in a s e t in t h e f o r m o f a n c le m e n t
is its e lf a s e t a n d th e r e f o r e c o n s is ts o f s o m e th in g else, i.e . th e s e t is a m u ltip lic ­
ity o f m u ltip lic itie s . In th is s e n s e a c l e a r d e f in itio n o f w h a t a s e t is is im p o s s ib le
s in c e a s e t d o e s n o t h a v e a n y d is tin c tiv e c r it e r ia . I f fo r e x a m p le o n e c a n d e c o m ­
p o s e th e se t o f th e b o o k s o n t h e d e s k in to its e le m e n ts , w h ic h m a k e s e a c h o f
 T h e A im o f S ta te a n d th e R a b b le as U n -O rg a n ic E n sem b le 155

t h e m in to a b o o k a n d o n e c a n c o n t in u e w ith th is in fin ite ly , th e n it b e c o m e s

c le a r th a t a n y e le m e n t o f a s e t is a g a in c o m p o s e d o f e le m e n ts a n d th e s a m e w ill
g o f o r a n y e le m e n t. B u t w h a t is th e m u ltip lic ity o f m u ltip lic itie s w h ic h re s u lts
f r o m th is in f in ite d e c o m p o s itio n u ltim a te ly c o m p o s e d o l? W h a t is t h e p u r e
m u ltip lic ity w h ic h r e s u lts f r o m th is p ro c e s s o f d e c o m p o s itio n m a d e o u t of?
H e r e t h e a x io m o f th e e m p ty s e t e n t e r s . It s ta te s t h a t t h e r e is a s e t w h ic h
d o e s n o t h a v e a n y e le m e n ts . T h e d e c is iv e i m p o r t o f th is a x io m w as f o r m u l a te d
b y B a d io u : “t h e r e e x ists th a t to w h ic h n o e x is te n c e c a n b e s a id to b e l o n g ”
(BBF-, 67). S e t th e o r y th u s p r e s c r ib e s t h e e x is te n c e o f s o m e th in g th a t d o c s n o t
h a v e a n y c r it e r io n o f e x is te n c e , s in c e n o t h i n g b e lo n g s to it a s a n e le m e n t. T h is
m a k e s it c l e a r t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f e x is te n c e w h ic h th e c x tc n s io n a l c o n c e p tio n
im p lie s d e p e n d s o n t h e c o n c e p t o f b e lo n g in g . A s e t to w h ic h e le m e n ts b e lo n g
e x ists , s in c e it is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e e le m e n ts th a t b e lo n g to it. S e ts a r c o n ly
s p e c if ie d by th e e le m e n ts w h ic h b e lo n g to th e m . T h e r e f o r e o n e c a n c o n c lu d e
t h a t t h e e m p ty s e t d o e s n o t h a v e a n y d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e x is te n c e , s in c e it h a s
n o e le m e n ts . T h is is w h y th e e x is te n c e o f t h e e m p ty s e t 1. is i n t r o d u c e d ax i-
o m a tic a lly , lo r its e x is te n c e c a n n o t b e o th e r w is e a s s ig n e d a n d 2 . its e x is te n c e is
p o s tu l a te d b y a p u r e a c t o f n a m in g . I f t h e e m p ty s e t c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d by
its e le m e n ts , t h a t w h ic h it c o lle c ts is n o t h i n g b u t a p u r e n a m e ( th e v o id , e x ist­
e n c e w ith o u t e x is te n c e ). T h e a x io m d o e s n o t say a n y t h in g a b o u t t h e e m p ty
s e t; it o n ly p o s its its n a m e a s th e n a m e o f a n e x is te n c e w ith o u t e x is te n c e .17
T h is is im p o r ta n t: b e c a u s e th e m u ltip lic ity in its p u r e f o r m is c o m p o s e d o f
s o m e th in g w h ic h lo g ic a lly w ill h a v e la in ‘b e f o r e ’ it a n d th is ‘b e f o r e ,’ d u e to th e
a x io m a tic p o s itin g o f s e t th e o ry , is d e l in e a te d a s a n e m p ty se t, t h e e m p ty set
is a p a r t o f a n y s e t.1* T h is d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t t h e v o id a p p e a r s a s a n e le m e n t
i n a n y s e t. R a th e r th e v o id is th a t w ith w h ic h o n e n e c e s s a r ily e n d s u p w ith if
o n e c o n tin u e s t h e d e c o m p o s itio n o f m u ltip lic itie s . T h e v o id is th e r e f o r e th a t
w h ic h in t h e last in s ta n c e th e e le m e n ts o f th e e le m e n ts o f a s e t a r e c o m p o s e d
o f. It is in th is s e n s e o m n ip r e s e n t, n o t h a v in g a fix e d p o s itio n , in c lu d e d in all
s e ts a s a p a r t . O n e c a n a ls o say: s in c e a n y s e t « is c o m p o s e d o f ‘s o m e th in g ’ th a t
it c o lle c ts (β ) a n d th is e le m e n t is a ls o c o m p o s e d o f s o m e th in g (γ) t h e n t h e r e
is a lim it to w h a t c a n b e p r e s e n te d a s a n c le m e n t in a , b u t w h ic h n o n e th e le s s
is a p a r t o f it b y b e in g a n c le m e n t o f β. S o m e th in g c a n b e a n e le m e n t o f β a n d
n o t a n e le m e n t o f a . T h e e m p ty s e t is p a r t o f a n y s e t b c c a u s c th e m u ltip lic ity o f
m u ltip lic itie s is c o m p o s e d o n ly o f it. It is u n iv e rs a lly in c lu d e d .

W h a t r o le d o th e s e r e m a r k s p la y fo r th e q u e s tio n d is c u s s e d h e re ? A r e s u lt
o f th is h is to ric a l e x c u r s u s o f fe rs a d if f e r e n t p e r s p e c tiv e o n H e g e l’s c r itiq u e
o f t h e in o r g a n ic a n d ir r a tio n a l a g g r e g a te o f t h e m a n y a s a m e r e m a s s o r se t.
O n e c a n r e a d H e g e l c r itic is m o f s u c h a v u lg u s a s c r itic is m o f th e p e o p l e as
a n e x te n s io n a l s e t. T h e p e o p l e a s e x te n s io n a l s e t is n o lo n g e r s t r u c t u r e d a s a
u n ity d e r iv e d f r o m a c o m m o n q u a lity o r p r o p e r ty . R a th e r s u c h a v u lg a r d e te r ­
m in a tio n o f th e c o n c e p t o f t h e p e o p le f o r H e g e l c a n n o t d isp la y a n y s u b s ta n ­
tia l b o n d , c o n s is te n c y o r s ta b ility b e tw e e n its m e m b e r s . I f o n e d o e s r e a d th e
156 Hegel's R abble

H e g e lia n c r it iq u e in th is w ay o n e c a n se e p re c is e ly w h ic h t h r e a t H e g e l w ish e s
t o c o n f r o n t:
1. D u e to th e logic o f double latency— a n y o n e is la te n tly ra b b le . T h e r a b b le
r e f e r s to t h e f a c t th a t t h e s ta te its e lf is c o m p o s e d o u t o f th e r a b b le w h ic h is
im p lic itly e v e ry w h e re , w h ic h lo g ic a lly w ill h a v e b e e n ‘b e f o r e ’ t h e o r g a n ic u n ity ,
a l th o u g h th is ‘b e f o r e ’— a s th e p e c u lia r ‘p la c e ’ o f t h e m a tte r o f e t h ic a l s p a c e —
c a n b e th o u g h t o n ly re tro a c tiv e ly a f te r th e f o r m a tio n o f th e s ta le . T h e r a b b le
t h e r e f o r e m a rk s th e ir r u p t i o n o f t h e e t h ic a l m a t t e r in a n d fo r its e lf w h ic h is
w ith o u t c o m m o n o r g iv e n q u a litie s . T h e r a b b le — a s t h e u n -rig h t o f e q u a lity
c la r if ie d — m a rk s th e c o n s is te n t p r im a c y o f e q u a lity o v e r f r e e d o m .
2 . T h e d e t e r m in a tio n o f th e r a b b le a s organ w ith o u t body— s e p a r a ti o n fro m
t h e o r g a n ic u n ity w ith in th is u n ity ; s u b tr a c tio n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s — r e f e r s
to th e fa c t t h a t th e r a b b le d o e s n o t e x is t. It n a m e s a s e t w h ic h in a n ir r a tio n a l
a n d in o r g a n ic w ay p r e s e n ts a m e re ly a b s tr a c t e n s e m b le o f th e m a n y , w h ic h ,
n e g a tin g th e o r g a n ic u n ity , s ta n d s a g a in s t t h e s ta te . It is a s e t w h ic h h a s n o
d e t e r m in a tio n o f e x is te n c e , i.e. n o e le m e n t. T h e r a b b le is a s e t w ith o u t e le m e n t
a n d th e r e f o r e u n iv e rs a lly im p lie d . T h is is w hy o n e c a n c la im t h a t th e r a b b le
ta k e s a s im ila r p o s itio n in H e g e l’s Philosophy o f R ight a s th e e m p ty s e t in th e
p o s t- C a n to r ia n s e t th e o ry . T h e r a b b le a ls o h a s n o d e t e r m in a tio n s o f e x is te n c e
a s it e m e r g e s a f t e r th e p ro c e s s o f p u tr e f a c tio n o f th e p o o r a n d a t th e s a m e
tim e , a s c o m p le te in - e x is te n c e , it r e f e r s to a n y o n e in t h e s ta te . T h e r a b b le is a
s e t w ith o u t e le m e n ts w h ic h th e r e f o r e is a p a r t o f a ll e le m e n ts . H e g e l’s c r itiq u e
o f th e vu lg u s c a n b e r e a d a s c r it iq u e o f th e r a b b le t h a t a t th e s a m e tim e d o e s
n o t c a p t u r e its t r u e n a t u r e . F o r H e g e l a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e p e o p le a s a
m e r e m a ss-lik e to g e th e r n e s s o f t h e m a n y is in te r n a lly r e v e rs e d s o a s to b e c o m e
a r e g im e o f v io le n c e a n d o p in io n , s in c e in it a n y p a r t i c u l a r in d iv id u a l w o u ld
p o s it its e lf a s u n iv e rs a l. A n y s u c h p a r ti c u la r i ty w o u ld s ta n d a s u n iv e rs a l a n d
su c h a s ta te o f n a t u r e c o m p r is e d o f p a r ti c u la r i tie s w o u ld n e c e s s a r ily e n d in a
c a ta c ly s m o f v io le n c e . B ut H e g e l’s c r it iq u e o f th e vu lg u s c a n a t th e s a m e tim e
n o t b e a c r itiq u e o f th e ra b b le .
F o r th e r a b b le a s in - e x is te n c e , w h ic h la c k a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s , r a t h e r m a rk s
t h e e m e r g e n c e o f s o m e t h in g th a t g e n e r a te s th e in s ig h t in to th e m a tte r o f th e
e th ic a l s p a c e . T h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r a b b le a s organ w ith o u t body is th e i r r u p ­
tio n o f th e v o id , o f s o m e th in g w h ic h h a s n o d e t e r m i n a t i o n , in to t h e in tc n -
sio n a lly c o n c e iv e d u n ity o f th e o r g a n ic a lly s t r u c t u r e d s ta te . O n o n e h a n d o n e
c a n o n ly c o n f ir m H e g e l’s c r itiq u e o f th e r a b b le a s vu lg u s. F o r s u c h a n c x tc n -
sio n a lly c o n s titu t e d s e t is in c a p a b le o f r e a c h in g a s u b s ta n tia l, o r g a n ic u n ity .
R a th e r it is o n ly c o n s titu t e d b y a c o n t in g e n t o p e r a tio n . H o w ev er, H e g e l’s c r iti­
cism a ls o m is se s s o m e th in g s in c e h e d ra w s f r o m th is t h e c o n c lu s io n t h a t s u c h
a c o lle c tio n is n e c e s s a r ily ir r a tio n a l s in c e it w o u ld c o n c e iv e o f t h e s ta te a s a
m e r e a g g r e g a te o f u ltim a te ly q u a lity le s s m u ltip lic itie s .20 T h e H e g e lia n ra b b le -
c r itiq u e is a c r itiq u e o f th e e f f e c t w h ic h is lin k e d to th e in s ig h t o f th e m a tte r o f
t h e e th ic a l s p a c e , d e c o m p o s in g th e s ta te . E v e n t h e H e g e lia n s ta te p e r p e tu a te s
 T h e A im o f S ta le a n d the R abble as U n -O rg a n ic E nsem ble 157

its e lf th r o u g h a p r o h ib iti o n o f u n b in d in g th e o r g a n ic a lly s t r u c t u r e d u n ity in to

t h e e q u a lity o f a n y o n e . T h e r a b b le e m e r g e s a s organ w ithout body in t h e o r g a n ic
s t r u c t u r i n g o f th e s ta te a n d a p p e a r s w ith in it— a n d f o r H e g e l— o n ly a s th e
n e g a tio n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s , a s in s is tin g in e x is te n c e , a s v o id . B u t c a n o n e
c la im h e r e th a t th e r a b b le is in a c e r t a i n s e n s e n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a m e r e
n a m e , j u s t lik e th e v o id , th e e m p ty s e t s u c h t h a t H e g e l c a n n o t d o m o r e w ith
r e g a r d to th e r a b b le th a n j u s t p o s it h is e x is te n c e , h is n a m e ? I h a v e a lre a d y
sh o w n t h a t I le g e l c a n n o t k n o w i f th e r a b b le is p r e s e n t o r n o t, if it e v e r w ill b e
p r e s e n t. F o r it h a s n o e x te r n a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f e x is te n c e . Is t h e r a b b le th e
v o id o f t h e I Ie g e l ia n Philosophy o f R ig h t w h ic h is n o t h i n g b u t a n a m e ? T o a n s w e r
th e s e q u e s tio n s a s h o r t d e t o u r th r o u g h t h e Encyclopedia a n d H e g e l’s th e o r y o f
n a m e s is e s s e n tia l.
F r a n k S c h a lo w h a s in d ic a te d t h a t in I Ie g e l “[ l] a n g u a g e c c a s c s to b e a sy stem
o f s ig n s to b e e m p lo y e d b y th i n k i n g a s a m e r e to o l. [. . .] R a th e r , la n g u a g e
e m e r g e s a s h a v in g v ita lity a n d p o w e r o f its o w n r ig h t.”21 I w ill lim it m y se lf h e r e
t o a s h o r t r e c o n s tr u c tio n of H e g e l’s th e o r y .22 O n e a ls o s h o u ld r e c a ll t h a t th e
n a m e a ls o se rv e s a n i m p o r t a n t f u n c ti o n in th e Philosophy o f R ight. It is th e n a m e
o f th e m o n a r c h , th e a b s o lu te ly a r b it r a r y c o n n e c tio n o f t h e c o n t in g e n t p r o p e r
n a m e o f a n in d iv id u a l w ith t h e m u ltip lic ity o f th e f r e e w ills a n d t h e e th ic a l
in s t itu ti o n s w h ic h c r e a te s a n d m a in ta in s th e o r g a n ic u n ity o f t h e s ta te . T h e
n a m e f u n c tio n s in th is d e t e r m in a tio n in e th ic a lity a s th e s y m b o lic u n ity o f th e
s ta te w h ic h allo w s f o r th e p o te n tia l in f in ity o f th e d if f e r e n t f r e e w ills to c o n ­
ce iv e o f th e m s e lv e s a s b e i n g u n if ie d b e c a u s e in a n y a c t o f th e m o n a r c h — in th e
e m p ty Ί w ill’— t h e to ta lity o f t h e s p e c if ie d a n d d if f e r e n t a c ts o f th e w ill o f all
a r e b o t h , c o n c re te ly — in a n in d iv id u a l, i.e. a w ill— a n d u n iv e rs a l— t h e ‘I w ill’
b e i n g t h e u n iv e rs a l f o r m o f th e re s o lv in g w ill w h ic h c a n b e a s s ig n e d to a ll o f
t h e m — is p r e s e n t.23 T h e n a m e o f t h e m o n a r c h is a p u r e n a m e w h ic h h o w ev e r
c a n c r e a te a n d m a i n t a i n th e s ta tis t u n ity o n ly d u e a c o m m o n d e t e r m in a tio n —
th e f r e e w ill. A g a in s t th is b a c k g r o u n d it is p o s s ib le to r e c o n s tr u c t H e g e l's d e fi­
n itio n o f t h e n a m e :
In t h e Encyclopedia o n e c a n f in d th e H e g e lia n th e o r y o f th e n a m e a s a n e le ­
m en t. o f th e th e o r y o f sig n s , in th e s e c o n d p a r t o f th e p sy c h o lo g y , in th e c h a p te r
o n r e p r e s e n ta t io n .’1 T h e c h a p t e r m a rk s th e tr a n s i tio n f r o m in tu i tio n to th in k ­
in g ; it m a rk s t h e p ro c e s s o f b e c o m in g - s u b je c t w h ic h b e g in s f r o m a n e x te r n a lly
f o u n d a n d in th is w ay a b s tra c tly , s e n s u a lly in f lic te d c o n t e n t a n d p r o c e e d s to
in te r n a liz e a n d u n iv e r s a liz e it. I n th is p r o c e s s , a s D e r r id a r e m a r k e d , " t h e sig n
is u n d e r s to o d a c c o r d in g to th e s t r u c t u r e a n d m o v e m e n t o f t h e A u fh e b u n g by
m e a n s o f w h ic h th e s p ir it . . . a c c o m p lis h in g its e lf a s in te r n a l f r e e d o m , a n d
th e r e b y p r e s e n tin g its e lf to its e lf f o r itse lf, as such ,”- ' H e g e l p r o c e e d s in t h r e e
ste p s . In itia lly , r e c o lle c tio n , w ith w h ic h h e b e g in s h e r e , lif ts a n in tu i tio n "o u t
o f th e p a rticu la rity o f s p a c e a n d tim e ” (H P M , 186) in to t h e u n iv e rs a lity o f s p a c e
a n d tim e , i.e . in th e i n n e r tim e a n d th e i n n e r s p a c e o f th e s u b je c t. I n th is way
t h e in tu i tio n a s a n in itia lly c o n t in g e n t m o m e n t c a n a t a n y tim e b e r e c a lle d
158 Hegel's R abble

b y th e s u b je c t a n d is s u b o r d in a t e d to h is f r e e a c c e ss. T h e r e b y it b e c o m e s th e
" p r o d u c t o f in te llig e n c e ,”2* b e c a u s e th e c o n t e n t o f th is in tu i tio n is “p o s ite d as
m ine" (H P M , 185). T o u s e a w o rd o f t h e e a rly I le g e l: in t h is w ay “t h e s p ir it s te p s
o u t o f h im s e lf a n d lo o k s a t his in tu i tio n , i.e. th e o b je c t a s his . . . the image."27
T h e in te llig e n c e h a s th e f r e e d is p o s a l o f in t u i t i o n a n d c a n a r b itr a r ily r e c a ll
it, d e c o m p o s e it in to its c o m p o n e n ts a n d s u b s e q u e n tly r e - c o m p o s e it in n ew
ways.
A ll o f th e s e p ro c e s s e s a r c o p e r a tio n s o f th e im a g in a tio n a n d le a d s te p by
s te p to t h e g e n e s is o f w h a t H e g e l c a lls a sy m b o l. T h e in tu itio n is in th e b e g i n ­
n in g in te r n a liz e d b y th e s u b je c t a n d c a n th e n b e r e c a lle d . I m a g i n a tio n is n o t
o n ly a b le to r e p r o d u c e b u t a ls o to e d i t it. I n itia lly t h e r e is still a s im ila rity
b e tw e e n t h e p r o d u c e d in tu i tio n a n d t h e e m p lo y e d m a te r ia l o f th is in tu i tio n .
It a lre a d y g iv e s te s tim o n y to a c r e a tiv e e d i t i n g o f th e m a te r ia l o f in tu i tio n b u t
it still r e m a in s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h is m a te r ia l. T h is is t h e c o n t r a d ic t io n o f th e
sy m b o l. F o r it is f o r I le g e l s till a f f lic te d w ith s e n s u a l in tu i tio n s o th a t it c a n o n ly
p r o d u c e a u n iv e rs a l a s a “p a rticu la r a s p e c t o f t h e o b je c t r a is e d to th e fo r m of
universality"— f r o m th e r e d ro s e is d e r iv e d th e c o lo r r e d — o r a s “concrete univer-
sa C (H P M , 191), f o r e x a m p le a s g e n u s — f r o m th e r e d r o s e is d e r iv e d th e p la n t.
T h e s y m b o l is n o t h i n g b u t th e p a r ti c u la r i ty t h a t is o n ly a f o rm a l u n iv e rs a lity
b e c a u s e it c o n s ta n tly la c k s th e u n iv e rs a l c o n t e n t. T h e in tu itio n is p a r ti c u la r
b e c a u s e it is c o n s ta n tly lim ite d to t h e p a r t i c u l a r s p a tia l a n d te m p o r a l c o n d i­
tio n s of this in tu i tio n . T h e s y m b o l is a u n iv e rs a l f o r m w ith p a r t i c u l a r c o n te n t.
T r u e u n iv e rs a lity c o m e s in to r e la tio n w ith in tu i tio n o n ly w h e n im a g in a tio n
b e c o m e s “m /u ità m -p r o d u c in g . . . sign m a k in g fa n ta s y " ( Ib id ., 192). T h is m e a n s
t h a t o n ly w h e n a n y s im ila rity b e tw e e n t h e u n iv e rs a l a n d th e in tu i tio n w h ic h it
p r e s e n ts is a b o lis h e d , c a n o n e s p e a k w ith H e g e l o f a t r u e u n iv e rsa lity :

N o w th e u n iv e rs a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n , lib e r a te d f r o m th e c o n te n t o f th e im a g e ,
m a k e s its e lf in to s o m e th in g in tu ita b le in a n e x te r n a l m a te r ia l w illfully chosen
b y itself, a n d th u s p r o d u c e s w h a t h a s to b e c a lle d , a sign. T h e sig n m u s t b e
p r o c la im e d a g r e a t a c c o m p lis h m e n t . . . T h e w illf u ln e s s e m e r g in g h e r e . . .
m u s t firs t b e le a r n e d . (H P M . 1 9 3 -4 )

T o le a r n t h e m e a n in g o f s ig n s a n d t h e p o s s ib ility o f r e p r o d u c i n g t h is m e a n ­
i n g a f f o rd s m e m o ry . F o r th e s ig n in tr o d u c e s a c o m p le te ly a r b i t r a r y r e la tio n
b e tw e e n its e lf a n d its m e a n in g : “th e a b s e n c e o f a n y n a t u r a l r e la tio n o f r e s e m ­
b la n c e , p a r ti c ip a tio n o r a n a lo g y b e tw e e n t h e s ig n ifie d a n d th e s ig n ifie r . . ,”2H
O n ly a t th e m o m e n t in w h ic h t h e s ig n a p p e a r s a s c o m p le te ly a r b i t r a r y a n d
e x te r n a lly p o s it e d c a n it g a i n a tr u ly u n iv e rs a l m e a n in g . “T h e p r o c e s s o f th e
s ig n is a n A u fh e b u n g "-" b e c a u s e it is a p ro c e s s o f p u r if i c a tio n in w h o s e m o v e­
m e n t th e p a r ti c u la r i ty o f th e in itia l s e n s u a l in tu i tio n is n e g a te d . T h e d e t e r ­
m in a tio n o f t h e s ig n r e a c h e d h e r e — a s a n in tu i tio n w h ic h d o e s n o t s ta n d in
a n y r e la tio n o f s im ila rity to t h e in tu i tio n is s ig n ifie s — o f fe rs th e f u n d a m e n ta l
 T h e A im o f S ta te a n d the R abble as U n -O rg a n ic E n sem b le 159

d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e n a m e . O n e c a n s e e th a t “n a m e s p r o p e r ly a r e , viz. external-
ities w h ic h o f th e m s e lv e s h a v e n o s e n s e , a n d o n ly g e t s ig n ific a tio n a s s ig n s . .
(H P M , 196). N a m e s a r e s ig n s w h ic h d u e to t h e a r b it r a r in e s s o f th e r e la tio n —
b e tw e e n th e m s e lv e s a n d th e in t u i t i o n th e y s ig n ify — h a v e n o s ig n if ic a tio n as
lo n g a s th e y a r e n o t u n d e r s to o d a s b e a r e r s o f s ig n if ic a tio n in d e p e n d e n t o f
i n tu i tio n . Z iz ck r ig h tly e n c a p s u la te s th is a s follow s:

T h e r e s u lt a t w h ic h w e th u s a r r iv e d is a “r e p r e s e n ta t io n a l la n g u a g e ” c o m ­
p o s e d o f s ig n s w h ic h a r e th e u n ity o f tw o in g r e d ie n ts : o n th e o n e h a n d , th e
u n iv e rs a liz e d n a m e , m e n ta l s o u n d , a ty p e r e c o g n iz e d a s t h e s a m e in d if f e r ­
e n t u tte r a n c e s ; o n th e o t h e r h a n d , its m e a n in g , s o m e u n iv e rs a l r e p r e s e n ta ­
tio n . N a m e s in “r e p r e s e n ta t io n a l la n g u a g e ” p o sse ss a fix e d u n iv e r s a l c o n te n t
d e t e r m i n e d n o t b y t h e i r r e la tio n to o t h e r n a m e s b u t b y t h e i r r e la tio n s h i p to
r e p r e s e n te d re a lity .30

T h is r e m a r k is i m p o r t a n t a s H e g e l in tr o d u c e s in th is c o n te x t a th r e e f o ld d is ­
tin c tio n in to w h a t h e c a lls m e m o ry . T h e firs t is t h e “n a m e-reta in in g m e m o r y ”
(H P M , 199) w h ic h r e p r e s e n ts th e su b je c tiv e p r e s u p p o s itio n to b e a d ju s te d to
t h e f u n d a m e n ta l n e e d s o f la n g u a g e : n a m in g . H e r e th e p a r ti tio n in to t h r e e
r e p e a ts its e lf o n a m o r e u n iv e rs a l level. T o r e c a ll n a m e s m e a n s to b e a b le to
a b s tr a c t f r o m th e s p e c if ic c o n te x t o f its s ig n ific a tio n a n d to r e m e m b e r th e
c o n n e c t io n b e tw e e n tw o d if f e r e n t in tu itio n s a s th e u n ity o f th e n a m e . A s w ith
im a g in a tio n , th e a b s tr a c t io n f r o m t h e p a r t i c u l a r s p a tia l a n d te m p o r a l c o n te x t
o f its u t t e r i n g m e a n s th a t it c a n b e r e p r o d u c e d a u to n o m o u s ly a n d in d if f e r e n t
c o n te x ts . T h is is s o m e th in g th a t "reproductivem e m o r y ” (H P M , 199) c a n d o . B ut
h e r e th is f o r m o f m e m o r y is s till to o m u c h in f e c te d w ith th e e x t e r n a l c o n te n t
o f t h e s ig n . T h e r e n e e d s to b e n o t o n ly a r e p r o d u c t i o n o f a c o n n e c t io n b e tw e e n
d if f e r e n t in tu i tio n s in th e fo rm o f a n in tu i tio n b u t a ls o a h a b it o f I h e s a m e . T h a t
s o m e th in g is m e c h a n ic a lly r e m e m b e r e d is th e c o n d itio n to b e a b le to fre e ly
d e a l w ith la n g u a g e . T h e r e n e e d s lo b e a le a r n in g o f s ig n ific a tio n w h ic h le a d s
t o a n a u to m a tiz a tio n o f its u s a g e , to fin a lly b e a b le to s p e a k a n d w r ite freely .
T h e m e c h a n ic a l m e m o r y — th e q u o tin g b y h e a r t o f a s e r ie s o f w o rd s w ith o u t
c o n s c io u s n e s s o f t h e i r s ig n ific a tio n — in d ic a te s th e tr a n s i tio n to th in k i n g . F or
t h e s ig n r e m a in s w ith in th e r e a lm o f s ig n ific a tio n a n d s e n s e a n d o n ly w h e n th e
m e a n in g le s s n e s s o f th e n a m e a p p e a r s a s a c o n s titu tiv e m o m e n t o f th e s ig n o f
a n y w o rd , H e g e l c a n c la im th a t "it is in n a m e s th a t w e th in k ” (H P M , 199). T h is
m e a n s th a t o n ly d u e to a m e c h a n ic a l r e p e titio n w h ic h c a n o n ly o c c u r w h e n
t h e r e a p p e a r s a n in tu i tio n w h ic h is n o lo n g e r lin k e d to a n u tte r a n c e w ith a n
in s c r ib e d m e a n in g t h a t th i n k i n g fo r H e g e l b e c o m e s th in k a b le . T h e s o le s ta b il­
ity w h ic h is in s c r ib e d in to th e m e c h a n ic a l r e p r o d u c ti o n o f m e a n in g le s s sig n s
is th e T w h ic h p r e s e n ts t h e e m p ty b o n d b e tw e e n th e m . T h e r e b y th e m e a n in g
o f a n a m e is lo n g e r c o n s titu t e d d u e to a n in tu i tio n w h ic h w o u ld — h o w ev e r
a r b itr a r ily — r e p r e s e n t it, b u t th r o u g h a d if f e r e n t f o r m o f r e la tio n .
160 Hegel's R abble

H e r e o n e s h o u ld s t a r t to lo o k a t H e g e l’s e a rly le c tu r e s in w h ic h h e d e lin e ­

a te s a h e lp f u l d e f in itio n o f th e n a m e . T h e r e h e w rite s th a t w e a n s w e r to th e
q u e s tio n : “W h a t is th is? I t is a lio n , d o n k e y , e tc . it is, i.e . it is s o m e th in g yellow ,
h a v in g fe e t— e tc .— a n a u t o n o m o u s b e i n g , b u t a nam e, a to n e o f m y v o ic e—
s o m e th in g c o m p le te ly d if f e r e n t to t h e w ay it is in in tu i tio n a n d th is is its tr u e
b e in g .’”’1T h is p a s s a g e c la r if ie s th a t n a m e s a r c n o t r e la te d to a n e x t e r n a l re a lity
w h ic h w o u ld b e s e c o n d a r ily n a m e d b y th e m . R a th e r a lio n is in itia lly n o th in g
b u t a “to n e o f m y v o ic c,” “w o rd s in m y m o u th .”52 A s s o o n a s o n e c la im s : ‘th is is
a lio n ' th e r e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n a n t e c e d e n t r e a lity a n d s e c o n d a r y s ig n ific a tio n
c h a n g e s . ‘I .io n ’ r e f e r s n o t to a p r e c e d in g re a lity , to th e in tu i tio n o f a h u g e a n i­
m a l w ith f o u r p aw s, f ro m w h ic h o n e c o u ld a r ti c u la te t h a t o n e is d e a lin g w ith a
‘lio n .’ R a th e r th e r e la tio n o f ‘o b je c tiv e ly ’ p r e s e n t p r o p e r tie s a n d t h e i r d e n o m i­
n a tio n c h a n g e s . “T h e p a r a d o x o f s y m b o liz a tio n re s id e s in th e f a c t th a t th e
o b je c t is c o n s titu t e d a s o n e th r o u g h a f e a tu r e t h a t is r a d ic a lly e x t e r n a l to th e
o b je c t itself.”55 T h e n a m e p u ts s o m e th in g in to a s y m b o lic u n ity w h ic h in its e lf
d o e s n o t h a v e th e o b je c tiv e a s p e c ts b u t o n ly r e la te s to th e s e rie s in w h ic h th e y
a r e p la c e d b y t h e n a m e .34 T h is m e a n s th a t ‘lio n ’ h e r e is n o t t h e e n d o f a s e rie s
o f o b je c tiv e d e t e r m in a tio n s — a n i m a l , e a tin g fle s h , h a v in g a m a n e , e tc ., i.e. th is
is a ‘lio n ’— s o t h a t its n a m e w o u ld b e a n a b b r e v ia tio n fo r a m u ltip le , o b je c tiv e
c o n te n t o f a ro w o f d e t e r m in a tio n s . A t t h e s a m e tim e th is a ls o d o e s n o t m e a n
t h a t th e n a m e ‘lio n ’ is t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a s e r ie s o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n s a n d w o u ld
m a k e one s e rie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s a p p e a r s u c h t h a t o n e c o u ld u n d e r s t a n d it as
a s e r ie s o f e x p la n a tio n s : t h e ‘lio n ' h a v in g a m a n e , is a n a n i m a l , e tc . N e it h e r c a n
o n e c o n c lu d e f r o m th e s e r ie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s to t h e u n ity o f t h e n a m e w h ic h
a b b r e v ia te s th e d e t e r m in a tio n s a n d follow s a logic o f the 'i.e.'— x h a s a s e r ie s o f
d e t e r m in a tio n , i.e. it is a ‘lio n ’— n o r f r o m th e u n ity o f t h e n a m e to t h e m u lti­
p lic ity o f c o n c r e te d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w h ic h w o u ld e x p la in it a n d in tr o d u c e a logic
o f the 'because— x is a ‘lio n ’ because it h a s th e fo llo w in g d e t e r m in a tio n s .55 B o th
lo g ic s — o f a b b r e v ia tio n a n d e x p lic ita tio n — s ta n d in a in v e rs e r e la tio n s h i p to
o n e a n o t h e r : th e lo g ic o f e x p lic ita tio n in v e rts th e lo g ic o f a b b r e v ia tio n .
I f t h e e x p l a n a tio n — th e n a m e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a s e rie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s
t h a t c x p lic ita te it— in v e rts th e a b b r e v ia tio n — th e n a m e a t th e e n d o f a s e r ie s o f
d e t e r m in a tio n s — f o r H e g e l th e n a m e u n i t e s both f u n c ti o n s a t th e s a m e tim e .
T h is m e a n s th a t th e n a m e e x p lic itâ te s th e s e rie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s w h ic h it
im m e d ia te ly a b b r e v ia te s . T o m a k e th is c le a r w ith r e f e r e n c e to th e e x a m p le ,
t h is m e a n s t h a t th e n a m e ‘lio n ’ o p e r a te s a c c o r d in g to th is lo g ic : x is a lio n ,
because it is a n a n i m a l , e a ts fle s h , h a s f o u r p aw s, e tc . i.e. x is a lio n . B e c a u s e th e
n a m e a p p e a r s tw ic e — a t th e b e g i n n i n g a n d th e e n d — w h a t th e s ig n ific a tio n
o f th e n a m e w ill h a v e b e e n is c o n s ta n tly r e tr o a c tiv e ly r e - d e te r m in e d ; a k in d o f
s e lf - d e te r m in in g a n d s e lf - d if f e r e n tia tin g ta u to lo g y . T h e n a m e a s th e f o u n d a ­
t io n o f th e s e r ie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s w h ic h e x p lic itâ te s a n d a b b r e v ia te s it c a n
o n ly b e in a r e la tio n to its e lf if th is s e rie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s e x ists. A n e x a m p le
o f th is lo g ic f o u n d in Z iz e k m a y h e lp to c la r if y th in g s :
 T h e A im o f S ta le a n d the R a b b le as U n -O rg a n ic E n sem b le 161

firs t s o c ia lis m is p o s ite d a s th e s im p le a b b r e v ia tio n o f a s e rie s o f m a r k e r s

th a t d e s ig n a te e ffe c tiv e q u a litie s ( “W h e n w e h a v e e n o u g h fo o d , e le c tric ity ,
flats, b o o k s , f r e e d o m . . ., w e h a v e so c ia lism ”); o n e t h e n in v e rts th e re la ­
tio n s h ip a n d r e f e r s to t h e s e r ie s o f m a r k e r s in o r d e r to “e x p lic a te ” so c ia l­
ism (“s o c ia lis m m e a n s e n o u g h f o o d , e le c tric ity , fla ts, b o o k s , f r e e d o m . . .");
w h e n w e p e r f o r m a n o t h e r in v e rs io n , h o w e v e r w e a r c n o t th r o w n b a c k to o u r
s t a r t i n g p o i n t , s in c e “s o c ia lis m ” n o w c h a n g e s in to “S o cia lism ", t h e M aster-
S ig n ific r— th a t is n o l o n g e r a s im p le a b b r e v ia tio n o f th is s c rie s o f m a rk e rs
b u t th e n a m e o f th e h id d e n g r o u n d o f t h is s e r ie s o f m a r k e r s t h a t a c t a s so
m a n y e x p r c s s io n s - e f f c c ts o f th is g r o u n d . 36

T h e n a m e s u tu r e s a s e rie s o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w h ic h o n ly a p p e a r s a s a se rie s
b e c a u s e o f th is s u tu r in g . A n y f u r t h e r d e t e r m in a tio n d e t e r m in e s in c o n s é ­
q u e n c e w h a t th e d e t e r m in a tio n o f th e n a m e — ‘lio n ' f o r e x a m p le — w ill h a v e
b e e n , s o th a t th e n a m e is b o th th e u n ity a n d th e m u ltip lic ity o f d e te r m in a tio n s .
T h e n a m e is in its e lf c o m p le te ly e m p ty , a m e a n in g le s s u tte r a n c e a s lo n g a s it is
n o t c o n c e iv e d a s a s ig n , i.e. a s a s e rie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s w h ic h g iv e s a s ig n ifi­
c a tio n to it b u t w h ic h a t t h e s a m e t im e is c o n s titu t e d b y it a s « s e r ie s . T h e r e b y
t h e n a m e c o n ta in s a c o n s ta n t p r o c e d u r e o f s e lf - d e te r m in a tio n — m e d ia tin g
t h e s e rie s o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w h ic h it g e n e r a te s a n d a b b r e v ia te s . T h e q u e s tio n
‘w h a t is th is ? ’ r e f e r s to th e n e c e s s ity o f a s y m b o lic u n ity fo r th e m u ltip lic ity
o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w h ic h re tro a c tiv e ly m a k e s th e m in to a s e r ie s o f d e t e r m in a ­
tio n s . T h is f o r e x a m p le is a ls o w h a t t h e n a m e o f t h e m o n a r c h d o e s fo r H eg e l,
w h ic h a n s w e rs t h e q u e s tio n : ‘w h a t is th is ? ’ w ith a ‘th is is a s ta te .' O n ly d u e to
t h e n a m e o f t h e m o n a r c h o n e c a n say t h a t x is a s ta te , because x h a s a s e r ie s o f
d e t e r m in a tio n s , i.e. x w ill h a v e b e e n a sta te .
H o w d o e s th is r e la te to H e g e l's d ia g n o s is : “i f m a n m a k e s h im s e lf to b e w ith ­
o u t r ig h ts a n d a ls o k e e p s h im s e lf u n b o u n d o f d u tie s . . . th e n th is is th e r a b ­
b le ” (H P R V , 2 2 2 ). I n itia lly o n e c a n s e e to w h a t e x t e n t th e r a b b le c a n a ls o b e
u n d e r s t o o d a s a n a m e . B u t H e g e l s e e m s to p r o c e e d h e r e in a w ay d if f e r e n t
to th a t w h ic h is in d ic a t e d by th e lo g ic o f th e n a m e . H e b e g in s fro m a se rie s
o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n — b e tte r : w ith n e g a tio n s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s — f r o m w h ic h th e
r a b b le r e s u lts . T h e b e i n g th a t is w ith o u t r ig h ts a n d u n b o u n d f r o m d u tie s , i.^ is
t h e r a b b le . T h u s H e g e l e m p lo y s ‘r a b b le ’ a s a n a b b r e v ia tio n . ‘T h e n th is is th e
r a b b le ' m e a n s : x h a s a s e r ie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s , i.e . x is r a b b le . B u t a lr e a d y a
few lin e s b e f o r e H e g e l ta lk s a b o u t th e r a b b le a n d th e r e f o r e fo llo w s t h e lo g ic
o f th e n a m e th a t w e h a v e ju st e x h ib ite d : “H e w h o is p a ltr y d o e s n o t y e t b e lo n g
to th e ra b b le . W h a t is c h a r a c t e r is ti c fo r th e r a b b le is th e a t titu d e . . . a n d th e
p r o d u c ti o n o f th e r a b b le p r e s u p p o s e s a s ta te o f s o c ie ty ”37 ( Ib id .) . I n th is p a s ­
sa g e H e g e l p r o c e e d s in th e o p p o s ite m a n n e r : x is r a b b le because it h a s a c e r ta in
a t titu d e a n d th is a t titu d e p r e s u p p o s e s a s ta te o f so c iety . O n e c a n s e e h e r e to
w h a t e x t e n t th e r a b b le follow s th e lo g ic o f th e n a m e . F o r 'r a b b l e ' o r “w h a t
o n e u s u a lly c a lls ra b b le " (Ib id .) is th e n a m e fo r a n x , b e c a u s e x h a s a se rie s
162 Hegel's R abble

o f d e t e r m in a tio n s . B u t tw o th in g s n e e d to b e r e m a r k e d : 1. th a t t h e lo g ic o f
n a m e is v a lid h e r e m e a n s th a t x is ‘r a b b le ,’ because x h a s a s e r ie s o f d e t e r m in a ­
tio n s , i.e. is r a b b le ; 2. t h e r e m a r k a b le th in g w ith th e s e rie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s
w h ic h th e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ a b b r e v ia te s is t h a t th is s e r ie s — w h ic h e x p lic itâ te s th e
n a m e — fo r H e g e l is a e n d le s s s e rie s o f n e g a tio n s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s . B u t w h a t
d o c s th is m e a n ?
O n e c a n c o m e u p w ith a n a n s w e r i f o n e a g a in re c a lls : x is ‘r a b b le ,’ because x
n e g a te s e v e r y th in g th a t is p r e s e n t, o r a s c rie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n , i.e. it is ‘r a b ­
b le .’ T h is lo g ic sh o w s th a t t h e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ a b b r e v ia te s a sc rie s o f n e g a tio n s
o f d e t e r m in a tio n s , i.e. t h a t it c a n o n ly b e e x p l a in e d b y th is s c rie s . B u t f o r I Icg cl
t h e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ a s th e n e g a tio n o f a s c r ie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s is its e lf d e te r ­
m in e d : a d e t e r m i n e d n a m e . ‘R a b b le ’ n a m e s fo r I lc g e l t h e c o m p le te , a b s o lu te
n e g a tio n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s a n d a s s u c h a n e g a tio n it is d e t e r m in e d , ‘r a b b le ’
s e e m s to b e t h e n a m e o f n o t h i n g w h ic h p e r s is ts in t h e c o m p le te v o id o f d e t e r ­
m in a tio n s . B u t o n e s h o u ld n o t o v e r h a s tily u n d e r s t a n d t h e r a b b le a s a n a b s tra c t
e n tity , a s a n e g a tio n w h ic h le a d s to a m e re ly a b s tr a c t n o th in g . I f t h e n a m e
‘r a b b le ’ is th e a b b r e v ia tio n o f a s e rie s o f n e g a tiv e d e t e r m in a tio n s w h ic h n e g a te
a ll p o s itiv e a t tr ib u te s it is b e c a u s e it c a n o n ly b e e x p la in e d by s u c h a se rie s
o f n e g a tio n s . T h e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ is d e t e r m i n e d b y a s e rie s of1— d e t e r m i n a t e —
n e g a tio n s a n d it th e r e f o r e a p p e a r s a s th e p e c u lia r f o u n d a tio n o f t h is s e r ie s o f
n e g a tio n s . B e c a u s e th e s e n e g a tio n s a r e u n d e r s t o o d a s d e t e r m i n a t e n e g a tio n s ,
t h e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ a b b r e v ia te s s u c h a s e rie s a n d th is s e r ie s e x p lic itâ te s it.
W h a t is in te r e s ti n g is th a t th e lo g ic o f t h e n a m e is in v e r te d fo r a s e c o n d tim e
h e r e : n o t o n ly is th e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ t h e a b b r e v ia tio n o f a s e r ie s o f (n eg a tiv e)
d e t e r m in a tio n s w h ic h e x p lic ita te it, b u t w h a t e x p lic itâ te s it is th a t w h ic h it is
n o t. B u t it is. T h e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ m a r k s a n in d e te r m in a c y w h ic h is e x p lic ita te d
b y a s e rie s o f (n e g a tiv e ) d e t e r m in a tio n s a n d th is is w hy it c a n a b b r e v ia te th is
s e rie s . I f t h e n a m e is t h e lin k a g e o f t h e logic o f the i.e. a n d o f the because t h e n
H e g e l p r o c e e d s by c la im in g th a t th e n a m e a s a b b r e v ia tio n p r e s e n ts t h e u n i­
v e rsa lity o f a s e rie s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s . B u t th is u n iv e rs a lity is m e re ly a b s tr a c t,
a n a b s tr a c t n a m e w h ic h ju s t n a m e s t h e f o rm a l u n ity o f t h e s e r ie s o f c o n c r e te
d e t e r m in a tio n s w h ic h it a i ( h e s a m e tim e h a s to ig n o r e . T h is a b s tr a c t u n ity
is a u to m a tic a lly in te r n a lly r e v e r s e d to b e c o m e t h e n e c e s s ity to re so lv e th is
a b s tr a c t io n a n d to e x p l ic t a te t h e n a m e s a s a b b r e v ia tio n th r o u g h a s e rie s o f
d e t e r m in a tio n s — o th e r w is e th e n a m e w o u ld b e n o t h i n g b u t a f u r t h e r d e t e r ­
m in a tio n , o r a s H e g e l h a s it, a s e n s e le s s e x te r io r ity . I f th e n a m e is th e d ia le c ­
tic a l lin k a g e o f a b b r e v ia tio n a n d e x p l a n a tio n — th e a b b r e v ia tio n a s n e g a tio n
o f d e t e r m in a tio n is a g a in n e g a te d in th e s e rie s o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n w h ic h th e
n a m e h a s f o u n d e d — th is m e a n s t h a t th e r a b b le is th e a b b r e v ia tio n o f a se rie s
o f n e g a tio n s w h ic h c a n o n ly b e e x p la in e d b y th is v e ry s e rie s . T o fo rc e t h is a r g u ­
m e n t o n e c a n c la im t h a t th e ra b b le as n a m e is a n a b b r e v ia tio n o f n o t h i n g a n d
c a n n o t by e x p la in e d b y a n y th in g . B u t th is n o t h i n g is n o t a b s tr a c t , it is r a t h e r
a concrete n o th in g b e c a u s e it c a n b e e x p lic ita te d th r o u g h a s e rie s o f n e g a tio n s
 T h e A im o f S ta le a n d the R a b b le as U n -O rg a n ic E n sem b le 163

o f d e t e r m in a tio n s . O n e c a n c la im th a t t h e ‘r a b b le ’ a s t h e n a m e o f th e m a tte r
o f e th ic a l s p a c c c a n b e e x p l a in e d a s t h e u n ity o f t h e s c rie s o f n e g a te d d e t e r ­
m in a tio n s w h ic h t h e ‘r a b b le ’ a s n a m e o f t h e organ w ithout body a b b re v ia te s .
T h e o r g a n w ith o u t b o d y r e f e r s to a n e g a te d s e r ie s o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n w h ic h
w ill alw ays a lre a d y h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d by th e m a t t e r o f th e e th ic a l s p a c e . T h e
r a b b le is th e a b s o lu te n e g a tio n o f a ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d to th is e x t e n t th e
n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ is a n a m e o f t h e a b s o lu te n e g a tio n , a n a m e o f n o th in g . M o re
p re c is e ly th is m e a n s th a t th e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ is th e c o n c r e te p r o d u c t o f a se rie s
o f (n e g a tiv e ) d e t e r m in a tio n s . T h e c o n c r e te n o t h i n g t h e n m e a n s a n in d e te r m i­
n a c y w h ic h d o e s n o t r e s u lt f r o m th e a b s tr a c t n e g a tio n o f th e to ta lity o f d e t e r ­
m in a tio n s . O th e r w is e t h e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ w o u ld b e th e n a m e o f a p a r tic u la rity ,
a p a r t i c u l a r n a m e , a n d th e r e f o r e n o t a t r u e n a m e in 1 le g c l’s s e n s e . R a th e r, th e
c o n c r e te n o th in g , w h ic h is n a m e d by t h e w o rd ‘r a b b le ,’ is a n in d e te r m in a c y
w h ic h r e s u lts fro m th e s e rie s o f (n e g a tiv e ) d e t e r m in a tio n s th a t c a n b e ( p o te n ­
tia lly ) in f in ite ly c o n t in u e d . T h e r e w ith I le g e l p r e s c r ib e s in th e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’
a n e x is te n c e w h ic h h a s n o d e t e r m in a tio n o f e x is te n c e : ‘r a b b le ’ is th e n a m e o f
a n o th in g , a c o n c r e te n o t h i n g th a t r e s u lt fro m a n e n d le s s s e rie s o f n e g a tio n s .
R a b b le ’ n a m e s a n in d e te r m in a c y w h ic h e m e r g e s in t h e H e g e lia n p h ilo s o p h y
o f t h e s ta te .38
T h is c a n c la rify : 1. t h a t th e r a b b le ta k e s a n a n a lo g o u s p o s itio n to th e e m p ty
s e t in s e t th e o r y . F o r t h e r a b b le c a n s im ila rly o n ly b e d e t e r m i n e d b y a se rie s
o f n e g a tio n s a n d is a n a b b r e v ia tio n o f (th e ) n o t h i n g (in p o litic s ) b e c a u s e it
c a n o n ly b e e x p lic ita te d th r o u g h th is s e rie s o f n e g a te d d e t e r m in a tio n s . A t th e
s a m e tim e t h is n o t h i n g is n o t th e a b s tr a c t io n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s , b u t re s u lts
a s a c o n c r e tio n in th e n e g a tio n o f d e t e r m in a tio n s , fro m a s e r ie s o f n e g a te d
d e t e r m in a tio n s . T h e p e c u l i a r m a t t e r o f th e e th ic a l s p a c e th a t t h e r a b b le is,
is n o t h i n g b u t a n a m e , a n a m e o f n o th in g . T h e r e f o r e it c a n e m e r g e f r o m th e
m o v e m e n t o f c iv il so c ie ty — o f th e “w orld o f appearance o f t h e e t h ic a l" (H O P R ,
180) a s H e g e l w rite s in a te llin g w ay— a n d a t t h e s a m e tim e n o t h a v e its o w n
a p p e a r a n c e . T h e r a b b le a s th e m a tte r o f th e e th ic a l s p a c e , a s t h a t w h ic h will
h a v e b e e n ‘b efo re* th e e th ic a l, c a n o n ly b e g r a s p e d b y t h e fa c t th a t its n a m e ,
a s a n a b b r e v ia tio n o f a s e r ie s o f n e g a te d d e t e r m in a tio n s , a s t h e n a m e o f n o t h ­
in g , a p p e a r s in t h e e th ic a l. ‘R a b b le ’ is th e n a m e o f th e p e c u l i a r m a t t e r o f
t h e e th ic a l w h ic h d o e s n o t h a v e a n y d e t e r m in a tio n s a n d w h ic h c a n o n ly b e
g r a s p e d w ith th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ in th e e th ic a l a s t h a t w h ic h
w ill alw ays a lr e a d y h a v e b e e n p r i o r to th e e th ic a l. 2. T h is c la r if ie s to w h at
e x te n t th e r a b b le , a l th o u g h it c a n o n ly ‘a p p e a r ’ in th is w o rld o f a p p e a r a n c e ,
its a p p e a r a n c e is its d is a p p e a r a n c e . F o r w h a t a p p e a r s b e h i n d th e n a m e ‘r a b ­
b le ’ is n o th in g , a s e rie s o f n e g a tio n s o f d e t e r m in a tio n s w h ic h d o e s n o t k n o w
a n y d e t e r m in a tio n s ; n o t e v e n e x is te n c e o r a p p e a r a n c e a r e le ft u n - n e g a te d . A t
t h e s a m e tim e th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th is n a m e is n o t a m e r e fa n ta sy , n o a b s tra c ­
tio n b u t a c o n c r e te — lo c a l— a p p e a r a n c e o f th e n a m e , b e c a u s e it r e s u lts f r o m a
s e rie s o f n e g a te d d e te r m in a tio n s . ‘R a b b le ’ is th e n a m e o f a lo c a l e m e r g e n c e , o f
164 Hegel's R abble

a c o n c r e te i r r u p t i o n o f th e m a t t e r o f e th ic a l s p a c e in to t h e s p a c e o f t h e e th ic a l.
B u t th is i r r u p t i o n o f t h e m a tte r — a s m a tte r — is a n i r r u p t i o n o f a n in c o n s is t­
e n c y in to th e o r g a n ic a lly s t r u c t u r e d o r d e r o f th e s ta te ; a n ir r u p t i o n o f a d is ­
a p p e a r i n g w h ic h h a s n o a p p e a r a n c e o f its o w n . T h e r e b y a v o id i r r u p t s w h ic h
p r o v id e s a n in s ig h t in to th e p u r e m u ltip lic ity , th e e x te n s io n a l s e t o f t h e vulgus.
‘R a b b le ’ is t h e H e g e lia n n a m e f o r th e e m e r g e n c e o f a n in d e te r m in a c y w h ic h
d e c o m p o s e s t h e sta te .
 Conclusion: H egel’s Rabble— H egel’s
Impossibility

S p irit th a t does not appear; is n o t.

(G. W. F. Hegel)'

T his is where Hegel vacillates, nam ely, in the vicinity o f this rock th a t we M arxists call
the ‘p rim acy o f practice". . .
(A la in B a d io u f

I n th e r a b b le H e g e l e n c o u n te r s a n im p o s sib ility . T h is im p o s s ib ility c o n f r o n ts

h is Philosophy o f R ig h t, w h ic h is a p h ilo s o p h y o f f r e e d o m , w ith a d e m a n d fo r
e q u a lity t h a t it c a n n o t p u t u p w ith . T h e in v e s tig a tio n s h a v e s h o w n t h a t th e
r a b b le n a m e s a c o m p le x p r o b le m w h ic h is n o t a n a r b it r a r y o c c u r e n c e in
H e g e l’s p h ilo s o p h y o f th e o b je c tiv e s p ir it, in t h a t w h ic h is tr a d itio n a lly c a lle d
h is ‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y .’ 4 B u t w h a t c o n f r o n ts H e g e l in a n d w ith t h e ra b b le ?
S u m m a r iz in g th e p r e v io u s r e s u lts o n e c a n c la im t h a t H e g e l's a n s w e r is c le a r:
t h e r a b b le n a m e s th e a b s o lu te n e g a tio n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s . Its a t t i t u d e is
e q u a te d w ith th e n e g a tiv e u n d e r s ta n d in g , it is m o r a lly d e p r iv e d , sh a m e le ss,
ev il, sh y o f w o rk a n d a s s u c h a n e g a tio n o f a ll th e n e c e s s a r y r a ti o n a l d e t e r m in a ­
tio n s o f th e f re e , a c tiv e a n d r a ti o n a l s u b je c t in th e e th ic a lity o f th e sta te . It is as
a b s tr a c t n e g a tio n , a m e r e p a r tic u la rity .
B u t I h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d , t h e H e g e lia n a n s w e r is in s u f f ic i e n t e v e n a c c o r d ­
i n g to its o w n lo g ic . H e g e l m is p e r c e iv e s t h a t th e p o s s ib ility o f th e e m e r g e n c e
o f t h e r a b b le is n e c e s s a r ily in s c r i b e d in to h is c o n c e p t io n o f th e s ta te , s in c e
t h e w o rld o f a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e e t h ic a l, c iv il so c ie ty , its e lf u n a v o id a b ly a n d
i n d is p e n s a b ly p r o d u c e s p o v e r ty f r o m a c e r t a i n h is to r ic a l m o m e n t o f its d e v e l­
o p m e n t. A t t h e s a m e t im e p o v e r ty c a n n o l o n g e r b e c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d b y a n y
a d d i tio n a l d im e n s io n o f t h e e c o n o m y o f s a lv a tio n b e c a u s e , a s H e g e l c la r if ie s
w ith r e g a r d to th e R e f o r m a tio n , m o d e r n s o c ie ty is m a r k e d b y t h e f a c t th a t
p o v e r ty c a n n o l o n g e r b e c o n s id e r e d to b e a n h o n o r i n g b u t o n ly a la c k . H e r e
a f ir s t im p o s s ib ility is p r e s e n t: it is im p o s s ib le th a t p o v e rty , t h e c o n d i tio n o f
p o s s ib ility f o r th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e r a b b le is n o t p r o d u c e d . T h is im p o s s ib il­
ity is th e im p o s s ib ility o f civil so c iety , its in a b ility to u p h o ld its o w n p r in c i­
p le . W h a t r e s u lts f r o m t h is p r e s e n ts its e lf a s a f u r t h e r im p o s s ib ility . F o r th e
166 Hegel's R abble

p o o r it b e c o m e s im p o s s ib le to d o w h a t I le g e l w a n te d to d e m o n s tr a te : th a t it
is o n ly p o s s ib le to r e a liz e o n e ’s f r e e d o m w ith in th e s ta te . I le g e l e n c o u n te r s in
p o v e rty a firs t f u n d a m e n ta l p r o b le m , a p r o b le m o f c a te g o r iz a tio n a s h e c a n
n o l o n g e r d e s c r ib e p o v e rty b e i n g a rtific ia lly p r o d u c e d b y civ ic e c o n o m y a s a
n a t u r a l la c k . B u t a t t h e s a m e tim e h e c a n n o t r e c o g n iz e th is v io la tio n o f its ow n
p r in c ip le a s a w ro n g . O th e r w is e th e w o rld o f a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e e th ic a l w o u ld
b e a c o n c a t e n a tio n o f illeg a lity . B u t t h is p r o b le m o f c a te g o r iz a tio n o n ly a r is e s
w ith th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e r a b b le . F o r it e m e r g e s d u e to a g e n u in e ly s u b je c tiv e
o p e r a tio n w h ic h H e g e l c a lls a t titu d e , th e n t h e r e a p p e a r s w ith it th e d e m a n d
f o r a r ig h t, w h ic h e n a b le s u s to classify th e im p o s s ib ility lin k e d to p o v e rty as
a w ro n g , a n d p o s its a r ig h t v a lid f o r a n y o n e a g a in s t th e e x is tin g r ig h t. I le g e l
e n c o u n te r s a n im p o s s ib ility o f c a te g o r iz a tio n b e c a u s e h e c a n n o t d is m is s th e
un-right o f e q u a lity a n d j u s t i c e w h ic h t h e r a b b le c la im s a s a m e re ly p a r ti c u la r
d e m a n d . H e g e l th u s m a rk s a p la c e a t w h ic h a n im p o s s ib le d e m a n d fo r th e
e q u a lity o f e v e ry o n e a r is e s w h ic h is n o lo n g e r b o u n d to t h e law s of th e m o v e­
m e n t o f t h e s ta te a n d civil so c iety . T h e r a b b le c o n f r o n ts h im w ith th e im p o s ­
sib ility o f c a te g o r iz in g th is d e m a n d .
A lth o u g h t h e r a b b le m a k e s its e lf b y w ay o f a r a d ic a lly c o n t in g e n t a n d p u re ly
s u b je c tiv e o p e r a tio n , it is n o t w h a t I le g e l c o n s ta n tly w a n ts it to b e : a m e re
p a r tic u la r ity , th e n e c e s s a r ily p r o d u c e d c o n d itio n o f p o s s ib ility o f th e r a b b le
g iv e s u s a n in s ig h t in to w h a t I h a v e c a lle d t h e logir o f double latency. A n y o n e
in th e s ta te is la te n tly p o o r a n d th e r e f o r e la te n tly ra b b le . T h e r a b b le is th u s
n o t a m e r e p a r ti c u la r i ty b u t a s a p a r ti c u la r i ty it la te n tly c o n ta in s a u n iv e rsa l
d im e n s io n . T h r o u g h t h e logic o f double latency a p r im a c y o f e q u a lity o v e r f r e e ­
d o m b e c o m e s c le a r: th a t a n y o n e is la te n tly r a b b le is th e f o r m u la o f th is im p o s ­
sib le e q u a lity . T h is is a t t h e s a m e tim e a n in s ig h t in to th a t w h ic h lies lo g ic ally
‘b e f o r e ’ t h e o r g a n ic s t r u c t u r i n g o f th e s ta te a n d w h a t I h a v e c a lle d th e m a tte r
(in a n d f o r its e lf) o f th e e t h ic a l s p a c e . W h a t d o e s th is in s ig h t in to th e e q u a lity
‘b e f o r e ' th e s ta te m e a n ? H e g e l in itia lly m a r k s w ith t h e n e c e s s a r y p r o d u c tio n
o f p o v e r ty a p la c e a t w h ic h , a s s o o n a s th e r a b b le e m e r g e s — a s organ w ithout
body— a n o t h e r c o n c e p t o f e q u a lity , d if f e r in g f r o m H e g e l's , b e c o m e s th in k a b le .
A t t h e s a m e tim e , it is in th is s t r u c t u r a l p la c e , n e c e s s a r ily p r e s e n t in th e s ta te ,
t h a t H e g e l’s f a ilu r e a p p e a r s m o s t clea rly . F o r if H e g e l a tte m p ts to d e v e lo p th e
s ta te in a w ay th a t in it a n y s u b je c t s h o u ld r e a liz e its o w n f r e e d o m a c tiv e ly a n d
t h is r e a liz a tio n is g u a r a n t e e d b y th e u n iv e r s a liz e d rig h t a n d th e s ta tis t in s titu ­
tio n s , t h e n in th e im p o s s ib ility o f r e a liz in g o n e ’s o w n f r e e d o m o n th e p a r t
o f th e p o o r , it b e c o m e s m a n if e s t th a t th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e s ta te — in civil
s o c ie ty — n e c e s s a r ily p r o d u c e s s u s p e n s io n s o f e q u a lity a n d ju s tic e . T h a t th e
r a b b le c a n n o t e m e r g e f r o m a n y w h e re e ls e b u t th e p o o r m e a n s th a t H e g e l h a s
i n d ic a t e d in h is Philosophy o f R ig h t t h e p la c e f r o m w h ic h a c a ll fo r a d if fe r e n t,
m o r e f u n d a m e n ta l e q u a lity t h a n th at, o f th e s ta tis t e q u a lity ( o f a ttitu d e ) c a n
a r is e , fo r a d if f e r e n t c o n c e p tio n o f j u s t i c e t h a n th a t w ith w h ic h t h e s ta te fails,
e v e n m o r e : a c a ll f o r a s u b la tio n o f th e H e g e lia n sta te .
 C onclusion 167

S u c h a c a ll c a n o n ly e m e r g e f r o m th e o b je c tiv e im p o s s ib ility (o f r e a liz in g

o n e ’s f r e e d o m ) , b u t it is a s u b je c tiv e , s u b je c tiv iz e d c a ll a n d it is n o t t h e p o o r
t h a t c a ll b u t th e r a b b le , w h o in d ig n a n tly a c c u s e th e s ta te b y p r e s e n tin g th e
n e c e s s a r y p r o d u c t i o n o f th e c o n d itio n o f t h e r a b b le ’s e m e r g e n c e m a r k s th e
p la c e i n w h ic h o n e m ig h t e s ta b lis h a th i n k i n g o f tr a n s f o r m a t io n t h a t d o e s n o t
c o r r e s p o n d to th e m o d e l o f c h a n g e 011 w h ic h th e H e g e lia n c o n c e p t io n o f th e
s ta te re lic s . T h a i H e g e l’s Philosophy o f R ight a s a p h ilo s o p h y o f f r e e d o m is a t
t h e s a m e tim e a 'p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ,’ a p h ilo s o p h y o f o b je c tiv e s p ir it, in th is
c o n te x t m e a n s th a t t h e r a b b le is a lim it, a lim ita tio n o f th is ‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o ­
p h y ' o f t h e sta te . I f fo r H e g e l t h e f r e e w ill is t h e a to m f r o m w h ic h th e p o litic a l
u n iv e r s e o f i h c s ta te is c o m p o s e d , t h e n th e w ill o f th e r a b b le p r e s e n ts th e a to m
o f a d if f e r e n t p o litic s ; a p o litic s w h ic h n e c e s s a r ily c a n n o i b e th e p o litic s o f th e
H e g e lia n s ta te .
T h e ‘r a b b le ’ m a rk s in H e g e l t h e im p o s s ib ility o f a ( d iff e re n t) p o litic s w h ic h is
n o t f o u n d e d u p o n th e f r e e w ill. R a th e r it b e g in s w ith t h e in s ig h t— n e c e s s a r ily
lin k e d to th e r a b b le — i n t o t h e e q u a lity o f a n y o n e w ith a n y o n e . I f t h e r a b b le
n a m e s a f u n d a m e n ta l p r o b le m o f c a te g o r iz a tio n a n d lo c a liz a tio n in H e g e l's
p o litic a l th o u g h t , fo r w h ic h it d o e s n o t k n o w a n s w e r a n d in w h ic h it fails, th e n
t h e q u e s tio n a r is e s a s to w h e th e r it c a n s till b e e n c o m p a s s e d in its f o u n d in g
c a te g o ry : th e f r e e w ill. T h a t th e H e g e lia n le g a l p h ilo s o p h y is a p h ilo s o p h y
o f t h e fr e e w ill a n d o f its r e a liz a tio n is c le a r f r o m t h e fa c t th a t th e w ill c o r r e ­
s p o n d in g to t h e r a b b le — a w ill la c k in g f r e e d o m — c a n o n ly ta k e th e p la c e o f
a n u n f r e e w ill. F o r t h e r a b b le h a s n o f r e e w ill b u t a w ill w h ic h w ills th e im p o s ­
sib le , a n u n -rig h t o f e q u a lity a n d it c a n o n ly d o so , b e c a u s e it is alw ay s a lre a d y
d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e m a te r ia l, e x t e r n a l c o n d itio n o f its o w n p o s s ib ility (p o v e rty ).
T h e w ill o f t h e r a b b le is f u r t h e r m o r e d i r e c t e d o n ly o n to itself; by its in d e te r m i­
n a c y il is a s a p a r ti c u la r i ty la te n tly u n iv e rs a l. T h e w ill o f th e r a b b le is s e p a r a te d
f r o m f r e e d o m w h ic h o n ly o c c u r s a s th a t w h ic h r e f e r s to its o w n c o n d itio n in g .
C o n d i tio n e d w ills a r e n o t f r e e w ills f o r H e g e l a n d th e r e f o r e th e y c o n t r a d ic t
t h e i r o w n c o n c e p t . T h e w ill o f th e r a b b le is fo r H e g e l a n u n f r e e a n d t h e r e f o r e
im p o s s ib le w ill b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t w ill f r e e d o m , b u t r a t h e r e q u a lity . T h e will
o f t h e r a b b le is a n im p o s s ib le w ill w h ic h w ills th e im p o s sib le .
W h a t is r e v e a le d by th is H e g e lia n f a ilu re ? T w o th in g s a r c im p o r ta n t: 1. th e
r a b b le m a rk s w ith in t h e H e g e lia n P h ilo s o p h y a p r o b le m o f c a te g o r iz a tio n
w h ic h c a n n e i th e r b e re s o lv e d by th e m e a n s o f H e g e lia n lo g ic n o r f in d a c le a r
p la c e w ith in it; 2. th is m e a n s t h a t in th e H e g e lia n p h ilo s o p h y o f o b je c tiv e
s p ir it a p r o b le m o f in d is tin g u is h a b ility a r is e s w h ic h r e f e r s to a d if f e r e n t c o n ­
c e p t o f in d e te r m in a c y , a n d o n e t h a t is n o lo n g e r s u b o r d in a t e d to th e H e g e lia n
in d e te r m in a c y . O n e c a n d r a w n e a r e r to th is p o in t b y ta k in g a c c o u n t o f th e
f a c t t h a t tw o a s p e c ts c o in c id e in t h e ra b b le : u n iv e rs a lity a n d la te n c y , a n d by
v ie w in g th e s e in lig h t o f o u r p r io r in v e s tig a tio n s . T h e r a b b le a s p a r tic u la r ity
is u n iv e rs a l, w h e r e u n iv e rs a l m e a n s la te n tly to in c lu d e a n y o n e in th e s ta te ,
b u t u n iv e rs a lity is o n ly u n d e r s t o o d a s a la te n t, a p o te n tia l o n e . T h e r a b b le
168 Hegel's R abble

m a r k s a la te n t, p o te n tia l u n iv e rs a lity w h ic h in c lu d e s a n y o n e s in c e it n a m e s th a t
w h ic h c a n o n ly b e g r a s p e d th r o u g h th e s tr u c t u r e s o f th e s ta te b u t w h ic h a t th e
s a m e tim e lie s ‘p r io r ’ to it. It m a r k s t h e s t r u c t u r a l p la c e in H e g e l’s ‘p o litic a l
p h ilo s o p h y ’ in w h ic h h is p h ilo s o p h y is c o n f r o n te d w ith p o litic s in a w ay th a t
n o l o n g e r fits th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l c a te g o r ie s o f p o litic s . T h e lo g ic o f p o litic s ,
w h ic h b e c o m e s th in k a b le h e r e , b e g i n s f r o m th e p r im a c y o f e q u a lity a n d n o t
f r e e d o m . B u t s u c h a p o litic s n e c e s s a r ily h a s to a p p e a r im p o s s ib le to H e g e l.
W h a t H e g e l m a rk s a s th e a b s o lu te n e g a tio n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s u n d e r th e
n a m e ‘r a b b le ’ is th e p la c e in w h ic h a n e q u a lity b e c o m e s c o n c e iv a b le w h ic h
tr a n s c e n d s th e H e g e lia n c o n c e p t o f t h e s ta te a n d m a k e s it p o s s ib le to t h i n k o f
tr a n s f o r m a t io n in a w ay t h a t c a n n o t b e g r a s p e d in H e g e l’s c o n c e p t o f tr a n s f o r ­
m a tio n . F or t h e c h a n g e w h ic h I Ic g c l m a r k s w ith th e r a b b le n e i t h e r b e g i n s w ith
a n in s c r ib e d p o s s ib ility n o r w ith a p o s s ib ility b e i n g r e a liz e d ; it r a t h e r s ta r ts
f r o m im p o ssib ility . O n e c a n c la im t h a t u n d e r th e n a m e o f th e ‘r a b b le ’ th e
H e g e lia n p h ilo s o p h y is c o n f r o n te d w ith a lo g ic o f (a d if f e r e n t) p o litic s w h ic h
b u r s ts th r o u g h th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l f r a m e o f its d e s c r ip tio n . F o r it n e c e s s ita te s
a n ew th i n k i n g of e q u a lity , a n e q u a lity w h ic h c a n n o t b e c o n c e iv e d of in le g a l
o r s ta tis t te r m s , a n d it n e c e s s ita te s a n ew th in k i n g o f tr a n s f o r m a t io n t h a t su s­
p e n d s th e c a te g o r y o f t h e p o s s ib le , b y p u t t i n g t h e im p o s s ib le first. T h e lo g ic of
s u c h a p o litic s is ir r e d u c i b le to t h e lo g ic o f p h ilo s o p h y w h ic h s u tu r e s p o litic s
a n d p h ilo s o p h y . A lth o u g h ‘th e r a b b le ’ a p p e a r s to H e g e l o n ly a s a p a r ti c u la r ­
ity w h ic h h e a tte m p ts to t h i n k a s t h e a b s tr a c t n e g a tio n o f a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s ,
H e g e l’s g r e a tn e s s is to h a v e n a m e d h e r e t h e p la c e f r o m w h ic h w e m ig h t c o n ­
ce iv e o f a d if f e r e n t p o litic s , a p o litic s o f e q u a lity a n d im p o ssib ility . It w ill n o t
r e s p e c t r ig h ts o r th e s ta te in a n y o f its o r g a n iz a tio n a l f o rm s o r f o rm s o f a c tio n .
A t t h e s a m e tim e th is n e c e s s ita te s a tr a n s f o r m a t io n o f p h ilo s o p h y . T h is is w hy
M a r x w ill u se t h e r a b b le to g r a s p th e s in g u l a r lo g ic o f p o litic s in a w ay t h a t will
le a d h im to t h e p r o le t a r ia t . W h a t in H e g e l is m a r k e d a s in d e te r m in a c y , a s th e
a b s o lu te n e g a tio n o f all d e t e r m in a tio n s , is th e i r r u p t i o n o f a d if f e r e n t th in k -
a b ility o f p o litic s in to p h ilo s o p h y . T h is h a p p e n s a t a p o in t w h e r e H e g e l w as n o t
H e g e lia n e n o u g h .
 Coda: Prelim inary Notes concerning
the Angelo-I Ium anism and the C onception
o f the Proletariat in Early M arx

Moreover, it goes w ithout saying th a t a ll fo rm s o f the stale have democracy f o r their

tru th . . .
(K arl M a rx)1

O ne can also say th a t democracy, as a philosophical category, is th a t which presents

equality. O r again, democracy is w h a t prevents any predicates w hatsoever fro m circu­
la tin g as political articulations, or as categories o f politics w h ich fo rm a lly con tradict
the idea o f equality.
(A la in B a d io u f

E a rly M a r x k n o w s t h e r a b b le .3 N o t o n ly d o e s h e k n o w o f th e i n d i g n a t i o n c o n ­
s ti tu tin g it.4 h e a ls o k n o w s t h a t th e e c o n o m ic m o v e m e n t in its h is t o r ic a l d e v e l­
o p m e n t alw a y s a lr e a d y p r o d u c e s th e c o n d i tio n o f h is e m e r g e n c e . B u t th e e a rly
M a r x is n o t a t h i n k e r o f t h e r a b b le b u t o f th e p r o le t a r ia t . H o w t o g e t f r o m th e
r a b b le to th e p r o le t a r ia t ? I n itia lly o n e c a n ta k e u p o n e e le m e n t t h a t a lre a d y
h a s p ro v e n to b e e s s e n tia l f o r th e d is c u s s io n o f th e w ill a n d a l t i t u d e o f th e
r a b b le . T h e H e g e lia n r a b b le e m e r g e s a t a p o i n t o f im p o s s ib ility o f t h e r e a liz a ­
tio n o f o n e ’s f r e e d o m , f r o m p o v e rty . F o r “it b e c o m e s im p o s s ib le f o r p o v e rty
to b r i n g s o m e th in g b e f o r e itsc lf." 5 4 Its e m e r g e n c e a t th is im p o s s ib ility m e a n s
th a t th e r a b b le r e c o g n iz e s th is o b je c tiv e ly e x is tin g , e x t e r n a l im p o s s ib ility as
s u c h a n d s ta r t s f r o m it to c la im a n u n -rig h t o f e q u a lity w h ic h d u e to t h e logic o f
double latency in c lu d e s a n y o n e . M a r x , a s I w a n t to c la im , b e g in s p r e c is e ly fro m
th e s a m e p o i n t w ith h is d e l in e a tio n o f t h e p r o le t a r ia t . F o r it “c o n f r o n ts . . .
s o c ie ty w ith its o w n im p o s sib ility ."6 T h e p a t h le a d s f r o m th e r a b b le to t h e p r o ­
le ta r ia t b e c a u s e o n e c a n d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t th e p r o l e t a r i a t c o n ta in s a ll c h a r a c ­
te ris tic s w h ic h I p r e s e n t e d a b o v e . M a rx r e a c ts th u s to th e i r r u p t i o n o f p o litic s
i n p h ilo s o p h y a n d to th e p o s s ib ility o f t h i n k i n g tr a n s f o r m a t io n in a w ay w h ic h
d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d to th e e x is tin g ( d ia le c tic a l) c a te g o r ie s . T o s p e c ify th is
th e s is tw o th in g s a r e n e e d e d : 1. a p r o o f t h a t t h e p r o l e t a r i a t in t h e e a rly M a rx
is c o n c e iv e d o f in a w ay t h a t it c a n b e c o n s is te n tly r e la te d to H e g e l’s r a b b le
a n d 2 . a n a n s w e r to t h e q u e s tio n if in M a r x th e i r r u p t i o n o f t h e m a t t e r o f
170 Hegel's R abble

c t h ic a l s p a c e in to th e s t r u c t u r e d e th ic a l- s ta tis t s p a c e is u n d e r s to o d a s s u s p e n ­
s io n o f th e s t r u c t u r e s o f e th ic a lity a n d o r g a n iz a ti o n , 01 i f M a r x u n d e r s ta n d s
th is i r r u p t i o n o f in c o n s is te n c y a s a n in itia l m o m e n t w h ic h in its c o n s e q u e n c e
le a d s to a c o n v e r s io n o f t h e im p o s s ib ility i n t o a p re v io u s ly u n k n o w n p o s s ib il­
ity a n d a llo w s fo r a m u ltip lic ity o f th is c o n v e rs io n s .
T h e q u e s tio n is th e r e f o r e h o w to v e rify t h e m e n tio n e d f o r m u la o f t h e tr a n s i­
tio n ‘f r o m th e r a b b le to th e p r o l e t a r i a t ( a n d b a c k ) ’ in th e e a rly M a r x ia n te x ts.
I n th is w ay it w ill b e p o s s ib le to sh o w h o w th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n I le g e l a n d
M a rx is th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e r a b b le a n d th e p r o le t a r ia t . IIo w d o c s th e
e a rly M a r x d e f in e t h e p r o le t a r ia t ? T h e p o s s ib ly m o s t f a m o u s d e f in itio n c a n b e
f o u n d in h is in tr o d u c tio n to th e c r itiq u e o f t h e H e g e lia n p h ilo s o p h y o f r ig h t
f r o m 1 8 4 3 /4 4 . It is th e

t h e f o r m u la tio n o f a c la ss w ith radical chains, a c la s s o f civil s o c ie ty w h ic h is

n o t a c la ss o f c iv il so c ie ty , a n e s ta te w h ic h is th e d is s o lu tio n o f all e s ta te s , a
s p h e r e w h ic h h a s a u n iv e rs a l c h a r a c t e r b y its u n iv e rs a l s u f f e r in g a n d c la im s
n o p a rticu la r right b e c a u s e n o p a rticu la r wrong, b u t w rong generally, is p e r p e t u ­
a t e d a g a in s t it; w h ic h c a n in v o k e n o historical, b u t o n ly h u m a n , title ; w h ic h
d o e s n o t s t a n d in a n y o n e - s id e d a n tith e s is to t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s , b u t in a ll­
r o u n d a n tith e s is to th e p r e m is e s o f G e r m a n s ta te h o o d ; a s p h e r e , fin ally ,
w h ic h c a n n o t e m a n c ip a t e its e lf w ith o u t e m a n c ip a t in g its e lf f r o m a ll o th e r
s p h e r e s o f s o c ie ty a n d th e r e b y e m a n c ip a t in g a ll o t h e r s p h e r e s o f so c iety ,
w h ic h , in a w o rd , is th e complete loss o f m a n , a n d h e n c e c a n w in its e lf o n ly
th r o u g h th e com pute re-w in n in g o f m a n . T h is d is s o lu tio n o f s o c ie ty a s a p a r tic ­
u la r e s ta te is th e proletariat----- By h e r a ld in g th e dissolution o f the hereto existing
world order, th e p r o le t a r ia t m e re ly p r o c la im s th e secret o f its ow n existence, fo r it
is th e f a c tu a l d is s o lu tio n o f t h a t w o rld o r d e r . (M C H R , 25 6 )

O n e c a n r e c o g n iz e th e h is to ric a l s p e c ific ity o f th e ra b b le -p r o b le m — in th e a r ti­

ficially p r o d u c e d p o v erty . O n c a n r e c o g n iz e th e u n -right o f e q u a lity a n d ju stic e
th a t th e r a b b le c la im s— in th e w ro n g in g e n e r a l. O n e c a n r e c o g n iz e th e d iss o lu ­
tio n o f all d e t e r m in a tio n s w h ic h b re a k s in to th e s tr u c t u r e o f c o m m u n ity — a s fac­
tu a l d is s o lu tio n o f w o rld o r d e r — a n d fin ally , o n e c a n r e c o g n iz e th e c o n s titu tiv e
in d e te r m in a c y o f th e r a b b le — in th e c o m p le te loss o f m a n .7 M a rx a ls o d ia g n o s e s
th a t civil so c ie ty f ro m a c e r ta in h is to ric a l p o in t o f its d e v e lo p m e n t c o n s ta n tly
p r o d u c e s th e c o n d itio n s w h ic h m a k e a n e m e r g e n c e o f th e p r o le t a r ia t th in k ­
ab le. T h e r e i n th e p r o le ta r ia t, as th e H e g e lia n ra b b le , is d e t e r m in e d by a c o m ­
p le te “im p o v e r is h m e n t [E ntw esungj . . ( ME P M, 2 8 8 ). T h e p r o le t a r ia t is a ls o a
p a r tic u la r ity w h ic h is im m e d ia te ly u n iv e rsa l sin c e its e m e r g e n c e p r o d u c e s th e
in s ig h t in to th e logic o f double latency a n d in d ic a te s th a t a n y o n e in civil so c ie ty a n d
t h e s ta te is la te n tly p r o le ta r ia n . M a rx d e s c r ib e s n o t o n ly th e n e c e s s a rily p r e s e n t
c o n d itio n fo r th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e m a tte r o f th e e th ic a l sp a c e , h e a ls o — lik e
H e g e l— d is tin g u is h e s b e tw e e n th is c o n d itio n (po v erty , w o rk in g class) a n d a n
 C oda 171

e m e r g e n c e (ra b b le , p r o le ta r ia t) . T h is is w hy th e p r o le ta r ia t is a c la ss w h ic h is n o
class a n d th e r e f o r e c o n s titu tiv e ly d is tin g u is h e d fro m th e w o rk in g class.8 F o r th e
w o rk in g c la ss still falls— lik e H e g e lia n p o v e rty — u n d e r th e s o c io e c o n o m ic d e te r ­
m in a n ts o f so c ie ty a n d d o e s n o t a s s u c h p o s e a p r o b le m o f c a te g o riz a tio n . M a rx
c la rifie s th e re b y th a t th e p r o le t a r ia t c a n b e c o n c e iv e d o f n e i th e r in te rm s o f a cre-
atio f .v n ih ilo ,9 s in c e it alw ays r e m a in s b o u n d to t h e c o n d itio n s o f its e m e rg e n c e ,
n o r a s a n e c e s s a ry r e s u lt o f h is to ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t. A s M a rx e x p lic itly re m a rk s ,
t h e id e a o f a s ta b le h is to ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t w h ic h w o u ld p r o d u c e e m a n c ip a to ry
c h a n g e is sim p ly n o n s e n s ic a l: “T h e c a te g o ry o f g ra d u a l tr a n s itio n is f ir s t h is to ri­
ca lly fa lse a n d , s e c o n d ly , it e x p la in s n o th in g ” (M C I 1 .119). T h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e
p r o le ta r ia t is n o t d e riv a b le fro m h isto ric a l c a te g o rie s — o f g r a d u a l tr a n s itio n .10
R a th e r o n e h a s to t h i n k th e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e h is to r ic a l g e n e s is o f
th e c o n d i tio n of e m e r g e n c e — “r e v o lu tio n s n e e d a pa ssive e l e m e n t, a m aterial
b a s is ” (M C IIR , 2 5 5 )— a n d th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e p r o le t a r ia t— th e e m e r g e n c e
o f t h e "tru th o f this world" ( I b id ., 2 4 4 ). A s M ic h a e l L ô w y h a s r ig h tly s ta te d : “T h e
c o n d i tio n s fo r t h e s e lf - e m a n c ip a tio n to e m e r g e c a n b e e i t h e r c o n j u n c tu r a l
. . . o r s t r u c t u r a l . . . . It is t h e h is to r ic a l c o i n c id e n c e o f th e s e tw o o r d e r s th a t
tr a n s f o r m it in to a n id e a - fo r c e o f t h e b r o a d m a s s e s o f p e o p le .”11 W ith th is
a f u r t h e r in s ig h t is p o s s ib le i f o n e r e c a lls th e H e g e lia n d is t in c t io n o f lu x u ­
ry - a n d p o v e r ty - r a b b le . I f M a rx in h is c o n c e p t io n o f t h e p r o le t a r ia t ta k e s u p
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f th e r a b b le , it is o b v io u s t h a t h e r e f e r s to t h e p o o r ra b b le .
B u t w h a t d o e s t h e n h a p p e n to th e lu x u r y -r a b b le ? A s s o o n a s t h e ‘p r o l e t a r i a t ’
a p p e a r s in t h e p la c e o f t h e H e g e lia n r a b b le it b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t t h a t th e
l u x u r y - r a b b le is th e o n ly t r u e r a b b le . O n e c a n a g a in s e e h e r e th a t o n ly th e
p o o r r a b b le a n d n o t th e r ic h o n e p o s e s a p r o b le m o f c a te g o r iz a tio n . T h e
p o o r r a b b le b e c o m in g - p r o le t a r ia t in M a rx p r o d u c e s th e in s ig h t t h a t in civil
s o c ie ty a n d t h e s ta te t h e r e w ill alw ays h a v e b e e n o n ly o n e t r u e r a b b le : t h e ric h
o n e , t h e lu x u r y - r a b b le , th e c a p ita lis t. F o r it th e H e g e lia n ju d g m e n ts p r o v e to
b e a b s o lu te ly a c c u r a te : it is m o r a lly e v il, i.e . c o r r u p t , a m e r e n e g a tiv e u n d e r ­
s ta n d in g , w h ic h c o n s id e r s th e e t h ic a l c o m m u n ity o n ly f r o m th e p e r s p e c tiv e o f
p r iv a te in te r e s t. W ith M a rx o n e c a n a n s w e r t h e q u e s tio n o f th e t r u e r a b b le fo r
w h ic h th e H e g e lia n a n a ly s is is c o n s is te n t: it is th e lu x u r y -r a b b le .
B u t to r e t u r n to th e d is t in c t io n o f c o n d itio n o f e m e r g e n c e a n d e m e r g e n c e
itse lf, it is n e c e s s a r y to a s k h o w to c o n c e iv e o f th e ‘a b s o lu te lo ss o f m a n 1 w h ic h
m a r k s th e p r o le t a r ia t . T h e r e f o r e I w ill s h o r tly r e f e r to th e th e o r e tic a l a p p a ­
r a tu s w h ic h M a rx p r e s e n ts to t h i n k th e g e n e s is o f th is c o m p le te lo ss: t h e th e ­
o r y o f a lie n a tio n . I w a n t to r e a d a few s e le c te d p a s s a g e s a n d a d d r e s s o n ly th e
q u e s tio n h o w to g e n e r a lly s itu a te th e th e o r y o f a lie n a tio n o r m o r e p re c ise ly :
i f a l ie n a tio n is a h is to ric a lly c o n t in g e n t o r n e c e s s a r y c o n te x t. O n e c a n fin d a n
in s tr u c tiv e a n s w e r in th e e a rly R a n c iè re :

W ell, t h e p r o b le m o f t h e o r ig in o f th e a lie n a tio n o f l a b o r p o s e s itself: e ith e r

a lie n a tio n is a n a c c id e n t a n d w e a r e n o w r e f e r r e d b a c k to a p r o b le m a tic o f
172 Hegel's R abble

t h e o r ig in o f t h e b a d h is to ry , w h ic h is a s s im ila b le to th a t o f th e p h ilo s o p h y
o f th e E n lig h te n m e n t, o r a l ie n a tio n is a n e c e s s a r y p r o c e s s w h ic h is in h e r ­
e n t to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f h u m a n ity . It is t h e s e c o n d s o lu tio n w h ic h w ill b e
c h o s e n by M a r x in th e t h i r d m a n u s c r ip t [o f t h e e c o n o m ic a n d p h ilo s o p h ic a l
m a n u s c r ip ts ] in w h ic h th e a lie n a tio n o f t h e h u m a n e s s e n c e w ill a p p e a r as
th e c o n d itio n o f th e r e a liz a tio n o f a h u m a n w o rld .'2

A lie n a tio n is a h is to r ic a l n ec essary c o n d itio n . The im p o v e r is h m e n t

[E ntw esung]17, o f t h e h u m a n b e i n g is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e c o n s titu tio n o f a tru ly
h u m a n w o rld . S o , w h y is t h e r e a n e c e s s ity o f a lie n a tio n ? M a n h a s to e x te r n a liz e
h is o w n e s s e n c e in t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e e c o n o m ic a n d h is to r ic a l p ro c c s s ; h e
h a s to b e c o m e th e im p o s s ib le h u m a n b e i n g to b e a b le to b e c o m e tr u ly h u m a n .
T h is m e a n s th a t a ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f t h e c s s c n c c o f t h e h u m a n b e i n g h a v e to
b e e x t e r n a li z e d fo r a t r u e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c s s c n c c o f t h e h u m a n b e in g
t o b e c o m e th in k a b le . F o r t h e e a rly M a rx , it is n e c e s s a r y th a t t h e e s s e n c e o f
m a n h a s n o d e t e r m in a tio n , n o a t t r i b u t e , n o p r o p e r ty , b e c a u s e a n y d e t e r m in a ­
t io n proper to m a n w o u ld p r e v e n t h im f ro m p r o d u c in g u n iv e rs a lly 11— w h ic h
is w h a t m a k e s h im h u m a n . T h e h is to ric a l p r o c e s s th a t e m p tie s th e e s s e n c e
o f m a n o f all d e t e r m in a tio n s is n e c e s s a r y to n o t c o n s ta n tly fa ll b a c k in to a
p a r ti c u la r i z a t io n o f t h e u n iv e rs a l. T h is is to say, it is n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r n o t to
c o n s ta n tly r e d u c e a n d lim it th e u n iv e rs a l o f h u m a n p r o d u c t i o n to th a t w h ic h is
proper to a n d p a r t i c u l a r fo r m a n . A u n iv e rs a lity w h ic h d e p e n d s o n d e t e r m in a te
p r o p e r tie s th a t a r e a b le to to ta liz e th e e s s e n c e o f m a n is n o t r u e u n iv e rsa lity .
T h i s is h o w o n e m a y r e n d e r th e in tu i tio n t h a t s ta n d s b e h i n d th e n e c e s sity o f
a l ie n a tio n . It s h o u ld th e r e f o r e b e r e a d a s a n in te r v e n tio n a g a in s t a n y p a r ti c u ­
l a r iz a tio n o f u n iv e rs a lity , b u t a ls o a s a n a t te m p t to d e v e lo p a new , tr u ly u n iv e r­
sa l u n iv e rs a lis m . T o t h i n k h u m a n e s s e n c e a s a n e s s e n c e w ith d e t e r m in a tio n s
pro p er to it w o u ld im p ly to u n d e r s t a n d th is e s s e n c e a s a proprietor (o f its p r o p ­
e r tie s ) . T o a v o id a n y lo g ic o f (p riv a te ) p r o p e r t y lin k e d to th e d e t e r m in a tio n
o f t h e e s s e n c e o f m a n — w h ic h e v e n in its m o s t u n iv e rs a lity , H e g e lia n v a r ia n t
c a n n o t av o id t h a t it is p o s s ib le to b e e x c lu d e d f r o m t h e s y ste m o f r ig h ts — a n d
t o d e v e lo p a u n iv e r s a l p e r s p e c tiv e o f th e e q u a lity o f a n y o n e w ith a n y o n e a s a
s t a r t i n g p o in t, th e e s s e n c e h a s to b e th o u g h t o f a s b e in g in d e te r m in a te . T h e
t h e o r y o f a lie n a tio n f in d s its s y s te m a tic p la c e in th e M a r x ia n a t te m p t to th in k
a t r u e ( p o litic a l) u n iv e rs a lis m — a d if f e r e n t h u m a n is m .15
F ro m th e c la im th a t u n iv e rsa lity , a n o t i o n o f u n iv e rs a l e q u a lity , c a n b e
th o u g h t in actu— n o t r e d u c in g “e q u a lity a s th e basis o f c o m m u n is m " (M E F M ,
3 6 4 ), to a n y p a r t i c u l a r a t t r i b u t e — o n e c a n d e r iv e th e n e c e s s ity to t h i n k a b s o ­
lu te a l ie n a tio n , to t h i n k th e complete lo s s o f m a n . A t firs t m a n h a s to b e c o m e
“n o n - b e in g [ Unwesen]" ( Ib id ., 3 4 3 )."’ B e in g t h e n e g a tio n o f t h e e s s e n c e , m a n
n e i t h e r m u s t h a v e a n e s s e n c e n o r d o e s h e n o t h a v e o n e . H e is a n o n - b e in g
[Unwesen] a n d t h is is w h a t d e s ig n a te s h is c o n s titu tiv e in d e te r m in a c y . O n e c a n
h e r e r e c a ll t h e h e lp fu l d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n t h r e e f o rm s o f ju d g m e n t in K a n t’s
 C oda 173

C ritique o f P u re R ea so n }1 T h e p o s itiv e j u d g m e n t a s s ig n s a n a t tr ib u te to a s u b je c t
(“X is d e a d ”); t h e n e g a tiv e j u d g m e n t n e g a te s th is a t t r i b u t i o n ( “X is n o t d e a d ”),
a n d th is is w h a t m a k e s it p o s s ib le to tr a n s la te i h i s j u d g m e n t in to a p o s itiv e o n e
(“X is n o t d e a d , w h ic h is to say, X lives”). F in a lly , t h e in f in ite j u d g m e n t a s sig n s
a n o n a t t r i b u t e to a s u b je c t (“X is u n d e a d , w h ic h is to say, n e i t h e r X liv e s n o r
X is d e a d " ) . T h u s , t h e in f in it e j u d g m e n t u n d e r m i n e s th e g iv e n p o s s ib ilitie s o f
d is tin c tio n . B u t t h e in s ig h t in to th e c o n s titu tiv e in d e te r m in a c y o f m a n , in to
t h e h u m a n n o n - b e in g [Unwesen], in to t h e v o id o f h is c s s e n c c , is w h a t is o n ly
o f f e r e d w ith t h e e m e r g e n c e o f th e p r o le t a r ia t . W ith it b e c o m e s c le a r, fo llo w in g
t h e logic o f double latency, t h a t m a n w ill alw ays h a v e b e e n a n o n -b e in g .
I f o n e a t te m p ts to g r o u n d e q u a lity in a (c o n s tr u c tib le ) d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
h u m a n e s s e n c e , th e u n iv e rs a lity o f m a n is alw ay s a lre a d y lo s t18 a n d th e ta lk
a b o u t t r u e e q u a lity c a n o n ly d e g e n e r a t e in to "a m e r e p h r a s e ” (M E P M , 124).
T h is is to say, M a r x d o e s n o t h o p e fo r d e - a lie n a tio n , fo r E n t-E ntfrem dung, fo r a
r e t u r n to a n “o r ig in a l s ta te o f p a r a d is e ” ( Ib id ., 122) p r e c e d in g a lie n a tio n . T h is
is p r e c is e ly w h a t M a rx v e h e m e n tly c r itic iz e s in th e th e o r is ts o f n a tio n a l a n d
p o litic a l e c o n o m y . It is r a t h e r th e “im p o v e r is h m e n t [E ntw esung]” ( Ib id ., 134)
o f m a n th a t b u ild s th e c o n d itio n fo r t h e fa c t t h a t th e p r o le t a r ia t a s s o o n a s it
e m e r g e s a t its e v e n ta l s ite 19 im p lie s a n im m e d ia te d im e n s io n o f u n iv e rs a lity
w h ic h is a d d r e s s e d to a n y o n e , b e c a u s e it is f o r a n y o n e .20
I f m a n is c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y a u n iv e rsa l d im e n s io n , th e n th is u n iv e rs a lity c a n
o n ly b e tr u ly u n iv e rs a l i f it p a s s e s o v e r in to a p r o c e s s o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c tio n .
S ta r tin g f r o m th e e m e r g e n c e o f th e p r o le t a r ia t a n d th e in s ig h t lin k e d to it o n e
c a n n o t sim p ly p e r s is t in t h e r u p t u r e w ith civil so c ie ty a n d t h e s ta te ; th e r u p t u r e
r a t h e r n e e d s to le a d in to t h e p ro c e s s o f a r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e e x is tin g c irc u m ­
s ta n c e s in a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e u n iv e rs a lity o f m a n k in d . T h e e v e n ta l a p p e a r in g
o f t h e p r o le t a r ia t h a s to b e r e a d a s t h e in a u g u r a tio n o f a p ro c e s s in w h ic h a
s u b je c t th a t (p rin c ip a lly ) in c lu d e s a n y o n e c o m e s to u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ti o n (o f a n
e q u a lity o f a n y o n e w ith a n y o n e ). B ut if in H e g e l th e r a b b le m a k e s itself, how
d o e s M a rx th in k th e e v e n ta l e m e r g e n c e o f th e p r o le t a r ia t a n d o f u n iv e rs a l p r o ­
d u c tio n ? M a r x ’s a n s w e r is c le a r: a n "actual [wirkliche] c o m m u n is ta c tio n ” (M E PM ,
123) is n e e d e d . T h e a c tu a l c o m m u n is t a c tio n n a m e s a n e v e n t; a n e v e n ta l i r r u p ­
t io n in to th e s tr u c t u r e s o f h is to ric a l s o c ie ta l d y n a m ic s w h ic h le ts t h e sp e cific
“u n iv e rs a lity o f m a n ” (Ib id ., 75), t h e m a t t e r o f th e e th ic a l s p a c e , fo llo w in g th e
logic o f double latency, a p p e a r a s s o m e th in g t h a t lo g ic a lly lie s “b e f o r e ” (a lth o u g h
it is alw ays o n ly a c c e ssib le “a f te r ”) th e s tr u c t u r e s o f th e s ta te a n d o f civil so ciety .
In t h is w ay a n e q u a lity w ith o u t a n y lim itin g d e t e r m in a tio n b e c o m e s th in k a b le
w h ic h e n c o m p a s s e s a n y o n e . T h r o u g h th e e v e n t o f a n a c tu a l c o m m u n is t a c tio n ,
th e im p o s sib ility o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c tio n tin d e r g iv e n c a p ita lis t m o d e s o f p r o ­
d u c tio n a n d u n d e r th e d ic ta t o r s h i p o f p r iv a te p r o p e r ty b e c o m e s a n “im p o s sib le
p o ss ib ility ”21 w h ic h b r in g s a b o u t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a n e w s u b je c t: th e p r o le ­
ta r i a t, w h ic h p r i o r to its e m e r g e n c e h a d n o d e t e r m in a tio n s o f e x is te n c e .22 T h e
a c tu a lity , o r b e t t e r th e effec tiv ity — “ Wirk-lichkeit" in G e r m a n lite r a l s e n s e — o f
174 Hegel's R abble

th e c o m m u n is t a c tio n c o n s is ts in th e fa c t t h a t it tr a n s f o r m s th e p r e v io u s h is to ry
a n d its law s in to a h is to r y o f “p r e p a r a tio n ” (M E P M , llO )2* b y e v e n c h a n g in g th e
s e e m in g ly s ta b le law s o f c h a n g e .
W h a t s h o u ld b e c o m e c l e a r is th a t a c tu a l c o m m u n is t a c tio n is d e t e r m i n e d by
t h e h is to ric a lly n e c e s s a r ily p r o d u c e d s ite o f t h e e v e n t a t w h ic h th e p r o le t a r ia t
e m e r g e s — th e w o rk in g c la ss, p o v e rty . It is th e r e f o r e s in g u la r — lo c a liz e d — a n d
u n iv e rs a l b e c a u s e th e p r o l e t a r i a t c o n c e r n s a n y o n e , s in c e a n y o n e w ill h a v e b e e n
la te n tly p o o r a n d la te n tly p r o le t a r ia n . I f t h e r e is a n e v e n ta l ir r u p t i o n o f a tr u ly
c o m m u n is t a c tio n a n d if t h is a c tio n b r in g s th e p r o le t a r ia t in to e x is te n c e , th e n
h e r e t h e q u e s tio n a r is e s o f h o w tin- y o u n g M a r x d e v e lo p s th e p r o c e s s o f u n iv e r ­
sa l p r o d u c tio n w h ic h s tr u c t u r a lly fo llo w s th e e v e n t. H o w d o e s M a r x e lu c id a te
w h a t h e h im s e lf c a lls u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ti o n w h ic h is o n ly th in k a b le 1.u n d e r th e
c o n d itio n o f a r a d ic a l a lie n a tio n o f a l l e s s e n tia l d e t e r m in a tio n s o f m a n a n d
2 . i f a n d o n ly if a t r u e c o m m u n is t a c tio n e v c n ta lly b r e a k s t h e e x is tin g h is to r i­
c a l s itu a tio n in to tw o , a n d e v e n c h a n g e s t h e law s o f c h a n g e , a n d w h ic h finally,
3 . d e p e n d s o n th e s u b je c t- p r o le ta r ia t, th a t is th e a g e n t o f th e t r u e c o m m u n is t
a c tio n a n d th u s t h e s u b je c t o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ti o n ? I lo w d o e s M a rx th e r e f o r e
m e e t th e c la im to t h i n k a u n iv e rs a lity w h ic h in tr o d u c e s a n e q u a lity o f a n y o n e
w h ic h is a t th e s a m e tim e e s s e n tia lly b o u n d to th e production o f t h is e q u a lity ?
W h a t is i n t r o d u c e d b y th e t r u e c o m m u n is t a c tio n is th e p r o c e d u r a l d e p lo y ­
m e n t o f a s u b je c t w h ic h M a rx d e s c r ib e s a s m a n 's a c tiv e “sp ecks life" (M E P M ,
162)24 O n e d i r e c t r e s u lt o f th is is th a t to c o n c e iv e o f a p r o c e s s in w h ic h a u n iv e r ­
sally p r o d u c in g life o f t h e s p e c ie s e m e r g e s , o n e h a s to av o id a n y r e f e r e n c e to
a n t h r o p o l o g ic a l c a te g o r ie s a n d d e te r m in a tio n s . It is r a t h e r in th is p r o c e s s th a t
“tr u ly ontological a f f ir m a tio n s o f e s s e n tia l b e in g ” ( Ib id ., 135) ta k e p la c e . O n ly
in th is p ro c e s s , “t h e b r o t h e r h o o d o f m a n is n o m e r e p h r a s e . . . b u t a t r u t h . . . ”
( Ib id ., 124).2’ In its p r o c e s s u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ti o n le a d s to o n to lo g ic a l a f f ir m a ­
tio n s o f t h e (fu lly in d e te r m in a te ) n a t u r e o f m a n w h ic h d e p lo y s th e e q u a lity o f
a n y o n e — th e b r o t h e r h o o d o f m a n — a s a t r u t h . 2h
B u t h o w c a n o n e u n d e r s t a n d th is o p a q u e fo rm u la ? T o s ta r t o n e c a n n o te
t h a t th e p r o c e s s o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c tio n is im m a n e n tly lin k e d to w h a t M a rx
c a lls "a t r u t h ” a n d th a t th is t r u t h is im m a n e n tly r e la te d to o n to lo g ic a l a ffir­
m a tio n s o f a n e s s e n c e . U n iv e rsa l p r o d u c ti o n is f ir s t a p r o d u c ti o n o f t r u t h ,
w h ic h h a s a n o n to lo g ic a l d im e n s io n . I f o n e n o w tr ie s to b r in g to g e t h e r th is
firs t a n d s till a b s tr a c t d e f in itio n o f t h e p r o c e s s o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ti o n a n d
t h e n e c e s s a r ily in d e t e r m i n a t e e s s e n c e o f m a n w h ic h e m e r g e s a s a n e f f e c t o f
t h e a c tu a l c o m m u n is t a c tio n , it b e c o m e s m a n if e s t: t h e u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c tio n
w h ic h a f f ir m s th e e s s e n c e o f m a n h a s to p r e s e r v e th e in d e te r m in a c y o f th is
e s s e n c e in th e p r o c e s s o f p r o d u c ti o n . I f it d o e s n o t d o s o , it w ill n o t h a v e b e e n
a t r u e a f f ir m a ti o n o f h u m a n e s s e n c e . B u t, h o w to im a g in e s u c h a p r o d u c tio n ?
O r to b e g in s lig h tly d if f e r e n t: I f M a rx im p lie s t h a t th e s e o n to lo g ic a l a f f ir m a ­
tio n s o f e s s e n c e in th e a c tiv e s p e c ie s-life a r e r e la te d to m a n a s “s p e c ie s - b e in g ”
( Ib id ., 102), h o w c a n o n e u n d e r s t a n d th is s p e c ie s - b e in g t h a t is a f f ir m e d o n ly
 C oda 175

i n u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c tio n ? A n e x a m p le th a t M a rx o ffe rs is h e lp fu l: “j u s t a s m u s ic
a l o n e a w a k e n s in m a n th e s e n s e o f m u sic , a n d j u s t a s t h e m o s t b e a u tif u l m u s ic
h a s n o s e n s e f o r th e u n m u s ic a l e a r — is n o o b je c t fo r it b e c a u s e m y o b je c t c a n
o n ly b e t h e c o n f ir m a tio n o f o n e o f m y e s s e n tia l p o w e rs . . . f o r th e s a m e r e a ­
s o n s , th e s e n s e s o f so c ia l m a n a r e o t h e r s e n s e s t h a n th o s e o f th e n o n s o c ia l
m a n . O n ly th r o u g h t h e o b je c tiv e ly u n f o ld e d r ic h n e s s o f m a n ’s e s s e n tia l b e in g
is t h e h u m a n se n s ib ility (a m u s ic a l e a r , a n eye f o r b e a u ty o f f o rm , in s h o r t,
s e n s e c a p a b le o f h u m a n g r a tif ic a tio n s , s e n s e s c o n f ir m in g th e m s e lv e s a s e s s e n ­
tia l p o w e rs o f m a n ) e i t h e r c u ltiv a te d o r b r o u g h t in to b e in g .” ( Ib id ., 109)
I f o n e r e a d s M a rx ’s c o n s id e r a tio n s a s a n a n a ly s is o f th e s t r u c t u r e o f u n iv e rsa l
p r o d u c tio n , th in g s b e c o m e c le a re r. W h a t h a p p e n s in th e p r o c e s s o f u n iv e rsa l
p r o d u c tio n — in th is p ro c e s s t h a t lo g ic a lly b e g in s a f te r th e a c tu a l c o m m u n is t
a c tio n — is t h a t a c o n s titu tiv e !)' in d e te r m in a te h u m a n (co llectiv e) s u b je c t c u l­
tiv a te s "social o r g a n s " (Ib id ., 107) th a t re tro a c tiv e ly d e t e r m in e t h e e s s e n c e o f
t h e h u m a n b e in g . T h e in v e n tio n o f m u sic s ig n ifie s a re tro a c tiv e ly o c c u r r in g
d e t e r m in a tio n o f m a n w h o w ill h a v e h a d a m u sic a l e a r. U n iv e rsa l p r o d u c tio n
is th e r e f o r e o n th e o n e h a n d a p r o d u c tio n o f d e t e r m in a tio n s o f th e h u m a n
b e in g w h ic h b e c o m e o b je c tiv e a n d a c tu a l. T h e s e d e t e r m in a tio n s a r e o b je c ­
tiv e b e c a u s e th e y c h a n g e th e c o n s titu tio n o f th e e s s e n c e o f m a n in a w ay th a t
th e y w ill fo re v e r h a v e c h a n g e d th is e s se n c e . F o r m a n w ill a f te r th e in v e n tio n o f
m u s ic fo re v e r alw ays h a v e h a d a m u sic a l e a r. B u t th is p r o c e s s c a n , o n th e o th e r
h a n d , b e o n ly f u lly g r a s p e d i f it is c o n s id e r e d in its p r o p e r te m p o r a lity . F o r th e
d e t e r m in a tio n o f t h a t w h ic h w ill h a v e b e e n h u m a n , c a n n o t r e f e r b a c k to a n y
g iv e n d e t e r m in a tio n s o f t h e h u m a n e s s e n c e . It o n ly re s u lts retroactively a n d in the
process o f its d e te r m in a tio n . F o r th is r e a s o n , th e te m p o r a lity o f u n iv e rs a l p r o ­
d u c tio n is t h e fu tu r e anterior. T h e d e t e r m in a tio n o f th e “u n e s s e n tia l [Unwesen]”
(Ib id ., 134) t h a t is m a n is th e r e f o r e n o lo n g e r b o u n d to a p r e d e t e r m i n e d p o s ­
sib ility o f h u m a n ity w h ic h w o u ld r e a liz e its e lf in t h is p ro c e s s o f p r o d u c tio n .
T h is p r o c e s s its e lf c o n tin u a lly re tro a c tiv e ly c r e a te s th e c o n d i tio n s o f its ow n
p o ssib ility .27 T h is is w hy M a rx c a n c la im th a ï “c o m m u n is m . . . a s s u c h is n o t
t h e g o a l o f h u m a n d e v e lo p m e n t” (Ib id ., 114), b e c a u s e th e p r o c e s s o f u n iv e rs a l
p r o d u c ti o n a s e m e r g in g a f te r th e c o m m u n is t a c tio n c a n n o t , d u e to its in h e r e n t
lo g ic , k n o w a n y g o a l. I f o n e b e g in s w ith t h e a s s u m p tio n th a t t h e r e is n o e s se n c e
o f m a n w h ic h c o u ld b e r e a liz e d in th e p ro c e s s o f p r o d u c tio n ; i f o n e b e g in s w ith
t h e c la im th a t th e h u m a n b e in g is c o n s titu tiv e ly in d e te r m in a te , o n e is le a d to
t h e c o n s e q u e n c e t h a t th is p ro c e s s o f d e t e r m in a tio n — w h o se n a m e is “u n iv e rsa l
p r o d u c tio n ”— c a n n o t h av e a n y im m a n e n t b o u n d a r ie s , o r in h e r e n t lim ita tio n s .
It r a t h e r h a s to b e u n d e r s to o d a s — a t le a s t p o te n tia lly — in f in ite .
T h e p r o c e s s o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ti o n p r o c e e d s v ia a c o n s ta n t c o n v e r s io n in to
“im p o s s ib le p o s s ib ilitie s ” o f t h a t w h ic h s e e m s to b e im p o s s ib le fo r m a n to d o o r
t o th in k . T h in g s s e e m to b e im p o s s ib le f o r th e h u m a n b e in g : 1. b e c a u s e it b e a r s
n o d e t e r m in a tio n s o f w h a t is p o s s ib le f o r it a n d 2. b e c a u s e it is alw ay s in s c r ib e d
i n to c o n c r e te s o c ia l h is to r ic a l a n d p o litic a l s itu a tio n s t h a t p r e s e n t s o m e th in g
176 Hegel's R abble

a s a n im p o s sib ility , as h is to ric a lly im p o s s ib le . I f it s e e m s im p o s s ib le p r i o r to th e

in v e n tio n o f m u s ic th a t m a n h a s o r c a n h a v e a m u s ic a l e a r , w h a t h a p p e n s w ith
t h e in v e n tio n o f m u s ic is th a t a n e w o r g a n is g e n e r a te d . T h is s p e c if ic im p o s ­
sib ility is c o n v e r te d in to a p o s s ib ility th a t h a s to b e th o u g h t in t h e te m p o r a lity
o f th e f u t u r e a n t e r io r .28 O n e c a n th e r e f o r e a ls o c la im th a t th e p r o le t a r ia t as
a s u b je c t o f u n iv e r s a l p r o d u c ti o n c o n tin u a lly d e t e r m in e s its e lf re tro a c tiv e ly as
t h a t w h ic h it w ill h a v e b e e n .29 It is a c o n s ta n t “b e in g b y -its e lf" ( Ib id .. 11 2 )10 in
t h e s te a d y p r o d u c ti o n o f th e r e tr o a c tiv e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f n ew s o c ia l o r g a n s
o f its o w n u n iv e r s a l e s s e n c e . M a r x th i n k s , s ta r t in g f r o m t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n
organ w ith o u t a body, o f th e p r o le t a r ia t , th r o u g h a n a c tu a l c o m m u n is t a c tio n ,
th e p e r p e t u a t e d p r o c e s s o f f o r m a tio n o f a c o lle c tiv e b o d y w h ic h is a b le to a d d
c o n s ta n tly a n d p o te n tia lly in f in ite m a n y o r g a n s to th is b o d y .31 T h e p r o le t a r ia t
is t h e s u b je c t o f th is p ro c c s s o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ti o n , a n d w h a t is p r o d u c e d by
it is t h e u n iv e rs a lity t h a t M a rx c a lls s p e c ie s -b e in g .
T h i s a ls o m e a n s th a t t h e r e c a n b e n o c o n d i tio n o f b e l o n g in g w h ic h w o u ld
r e g u l a t e w h o c a n a n d w h o c a n n o t p a r ti c ip a te in th e p r o c e s s o f u n iv e r s a l p r o ­
d u c t io n . R a th e r it is in t h is p r o c e s s th a t t h e r e is “a m o m e n t in w h ic h it f ra t­
e r n iz e s . . . w ith s o c ie ty in g e n e r a l . . .” (M C H R , 105). It a d d r e s s e s a n y o n e as
t h e r e a r e n o lim itin g c o n d i tio n s o f b e lo n g in g . In a d if f e r e n t c o n te x t M a rx
o ile r s a n im a g e t h a t is h e lp f u l lo r t h e lo g ic o f th is o p e r a tio n . T h e m o v e m e n t
o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c t i o n w h o s e s u b je c t is t h e p r o l e t a r i a t is s im ila r to a c o n s ta n t
“som ersault, n o t o n ly o v e r its o w n lim ita tio n s , b u t a t t h e s a m e tim e o v e r th e
l im ita tio n s o f t h e m o d e r n n a t i o n s . . . ” ( I b id ., 104). T h e s o m e r s a u lt m o v e m e n t
m a k e s it p o s s ib le t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c t i o n k n o w s n o b o u n d a ­
rie s o r lim ita tio n s : as u n iversal production itself, it is a t the sam e tim e a retroac­
tive p roduction o f universality. S te p b y s te p , o r b e t te r : s o m e r s a u lt b y s o m e rs a u lt,
w ith o u t a n y law o f p r o d u c ti o n , w ith o u t a n y r e g u l a t i o n o f h o w it p r o c e e d s a n d
w ith o u t a n y p r i o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n , in alw ays s in g u l a r h is to r ic a l s itu a tio n s , o n e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n a f t e r a n o t h e r is p r o d u c e d t h a t re tr o a c tiv e ly d e p lo y s t h e u n iv e r ­
sa l d im e n s io n o f th e h u m a n s p e c ie s - b e in g . T h e s p e c ie s - b e in g is c o n s titu tiv e ly
i n d e t e r m i n a t e a n d it is p r e c is e ly d u e to t h e p o te n tia l in f in ity o f its c o n n e c t e d
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s — t h is s o m e rs a u lt a f te r s o m e r s a u lt r e tr o a c tiv e ly c h a n g e th e
e s s e n c e its e lf— t h a t it r e m a in s i n d e t e r m i n a t e . F o r th e p r o c e s s n e i t h e r allo w s a
law o f o p e r a t i o n , a d e f in e d c o n d it io n o f b e lo n g in g to it, n o r a p o in t a t w h ic h
t h e r e a liz a tio n o f th e h u m a n ly p o s s ib le w o u ld b e r e a c h e d . T h is s o r t o f p r o ­
d u c t io n is r a t h e r m a r k e d by w h a t I c a ll a n i m m a n e n t lie s tim m /w r k e it.32 O n
t h e o n e h a n d , th e e s s e n c e o f m a n is w ith o u t a n y d e t e r m in a tio n , b e c a u s e it
is s t r i p p e d o f a ll d e t e r m i n a t i o n s by t h e e x is tin g f o r m s o f a l ie n a tio n . O n th e
o t h e r h a n d , w h a t u n iv e r s a l p r o d u c t i o n d e s ig n a te s is a p r o c e s s o f p r o d u c tio n
th a t— in alw ays s i n g u l a r h is to r ic a l s itu a tio n s — g e n e r a te s s te p b y s te p c e r ta in
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s w h ic h re tr o a c tiv e ly alw ays d e t e r m i n e th e e v e r n e w sp e c ie s-
b e in g . T h is m e a n s t h a t th e e s s e n c e o f m a n is a n d w ill alw a y s b e a n o n - b e in g
f Unwesen].
 C oda 177

D u c lo th e in te r n a l in f in ity o f th e p ro c e s s t h e r e c a n b e n o s u b s ta n tia lis a tio n ,

n o e s s e n tia lis a tio n o f a n y d e te r m in a tio n . T h is is th e r e a s o n w hy th e u n iv e r­
sa l p r o d u c tio n (o f t h e p r o le ta r ia t) a n d th e p r o d u c ti o n o f th e u n iv e rs a l ( o f th e
h u m a n s p e c ie s -b e in g ) is a n d r e m a in s b estim m b ar.* 3 M a n f o r M a r x tr u ly liv es if
a n d o n ly i f th is e x c e ss is e n g e n d e r e d by a n a c tu a l c o m m u n is t a c tio n t h a t le a d s
t o th e p ro c e s s o f a f f ir m a tio n o f t h e o n to lo g ic a l d e t e r m in a tio n s o f its in d e te r m i­
n a t e e s se n c e . O n ly in th e d e p lo y m e n t o f h is u n iv e rs a l s p e c ie s - b e in g d o e s m a n
b e g in h is t r u e “life o f the species” (M E P M , 76). W h e n M a r x th e re b y d e f in e s u n i­
v ersal p r o d u c tio n a s th e life o f th e s p e c ie s , it is b e c a u s e th is p r o d u c tio n im p lie s
a c o n c e p tio n o f life w h ic h is a "productive life" (Ib id .). W h a t u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c tio n
p r o d u c e s is th u s th e u n iv e rs a l d im e n s io n of th e h u m a n s p e c ie s -b e in g . In th e
p r o c e s s o f d e p lo y in g th e t r u t h of th is s p e c ie s - b e in g t h e t r u e sp e c ie s-life o f m a n
a p p e a r s , w h ic h in c lu d e s e v e ry o n e . C o n s e q u e n tly , m a n liv es if a n d o n ly if h e
p a r tic ip a te s in th e d e p lo y m e n t o f h is o w n u n iv e rsa lity , if h e w o rk s f o r th e o n to ­
lo g ic a l a f f ir m a tio n o f h is o w n e s se n c e . It is b e c a u s e th is p r o d u c tio n c o n s ta n tly
c r e a te s r e tr o a c tiv e d e t e r m in a tio n s o f its o w n e s s e n c e th a t o n e c a n c la im th a t
t h is universally p r o d u c in g life is a s w ell c o n s ta n tly r e la tin g its e lf to itself , i.e. in
t h e p r o c e s s o f liv in g tru ly , lif e p r o d u c e s d e t e r m in a tio n s o f itse lf. F or M a rx , to
tr u ly t h i n k h u m a n sp e c ie s-life sig n ifie s to t h i n k a c o lle c tiv e u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ­
tio n t h a t its e lf g e n e r a te s life. “[ W ] h a t is life o t h e r t h a n a c tiv ity ” ( Ib id ., 7 5 )—
o t h e r t h a n u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c tio n ? If to tr u ly liv e m e a n s to p r o d u c e u n iv ersally ,
t o p r o d u c e th e u n iv e rs a lity o f o w n s o n e e s s e n c e , t h e n life = p r a c tic e = activity.
T h is is w hy t r u e activ ity , i.e. u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c tio n , is t r u e life , i.e. th e p e r m a n e n t
c r e a tio n o f o n e 's o w n u n iv e rsa lity . I f t r u e life is c o n s titu tiv e ly u n iv e rs a l a c tiv e
life a n d if th e r e f o r e life c a n b e s a id to b e c r e a tiv e life , o n e c a n c o n c lu d e th a t
p r o d u c tiv e life d e f in e s a life w h ic h in its a c tiv ity c o n s ta n tly r e f e r s b a c k to itself.
F o r M a rx , t r u e life is u n iv e rs a l a c tiv ity a n d u n iv e rsa l a c tiv ity is t r u e life . O n e
c a n n o w ea sily in s c r ib e th e s e in te r d e p e n d e n t d e f in itio n s in to M a rx ’s fo rm u la
o f “p r o d u c tiv e life ”: M a r x ’s c o n c e p tio n o f h u m a n sp e c ie s-life , th e life o f g e n e r ic
h u m a n ity , c a n h e u n d e r s to o d a s a c o n c e p tio n o f a life liv in g life?*
W h a t c a n b e s e e n in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h is lo g ic o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c tio n
a n d o f th e p r o d u c tio n o f u n iv e rs a lity in M a rx fo r th e q u e s tio n o f th e tr a n s itio n
f r o m r a b b le to p r o le ta r ia t? F irst it is c le a r t h a t M a rx ta k e s u p e s s e n tia l d e te r ­
m in a tio n s o f th e H e g e lia n ra b b le . B u t h e m a k e s o u t o f th e d e t e r m in a tio n o f
t h e c o n te n t o f th e r a b b le - a ttitu d e ( in d ig n a tio n ) th e a c tu a l c o m m u n is t a c tio n .
Its e v e n ta l o u tb r e a k c o n s e q u e n tly g e n e r a te s th e p r o c e s s o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ­
tio n . T h e m a r k in g o f a f u n d a m e n ta l in d e te r m in a c y w h ic h e m e r g e s a t a n e c e s ­
s a ry p r o d u c e d c o n d itio n H e g e l s h a r e s w ith M a rx . W h a t H e g e l d o e s n o t s h a r e
w ith M a rx is t h e ju d g m e n t th a t f r o m th e e m e r g e n c e o f in d e te r m in a c y a lo n e
a f u n d a m e n ta l tr a n s f o r m a t io n c a n b e th o u g h t w h ic h c a n n o t b e d e s c r ib e d in
g iv e n c a te g o r ie s o f c h a n g e a s it e v e n c h a n g e s th e law s o f c h a n g e . I f in H e g e l’s
Philosophy o f R ight th e n a m e ‘r a b b le ' s ta n d s fo r a n in d e te r m in a c y a b o u t w h ic h
p h ilo s o p h y d o e s n o t h av e to say a n y th in g e x c e p t th a t it p r e s e n ts th e n e g a tio n o f
178 Hegel's R abble

a ll d e t e r m in a tio n s a n d if th e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e in d e te r m in a c y in s is ts as p r o b ­
le m w ith in p h ilo s o p h y , t h e n o n e c a n c la im th a t it is th e i r r u p t i o n o f p o litic s in to
p h ilo s o p h y . F o r t h is in d e te r m in a c y a p p e a r in g w ith in p h ilo s o p h y is th e in d e te r ­
m in a c y o f a n e m e r g e n c e , o f a n e v e n t o f w h ic h p h ilo s o p h y p re v io u sly c a n n o t say
a n y th in g . P h ilo s o p h y is o n ly a b le to m a r k t h e p la c e f r o m w h ic h e v e n t h e law s
o f c h a n g e m ig h t b e c h a n g e d . T o d e s c r ib e th e r e la tio n s h ip o f M a r x a n d H e g e l
o n e c a n b o r ro w a r e m a r k b y T h e u n is s e n a n d t u r n a n in s c r ib e d im p lic a tio n
a g a in s t h im . T h e u n i s s e n m a rk s w ith a c r itic a l in te n tio n to w a rd M a rx th a t M a rx
in h is c r it iq u e o f th e Philosophy o f R ig h t p r o c e e d s in a w ay th a t “h e t u r n s th e
lo g ic d e n i e d in it a g a in s t itself.”1'5 I f H e g e l's Philosophy o f R ight is a p h ilo s o p h ic a l
tr e a tis e o n p o litic s in its m o d e r n a n d s ta tis t f o rm in g , t h e n in th e r e m a r k a b o v e
is im p lie d th a t p o litic s c a n h a v e a d if f e r e n t lo g ic th a n p h ilo s o p h y .
W h e n M a rx n o te s th a t “H e g e l is n o t to b e b la m e d fo r d e p ic tin g th e n a t u r e
o f t h e m o d e r n s ta te a s it is, b u t r a t h e r fo r p r e s e n tin g w h a t w a s th e essence o f
t h e s ta te ” (M C II, 6 4 ), th is c o m m e n t h a s to b e ta k e n s e rio u s ly . H e g e l d e p ic ts
t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e m o d e r n a s it is a n d h e d e p ic ts w h a t h a p p e n s in th e s ta te
i f t h e r e is a n e m e r g e n c e o f th e r a b b le a c c u ra te ly . B u t I le g e l p r e s e n ts w h a t
is a s in v a r ia n t s t r u c t u r e o f p o litic s , o f t h e s ta te . T h e r e w ith h e s u s p e n d s h is
o w n in s ig h t. T a k in g u p th e im p lic a tio n o f T h e u n i s s e n ’s r e m a r k o n e c a n c la im :
M a rx r e a d s th e lo g ic o f th e H e g e lia n Philosophy o f R ight a g a in s t th e lo g ic o f
H e g e lia n Logics. T h u s H e g e l d e p ic ts w h a t is, w h a t e m e r g e s a n d r ig h tly m a rk s
t h e p la c e o f t h e ra b b le . F o r H e g e l it is v a lid t h a t “p h ilo s o p h y c a n g iv e a n a m e
to it, b u t p h ilo s o p h y c a n n o t so lv e it.”36 M a rx , h o w ev e r, is n o t c o n te n t w ith th is
m a r k i n g o f a n in d e te r m in a c y b u t tr a n s f o r m s p h ilo s o p h ic a l th i n k i n g f r o m “th e
s t a n d p o i n t o f th e p r o le t a r ia t ,”37 f r o m th e im p o s sib ility o f p h ilo s o p h y . W h a t
h a p p e n s a g a in s t th e b a c k g r o u n d w ith th e im a g e o f th e e a rly h u m a n is t M a rx ? 38
W h a t s o r t o f h u m a n is m is o n e d e a lin g w ith h e r e ? I f o n e th in k s to g e th e r th e
s t r u c t u r e o f u n iv e r s a l p r o d u c ti o n by ih e p r o le t a r ia t a n d t h e p r o d u c ti o n o f th e
u n iv e rs a l, o f h u m a n s p e c ie s -b e in g , s ta r t in g f r o m t h e in d e te r m in a c y o f h u m a n
b e in g , ( h e n o n - b e in g , a n im a g e r e s u lts w h ic h d if f e r s f r o m t h e tr a d i tio n a l o n e .
F o r h o w to t h i n k a h u m a n is m o f h u m a n n o n - b e in g , a n in - h u m a n is m , o r m o r e
p r e c is e : a h u m a n is m o f im p o s sib ility ? H e r e a g a in H e g e l c a n h e lp . H e w rite s in
t h e r e g is t e r in T ü b in g e n : "S ’il y a v a it u n g o u v e r n e m e n t d e s a n g e s , il s e g o u -
v e r n o ie n t d é m o c r a ti q u e m e n t”39 a n d th e re b y o f fe rs a n i m p o r t a n t h in t. A tru ly
d e m o c r a tic o r g a n iz a ti o n o r g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld b e o n e o f n o n - h u m a n b e in g s ,
so H e g e l: A d e m o c r a c y o f a n g e ls.
I f o n e s ta rts fro m th e M a rx ia n d e te r m in a tio n o f m a n as n o n -b e in g [Un-wesen],
o n e c a n d e v e lo p a f u r t h e r p o in t. F o r if th e M a r x ia n c o n c e p t io n o f u n iv e rs a l
p r o d u c ti o n c a n b e r e a d a s a c o n s ta n t c o n v e r s io n o f im p o s s ib ility in to im p o s s i­
b le p o ssib ility , t h e n th e e a rly M a r x ia n h u m a n is m c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d f r o m a
p r e s e t s u b s ta n tia l d e t e r m in a tio n o f h u m a n b e in g . R a th e r o n e s h o u ld in s c r ib e
t h e H e g e lia n n o te in to th e c o n c e p t io n o f M a r x ia n h u m a n is m to d o ju s tic e to
h is d e s c r ip tio n o f th e u n iv e rs a l d im e n s io n o f t h e h u m a n s p e c ie s -b e in g . T a k in g
 C oda 179

u p a r e m a r k bv B a d io u o n e c a n say f o r M a r x it is v alid : “G iv e n t h e i r a b ility

to c r e a te e t e r n a l t r u t h s in v a r io u s w o rld s , m e n h a v e w ith in th e m t h e a n g e l
t h a t r e lig io n s saw a s t h e i r d o u b le ." 40 I f o n e ta k e s all th is r e m a r k s to g e th e r o n e
c a n o u tli n e a m aterialist definition o f the angel w h ic h h e lp s to u n d e r s t a n d M a r x ’s
h u m a n is m . I f th e p ro c e s s o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ti o n is m a r k e d b y t h e f a c t th a t it
s u s p e n d s a n y s u b s ta n tia l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f h u m a n b e in g , th e n o n e c a n say in
a f ir s t s te p t h a t M a r x ’s h u m a n is m s ta r t s f r o m m a n a s n o n - b e in g w h ic h h a s n o
th in g s p e c ific a lly h u m a n . I f n o w th e u n iv e rs a lity o f th e h u m a n s p e c ie s - b e in g
c o n s is t in s e lf - d e te r m in in g r e tr o a c tiv e ly its e lf in th e p r o c e s s o f u n iv e rs a l p r o ­
d u c tio n a n d is th is p r o d u c ti o n th e r e f o r e t h e u n f o ld in g o f a t r u t h , in t h e fo rm
o f a n o n to lo g ic a l a f f ir m a tio n o f h u m a n e s s e n c e , o n e c a n say th a t t h e M a r x ’s
h u m a n is m r e la te s a n Un-Wesen a n d a f o r m o f e t e r n a l t r u t h . A t th e s a m e tim e
o n e c a n c o n c e iv e o f th e u n iv e rs a lity o f th is p r o d u c ti o n a n d p r o d u c ti o n o f u n i­
v e rsa lity in a w ay t h a t it a d d r e s s e s a n y o n e a n d d e s c r ib e s a p r o c e s s w h ic h m a k e s
a n e q u a lity th in k a b le w h ic h is c o n s titu t e d w ith o u t c o n d i tio n o f b e lo n g in g .
T h e u n iv e rs a lity o f t h e a c tiv e p ro c e s s , w h ic h m a r k s t h e h u m a n s p e c ie s -b e in g ,
im m a n e n tly g e n e r a te s th e r e b y a c o n c e p t io n o f d e m o c ra c y , m o r e p re c is e : o f
c o m m u n is m w h ic h is w ith o u t lim ita tio n a n d a n e q u a lity o f a n y o n e w ith a n y ­
o n e . I f h e n c e t h e e a r ly M a rx is a t h i n k e r o f th e p r o le t a r ia t a s s u b je c t o f a p r o c ­
e ss o f u n iv e rs a l p r o d u c ti o n in w h ic h th e u n iv e rs a lity o f h u m a n s p e c ie s - b e in g
is u n d e r s t o o d s t a r t i n g f r o m its n o n - b e in g a s e q u a lity o f a n y o n e in th e f o r m o f
u n f o ld in g e t e r n a l tr u t h s , o n e c a n c la im t h a t th e h u m a n is m o f e a rly M a rx is a n
angelo-hum anism , a h u m a n is m o f im p o s sib ility . Its p r in c ip le is: M a n o n ly tru ly
liv es w h e n m a n is a n a n g e l to m a n .
M a r x ’s a n g e lo - h u m a n is m t u r n s p o litic s , h a p p e n i n g to H e g e l’s p h ilo s o p h y
i n th e ‘r a b b le ,’ a g a in s t H e g e l, i.e. h e p u ts th e lo g ic o f p o litic s th r o u g h th e
n a m e ‘p r o l e t a r i a t ’ f o r th a g a in s t th e lo g ic o f p h ilo s o p h y a n d ( re -) in tr o d u c e s
t h e c o n d i tio n o f p o litic s in to p h ilo s o p h y . P h ilo s o p h y is, a t le a s t, a fter M a rx
c o n d i tio n e d b y th e s in g u la r ity o f p o litic s . T h e r e is n o p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y
w h ic h c o u l d e s c a p e t h e M a r x ia n r u p t u r e w ith o u t a g a in r e tu r n in g , in o n e w ay
o r a n o t h e r , to th e H e g e lia n p r o b le m o f th e ra b b le . M a rx in tr o d u c e s th e tr u e
p r im a c y o f p r a c tic e in to p h ilo s o p h y , th e p r im a c y o f th e a u to n o m y o f p o litic a l
p r a c tic e . T h e r e is n o p o litic a l th in k i n g w h ic h c o u ld s till r e f e r w ith a s o v e re ig n
g e s tu r e to th e in v a r ia n c e o f t h e p o litic a l a n d s u s p e n d th e c o n d i tio n in g o f p h i­
lo s o p h y by ( th e s in g u la r ity ) o f p o litic s .41 H e g e l’s g r e a tn e s s c o n s is ts in h a v in g
m a r k e d th is c o n d i tio n in g in th e n a m e ‘ra b b le .’
 N otes

In tro d u c tio n

A lain B a d io u , Entretien avec Christine Goémé, F ra n c e C u ltu re 10.02.95.

A T S , p . 145.
T h e o d o r W. A d o rn o , K ant ’s Critique o f Pure Reason (1959), S ta n fo rd : S ta n fo rd
U n iversity P re ss 2001, p. 9.
T h e sc rie s o f a u th o rs w h o c o m m e n te d o n th is tra n s itio n re a c h e s fro m A lth u sser
to Zizek.
O n e o f th e m o st fa m o u s c ritic s o f th e o b s tr u c tin g o f th e th o u g h t o f M a rx is obvi­
o u sly L e n in . I h av e u n d e r ta k e n a c o m m e n ta ry o f his criticism in: F ra n k R uda,
Was istein M arxist? Lenins Wiederherstellung der Wahrheit des Nam ens, in Namen.
Benennung, Verehrung, Wirkung. Positionen der europäischen Moderne, T a tja n a
P etzer, Sylvia Sasse. F ra n zisk a T h u n -H o h e n s te in , S a n d r o Z a n e tti (ed.). B erlin:
K ad m o s 2009, pp . 2 2 5 -4 2 .
S o la n g e M ercier-Josa, Übergänge von Heget zu M arx. Philosophie, Ideologie u n d Kritik,
K öln: P a h l-R u g e n ste in 1989, p. 151. My tra n s la tio n . A ll su b s e q u e n t tra n sla tio n s
fro m b o o k s o r a rtic le s yet u n tr a n s la te d in to E n g lish a r e p ro v id e d by th e a u th o r.
W h e re a n e x is tin g tra n s la tio n h a s b e e n m o d ifie d fo r th e p u rp o s e s o f accu racy ,
th is h a s b e e n in d ic a te d .
A lain B a d io u , Metapolitics, L o n d o n /N e w York: V erso 2005, p . 10. A c o n v in cin g
c ritiq u e o f ‘p o litic a l p h ilo s o p h y ’ c a n also b e fo u n d in : A lain B a d io u , Pent-on
penser la politique?, P aris: S e u il 1985.
E tie n n e B alib ar, Für Althussei; M ainz: D e c a to n 1994, p . 143. “D isp la c e m e n t"
tr a n s la te s th e F re n c h “d é p la c e m e n t." A ll e m p h a s e s , u n le s s o th e rw is e in d i­
c a te d c a n b e f o u n d in th e c ite d te x ts . A t th e s a m e tim e I d o n o t follow B a lib a r's
th e sis th a t a M a ch ia v ellian m o m e n t in M a rx ia n th o u g h t s h o u ld b e p la y ed o ff
a g a in s t a H e g e lia n m o m e n t. I r a th e r in sist in th e fo llo w in g o n th e d ecisiv e
re le v a n c e o f th e H e g e lia n m o m e n t fo r th e e a rly M a rx . S e e E tie n n e B alib ar,
‘M a rx , th e Jo k e r in th e P a c k ,' in : Economy a n d Society, V o lu m e 14. N u m b e r 1,
F e b r u a r y 1985.
K ai l M a rx /F r ie d r ic h E ngels, The German Ideology, N ew York: P ro m e th e u s B ooks
1998. p . 29.
I h e r e b o rro w th is fo rm u la fro m W e rn e r C o n ze. See: W e rn e r (-o n z e , “V om P ö b el
z u m P ro le ta ria t. S o zia lg e sc h ic h tlic h e V o ra u sse tz u n g e n fü r d e n S o zialism u s in
D e u ts c h la n d L1941J," in Gesellschaft - Staat - Nation. Gesammelte Aufsätze, S tu ttg a rt:
K lett-C o tta 1992. p p . 2 3 2 -4 6 .
 N oies

C h ap ter 1

1 M C H . p. 138.
2 B ronislaw G e re m e k , Poverty. A History, C a m b rid g e : Blackwell P u b lish e rs 1991, p.
47.
* Ib id ., p. 67.
4 T h a i th is a m b ig u ity le a d s to a g e n e ra l m is tru s t o f th e " m e re a p p e a ra n c e s " a n d to
a w h o le lite r a tu r e o f sim u la tio n a n d d is s im u la tio n is a lre a d y n o te d by L u h m a n n .
S ee: N ik la s L u h m a n n , D ie Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft, F r a n k f u r t a. M.: S u h rk a in p
1998, p. 623.
■ B ronislaw G e re m e k , Poverty, p . 50.
ß O n e c o u ld easily th in k o f th e lo g ic o f su sp ic io n th a t H e g e l d e lin e a te s p ara d ig -
m a tic ally w ith re g a rd s to th e F re n ch R evolution.
7 T h e fidelity to L u th e r c a n b e f o u n d in H egel in te r a lia in th e follow ing fo rm u la ­
tio n : “W e L u th e ra n s - 1 a m o n e a n d I w a n t to r e m a in o n e - o n ly h av e th is o rig in a l
b elief.” Briefe von u n d an Hegel, e d . V .J. H o ffm e is te r a n d F. N ico lin , H a m b u rg :
M e in er 1 9 6 9 -8 1 , B d. 4, S. 60.
H S ee: IIO P R , p. 127. T h e r e it re a d s: “th e will is only w h at it p o sits its e lf to b e ; it is
n o t g o o d by n a tu r e b u t c a n b e c o m e w h a t it is o n ly b y its o w n la b o u r.”
fl J o a c h im R itte r. Hegel u n d die Reformation, in M etaphysik u n d Politik. Studien zu
Aristoteles u n d Hegel, F ra n k fu r t a. M .: S u h rk a m p 2 0 0 3 , p. 313.

C h a p te r 2

1 H P M , p . 139.
J P aul T illic h , Vorlesung über Hegel (Frankfurt 1931/32), B e rlin /N e w York: D e G ru y te r
1995, B d. 8, p. 319.
:l M a n fre d R iedel, Tradition un d Revolution in Hegels "Philosophie des Rechts," in
Studien zu Hegels Rechtsphilosophie, F ra n k fu r t a. M .: S u h rk a m p 1969, p . 100.
1 E d u a rd G an s. Vorrede z u G.W.F. Hegels Werke, B e rlin 1833, B d. 8 . p . X V II
5 H e g e l n a m e s th e follow ing ad v a n ta g es: “th e o p p o r tu n ity o f a c q u irin g skill a n d
e d u c a tio n o f a n y k in d , as w ell as o f th e a d m in is tra tio n o f ju stice, h e a lth -c a re , a n d
o fte n even o f th e c o n s o la tio n s o f relig io n ." H O P R . p. 220.
6 F am ily “ in civic c o m m u n ity . . . is s u b o r d in a te a n d m e re ly fo rm s a basis.” Ib id .,
p. 264.
7 H egel e n u m e r a te s 1. th e e th ic a l (leg a l a g e o f th e c h ild a n d th e ab ility lo a c q u ire
p r o p e r ty a n d c r e a te a fam ily) a n d 2. th e n a tu r a l m o v e m e n t o f d isso lv in g th e
fam ily (d e a th o f th e p a re n ts). S e e IIO P R , p p . 175ff. l i e a d d itio n a lly r e f e r s to th e
a r b itr a r y d isso lu tio n th ro u g h d iv o rc e w h ich d o e s n o t p e rfo rm th e tra n s itio n to
civil society. S ee: Ib id ., 174.
H T h e s ta g e o f d if fe r e n c e sh o u ld b e u n d e r s to o d as im m a n e n t, a n d also fo llo w in g a
logic o f d e v e lo p m e n t: b e g in n in g w ith th e d iffe re n c e o f c o n c re te p e rso n s (im m a­
n e n t), a n d th e d iffe re n c e b etw e en civil society, fam ily a n d th e s ta te (fo llo w in g a
lo g ic o f d ev e lo p m e n t).
' J o a c h im R itter. Hegel u n d die Reformation, p. 314.
182 N otes

10 H e g e l c a lls m a rr ia g e a n d h o n o r th e su b jectiv e b ases o f th e sta te ; fam ily a n d

e s ta te its o b je ctiv e bases; fa m ily a n d c o r p o r a tio n its ro o ts.
11 M a rk N eo c leo u s, Adm inistering C ivil Society. Towards a Theory o f State Power,
L o n d o n /N e w York: P alg rav e 1996, p. 8.

C h a p te r 3

1 H V O R L 3 , p. 702.
2 O n e h a s to a d d h e re : I le g e l know s o f th is fa ilu re .
3 It is im p re c ise to o n ly in d ic a te o n e p ro p o s e d so lu tio n as fo r e x a m p le D allm ay r
d o es. S ee: F re d R. D allm ayr, G.W.F. Hegel. Modernity ancl Politics, N ew Y o rk /
O x fo rd : S ag e P u b lic a tio n s 20 0 2 , p . 130. A v in eri also s e e s o n ly th r e e o p tio n s in
H egel. S ee: A H T , pp . 151-4.
* W ith th is H egel clea rly a tte m p ts to avoid a rig id fo rm a lism o f rig h ts th a t h e
p a ra d ig m a tic a lly c ritic iz e s in R o m an law (in th e e x a m p le o f th e slave re la tio n ­
s h ip o f R o m an c h ild re n ). S ee: H O P R , pp . 174. 177-8.
5 T h a t th is is n ec essarily th e c a se c a n b e d e riv e d fro m H eg e l's c ritic a l d iscu ssio n
o f th e p o sitio n th a t ju d g e s a n a c tio n by o n ly ta k in g in to c o n s id e ra tio n th e co n ­
v ic tio n a n d in te n tio n b e h in d it. S u ch a s ta n d p o in t b e lo n g s to th e “m o st a b s tru s e
fo rm o f e v il” (H O P R , 138) th a t u ltim a te ly le a d s to th e e r a s u re o f a n y n o tio n o f
a g o o d o r evil a c tio n . S ee: Ib id .. pp . 144-7.
6 H O P R , p p . 187-8.
7 F o r th e p a r d o n a s a s p h e re o f r e a s o n s f o r m itig a tio n , se e: H O P R . p . 129.
T h a t th e p a r d o n c a n o n ly b e g r a n te d b y th e m o n a r c h d o e s n o t a ffe c t th e
c o n s iste n c y o f th e a b o v e a r g u m e n t. A lso, th e m o n a rc h is b o u n d to th e leg al
p r o c e d u r e w h ich h a s j u s t b e e n c a r r ie d o u t; h e m ay g r a n t a n a c t o f g ra c io u s
p a r d o n b u t leaves th e p a r d o n e d o n e w ith th e s ta tu s o f a c r im in a l. S ee: H G P R .
p p . 275ff.
8 O n e c a n c la im th a t d e s ire le ad s m a n b a c k to "m ere n a tu ra l n e e d s" o f w hich
H e g e l w rite s th a t th e y a r e a n e x p re ssio n o f “savagery a n d u n fre e d o m .” S ee
H O P R , p . 190.
9 F or H egel, th e re fe re n c e to th e s tr e n g th o f se n su a l im p u lse in ju d g in g th e m o ti­
v a tio n o f a n illeg al a c tio n is a n id e a th a t s ta rts fro m a sim p le stim u lu s-ré a c tio n
m o d e l. S ee: H O P R , p . 100.
10 F or th is se e also: G io rg io A g a m b e n , Homo Sacer. Sovereign Power a n d Hare Life,
S ta n fo rd : S ta n f o rd U niversity P re ss 1998.
" Ib id ., p . 269.
12 S ee: HPRV, p . 224; H O P R . p . 221 a n d H V O R L 4, p p . 611-13.
11 T h a t th is is c o n s iste n t w ith H egel is d u e to 1. th e fact th a t h e u n d e rs ta n d s th e
n o tio n o f civil so c iety b o th so c io e c o n o m ic a lly a n d also p o litica lly a n d h e r e gives
th e p rim a c y to th e first m e a n in g . (See: M a n fre d R ied el, "Der Begriff der »bürger­
lichen Gesellschaft■< u n d das Problem seines geschichtlichen U rsprung?, in : Studien,,
pp . 1 3 5 -6 7 ) a n d 2. th e fact th a t th e im m e d ia te e s ta te , a s a re su lt o f its te n ­
d e n c y to b e subm issive (S ee H O P R , 195) falls b e h in d th e f o rm a l e s ta te a n d also
b e c a u se th e g e n e ra l e s ta te refers o n ly to th e p o litic a l n o tio n o f civil society.
 N oies 183

H Ib id ., p. 225. O n e c e n tr a l e le m e n t o f c a p a b ility th a t H c g c l n a m e s sk ill seem s

to re fe r to K a n t's d e fin itio n o f th e c itiz e n as su i iuris, m a s te r o f h is ow n d e e d s
a g a in s t th e operari. S e e Ib id .. p. 191.
15 J o e l A n d e r s o n , " H e g e r s Im p lic it V iew o n H ow to S o lv e th e P ro b le m o f P overty:
T h e R e s p o n s ib le C o n s u m e r a n d th e R e tu r n o f th e E th ic a l to C ivil S ociety," in :
Beyond Liberalism a n d C om m unilarianism . Studies in Hegel's Philosophy o f R ight,
e d . b y R o b e rt R. W illia m s, N ew York: S ta te U n iv e rsity o f N ew Y o rk P re ss 2001.
p. 196.
16 Ibid.
17 Ib id . W h a t th is m e a n s c o n c re te ly re a d s in A n d e rso n lik e this: “For ex a m p le , i f I
a m a w a re th a t a fav o rite r e s ta u r a n t is h av in g tro u b le a ttr a c tin g b u sin e ss, I may
f re q u e n t it m o re o fte n to h e lp k e e p it a flo a t. I f a c ra z e fo r th is C h ris tm a s se a ­
so n 's ‘h o t toy’ is le a d in g to w ild re ta il a n d p ro d u c tio n flu c tu a tio n . I m a y ch o o se
a d if fe r e n t g ift fo r a c h ild . O r I m ay p u r c h a s e g o o d s th a t a r e p ro d u c e d by la b o r­
e r s e a r n in g a living w age, s o as to resist th e d o w n w a rd p re ss u re s o n w ages th a t
c o m e fro m u n c e r ta in ty a n d tie rce c o m p e titio n . In sm a ll ways, th e s e ch o ic e s h elp
to s u p p o r t ra tio n a l a n d sta b le g ro w th in c o n s u m e r d e m a n d , a n d in so fa r as th is
o c c u rs , th e g e n e ra l re s o u rc e s a r e in c re a se d ." Ib id ., p . 196.
18 M C H , p. 4 6 . A s D avid ( λ D u rs t rig h tly re m a rk e d , an y a tte m p t to re d u c e th e
re c ip ro c a l re la tio n s o f H eg e l's s ta te m o d e l to p u re ly e c o n o m ic a l o n e s th a t w ould
b e — w h e th e r e th ic a lly o r n o t— re g u la tin g it, tra n s fo rm s H e g e l’s sta te in w hat
P lato o n c e c a lle d a s ta te o f pigs. S ee: D avid C. D u rst, “T h e E n d (s) o f th e S tate in
H e g e l’s P h ilo so p h y o f R ight,” in : Beyond Liberalism a n d Com m unilarianism , p. 236.
19 D o m e n ic o L o su rd o , Zwischen Hegel u n d Bismarck. D ie achtundvierziger Revolution
u n d die Krise der deutschen K ultur; B e rlin : A k a d e m ie V erlag 1993. p p . 157-234.
20 Ib id ., p. 159.
21 R e c titu d e is a lo n g sid e th e h o n o r o f th e e s ta te (a f te r love w ith in th e fam ily
a n d c o n fid e n c e in th e first e sta te ) th e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e e th ic a l a ttitu d e . S ee
H O P R , p. 196.
22 T h a t th is e x a m in a tio n h a s a p o lic e c h a r a c te r is c le a r: " T h e c o r p o r a tio n h a s in
its circ les w ith in its re m it th e d e a lin g s o f th e p o lic e . . ( H V O R L 3, 710)
25 T h is fo rm u la tio n I ow e to L o re n z o C h iesa .
21 In th is way L u h m a n n will la te r c a ll d a y la b o rin g a lim it-case o f th e d is tin c ­
tio n b etw e en in c lu sio n a n d ex c lu sio n . S ee N iklas L u h m a n n , “In k lu sio n u n d
E x k lu sio n ,” in: Soziologische A u fklä ru n g 6. Die Soziologie u n d der Mensch, O p la d e n :
W e std e u tsc h e r V erla g 1995. p . 263.
25 In th is se n se th e H e g e lia n c o r p o r a tio n is n o t fully fre e d fro m its m e d iev al h e r­
itag e. F or th e m e d ie v a l g u ild , as L u h m a n n rig h tly claim s, “d o e s n o t a d d re ss
th e low est s tr a ta [Schichten] . . ." N ik las L u h m a n n , “J e n s e its d e r B a rb a re i,"
in : Gesellschaftsstruktur u n d Semantik. Studien zur Wissenssoziologie der modernen
Gesellschaft, B d. 4, F r a n k f u r t a. M.: S u h rk a m p 1999, p . 141.
26 H egel d is tin g u is h e s b e tw e e n in n e r a n d e x te r io r p ro v isio n s. I f th e c o r p o r a tio n
d e a ls w ith th e in n e r, th e p o lic e d e a l w ith th e e x te rio r. S ee: HPRV. p. 216.
27 H egel e n u m e ra te s, in o r d e r to d e te rm in e th is lim it, th e m o rals, th e m o m e n ta ry
d a n g e r, th e sp irit o f th e c o n s titu tio n a n d th e sp e cific sta te o f society. T h e p o lice is,
a s h e calls it la ter, d e te r m in e d by th e “p o litica l situ atio n ." S ee: H V O R L 4 , p . 593.
184 N otes

28 HPRV. p. 217.
w It a g a in b e c o m e s c le a r h e r e w h a t th e n o tio n o f p o ssib ility o n th e level o f c o n ­
tin g e n c ie s m e a n s. A s H egel h a d a lre a d y n o te d in a h a n d w ritte n re m a rk to
p a r a g ra p h 17: “A b e in g d e te r m in e d a s m e re ly p o ssib le is c o n tin g e n t— it c a n b e
o r it c a n n o t be." (H G P R , 67)
w It is o f n o re le v a n c e if th e c ite d p a ssa g e fro m th e G rie sh e im p o sts c rip t stem s
fro m H egel o r n o t b e c a u s e it o n ly h a s to s u p p o r t th e co n sisten cy o f th e follow ing
re m a rk s. It is in a n y c a se in d is p u ta b le th a t th e h a n d w r itte n n o te to p a r a g ra p h
116 o f th e Philosophy o f Right re fe rs to th e sa m e n o tio n in a q u o ta tio n fro m J o h a n n
M ichaels H ein e cc iu s. H egel w rites: “Heinecc [ccius, Elementa Juris Civilis] § 1235.
Pauperiesest dam n um sine inuiria fic ien tis, datum nonnisi (juadrupes pnuperem ftictre
dicHur" H G P R , p. 216.
31 A ny p e rs o n w ith in civil society is su b je ct to th e d ia le c tic s o f rig h ts a n d duties;
th e sa m e g o e s fo r th e fam ily.
32 H c g c l ta lk s a b o u t e r a d ic a tin g [ausreuten] “w h a t is m e re ly se n su o u s a n d n a tu ra l"
in c h ild re n . T h e G e r m a n “a u s re u te n ” re f e r s to e x te r m in a tin g s o m e th in g a n d to
c u ttin g s o m e th in g o f f a t its ro o ts. S ee IIO P R , p . 173.
33 H V O R L 4 . p. 593.
:H S ee: H V O R L 4. p. 607.
:l' 1 8 2 4 /2 5 G rie s h e im c a lls th is th e “fa ilu re o f relig io n .”
36 C h ris to p h M e n k e, Tragödie im Sittlichen. Gerechtigkeit u n d Freiheit nach Hegel,
F r a n k f u r t a.M .: S u h rk a m p 1996, p . 257.
7,1 A s H egel n o tes: “A lso th e m o n a s te rie s fe e d p o v e rty by fe e d in g la zin ess, b e c a u se
th e y c a r e fo r th e sa tisfac tio n o f n e e d s in d e p e n d e n t o f w ork." (H V O R L , 611)
** O n e c a n se e h e r e th a t, by re je c tin g th e rig h t to s trik e , H e g e l w a n ts to solve a
p ro b le m th a t w as also in s tru c tin g h is d isc u ssio n o f th e rig h t o f d istre ss: th e rig h t
to a n e x c e p tio n o f rig h t.
311 M a n fre d R ied el, Das Problem der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft, p . 161.
40 Ib id ., p. 162.

C h a p te r 4

1 F rie d ric h N ietzsc h e, Beyond Good a n d E vil. Prelude to A Philosophy o f the Future,
C a m b rid g e : C a m b r id g e U n iv e rsity P re ss 2 0 0 2 , p . 162. T h e a d d itio n in b ra c k ­
e ts , r e f e r r in g to th e G e r m a n v e rsio n o f th e p a s s a g e , w as in c lu d e d by th e
a u th o r.
2 BBE, p p . 9 3 -1 0 2
3 T o w h at e x te n t H e g e l th e re w ith p ro v id e s a n in s ig h t th a t h a s b e e n fo rg o t­
te n in p o litic a l th e o ry , I h av e tr ie d to sh o w p a r a d ig m a tic a lly in d e a lin g w ith
F o u c a u lt in “B ack to th e F acto ry . A P lea fo r a R en ew al o f C o n c re te A nalysis
o f C o n c r e te S itu a tio n s ," in : Beyond Potentialities? Politics between the Possible
a n d the Impossible, hg . v o n R u d a , F r a n k /P o to c n ik . M a rk /V ö lk e r, J a n . B erlin :
D ia p h a n e s 2011.
1 M a n fr e d R ied el, “D ie R e z e p tio n d e r N a tio n a lö k o n o m ie ,” in : Studien, p . 89.
5 Ib id ., p. 95.
 N oies 185

C h ap ter 5

1 H O P R , p. 266.
2 S e e th e e n tr y in : F rie d ric h K luge, Etymologisches Lexikon der deutschen Sprache,
B e rlin : D e G ru y te r 1989.
3 T h e G e r m a n “N o td u rft" is r e n d e r e d as ‘p e n u r y ’ in E n g lish . H O P R . p . 220.
4 K arl M a rx /F r ie d r ic h E ngels, The Holy Family or Critique o f Critical Criticism.
A gainst B runo B auer a n d Company, at: h ttp ://w w w .m a rx is ts .o rg /a rc h iv e /m a rx /
w o rk s/d o w n lo a d /M a rx _ T h e _ I Ioly_Fam ily.pdf, p . 28.
5 A lso see: H V O R L 4, p . 608.
6 S ee: H V O R L 2, p. 682; H V O R L 3 , p. 703, H V O R L 4 , p p . 608ff.
7 I w a n t to anyhow a d d re ss th e p h ilo lo g ic a l o b je c tio n th a t th is p assag e co u ld
also n o t ste m fro m H egel a n d th e re fo re th e follo w in g re m a rk s s ta n d o n sh ak y
g r o u n d . 11’ th e se re m a rk s a r e n o t o f H e g e lia n o rig in , th e y n o n e th e le ss show a
d e e p u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e H e g e lia n Philosophy o f Right. B ecau se th e y e x p la in a
s tr u c tu ra l an a lo g y th a t o th e rw ise explicitly c a n n o t b e fo u n d ex p licitly in Ileg e l.
O n e c o u ld say th a t h e re th e H eg elian sa y in g o n reality a n d th e o ry is v alid in a
d if fe r e n t g u ise: If th e se passag es d o n o t ste m fro m H eg e l, ev en w o rse fo r H egel.
8 T h a t h e is q u ite c o rre c t in th is c a n b e se e n f ro m H eg e l's r e m a rk th a t th e sp h e re
o f p a rtic u la ritie s , i.e. civil society, p re se rv e s “th e re st o f th e s ta te o f n a tu r e in
itself." H V O R L 2, p. 647.
’ T h e r ic h ra b b le th e re b y a d o p ts a p o sitio n w h ich is c o m p a ra b le to a n an ti-H o b -
b e sia n H o b b e s a c c o rd in g to th e r e a d in g o f H o b b e s s u p p lie d by M a c p h e rso n . It
d e c la re s a s ta te o f n a tu re , w h ic h is u n d e r s to o d in p u re ly possessive in d iv id u alist
te rm s, a n d w h ich is n o t re g u la te d by c o n tra c ts b u t b y th e d y n a m ic s o f eco n o m y ,
i.e. o f th e s ta te o f n a t u r e itself1— a s o r t o f visible h a n d th a t b efits th e (ec o n o m i­
cally) fittest. T h e stru g g le fo r r e c o g n itio n , follow in g th is lo g ic, is a stru g g le for
c a p ita l. S e e also: C. B. M a c p h e rso n , The Political Theory o f Possessive Individualism .
Hobbes to Locke, O x fo rd : O x fo rd U niversity P re ss 2011.
10 In Ile g e l th is re a d s as follows: “I n th is c a se h e fin d s h im s e lf b e in g a g am b ler."
HPRV, p. 230. H egel im p lie s th a t th e r e c a n b e a s o r t o f n a tu ra l s ta r tin g ca p ita l
o f th e g a m b le r, w h en h e sp e ak s o f in h e rita n c e a s “a c q u isitio n . . . w ith o u t la b o r
. . . d u e to th e c o n tin g e n c ie s o f m e re e x te r io r re la tio n s.” IIG P R . p. 331.
" M o re p recisely o n e w o u ld h av e to say th a t th is p a r titio n in to th r e e w h ich follows
th e s e p a ra tio n o f th e fre e will in to fre e will in itself, fo r itself, a n d in a n d fo r it
itself, is a g a in r e p e a te d o n e a c h o f th e in d iv id u a l levels. A c o n te m p o ra ry re a d ­
in g th a t a tte m p ts to d e s c rib e th e r e p e titio n o f an y s te p in e a c h o f th e o th e rs ad
in f in itu m a n d th a t p re s e n ts in th is way a r e c o n s tru c tio n o f H e g e l’s system as a
th o u g h t o f p u r e in fin ite re la tio n s, m ay b e f o u n d in : J e a n -L u c N ancy, Hegel. The
Restlessness o f the Negative, M in n e ap o lis: U niversity o f M in n e a p o lis P re ss 2002.
12 J o s e f D erbolav, Hegels Theorie der H andlung, in: M aterialien zu Hegels Rechtsphilo­
sophie, vol. 2, c d .by M a n fre d R ied el, F r a n k f u r t a. M.: S u h rk a m p 1975, p . 204.
13 In H e g e l's fo rm u la tio n s: “I f th is e s ta te h a s liv e lih o o d , it h a s s e c u re d its h o n o r,
d o e s n o t n e e d to give h im s e lf lu x u ry .” O r: “T o show lu x u ry , th is is n o t n ec essary
if h e is a m a ste r.” O r: “H e w ho o n ly h a s h is p a te n t h a s n o e th ic a l o b lig a tio n s.
A n d fin ally h e h a s n o h o n o r. T h e re c o g n itio n b y o th e r s h e c a n o n ly g e n e ra te
186 Notes

b y sh o w in g lu x u ry .” HPRV. 230. T h a t th e se d e s c rip tio n s d o n o t c o n tra d ic t

th o se I le g e l gives in h is le c tu r e s o n th e History o f Philosophy s h o u ld b e clear.
"P h ilo so p h y m a y th u s b e ca lle d a k in d o f lu x u ry , in s o fa r as lu x u ry d e sig n a te s
e n jo y m e n ts a n d o c c u p a tio n s w hich a r e u n c o n n e c te d w ith e x te r n a l necessity as
su ch ." H L H P 1, 192. P h ilo so p h y , ra th e r, d u e to its in n e r fre e d o m fro m e n d s
allow s us to g a in a tr u e c o n c e p tio n o f 'in n e r lu x u ry ,’ o f ‘in n e r w ealth* w h erea s
th e ric h ra b b le alw ays a lre a d y r e f e r s to a c o n c e p t o f lu x u r y th a t is b o u n d to e n d s
a n d to p u r e e x te rn a lity . I n n e r a n d o u te r lu x u r y th e n re la te to o n e a n o th e r in a
w ay s im ila r to how g o o d in fin ity re la te s to b a d infinity.
14 It is c h a ra c te ris tic th a t H e g e l's e x a m p le o f th e g a m b le r is th e o w n e r o f a pat­
e n t (see: HPRV, p. 230). H e re th e p ro b le m is a lre a d y a n tic ip a te d w h ic h w ill b e
n a m e d “c a p ita list" in la te r le c tu re s . (H V O R L 4, p . 60 9 ) T h e p ro b le m is th a t th e
sp lit o f th e in d iv id u a l in to p r o d u c e r a n d c o n s u m e r, th a t d e lin e a te s th e g e n e ra l
fra m e o f re fe re n c e , is re d u c e d in th e o w n e r o f a p a te n t to a p u re ly c o n s u m p ­
tive a ttitu d e . H e c o n s u m e s th e p r o d u c ts o f o th e r w ith o u t b e in g activ e h im self.
O bviously o n e c a n h e re th in k o f th e s tr u c tu re s o f th e m aster-slav e d ia le c tic s th a t
in th is c a se w o u ld b e fre e d fro m th e th r e a t o f d e a th .
15 In th e d o u b le se n se of: “le g a l claim to x ’*a n d “c laim to rig h t as such."
16 H e g e l sp e a k s o f th e “p o w e r” o f w ea lth . HPRV. p. 222.
17 T h e id e a th a t th is c a n e v e n m e a n th e lin k a g e o f p o ssib ility a n d im p o ssib ility o f
a (sh a re d ) u n iv e rsa l ‘stru ctu re,* m a y b e fo u n d in: A le x a n d e r G a rc ia D ü ttm a n n ,
Between Cultures: Tensions in the Struggle fo r Recognition, L o n d o n /N e w York: V erso
2000.
'* S e e th e e x p la n a tio n o f th e L a c a n ia n n o tio n o f c o m m u n ic a tio n a s successful
m is u n d e rs ta n d in g , in : Slavoj Z izek, Looking Awry. A n Introduction to Jacques Lacan
through Popular Culture, M assachusetts: M IT P re ss 1992. p p . 3 0 -1 .
10 Slavoj Z izek, Tor they know not what they do. Enjoyment as a Political Factor; I - o n d o n /
N ew York: V erso 2002, p. 161 a n d p p . 1641T.; Slavoj Z izek, Le plus sublime des
Ilysteriques. Ilegel passe, P aris: E rè s 1999.

C h a p te r 6

1 F rie d ric h N ietzsch e, T hus spoke Zcirathustm. A Book fo r A ll a n d None, C a m b rid g e :

C a m b rid g e U niversity P ress 20 0 6 , p . 219.
2 O n e n e e d s to in d ic a te h e re th a t H egel d o e s n o t sp e a k o f p riv a tio n in his
Philosophy o f Right. I u se th e te rm h e r e in a d o u b le sen se: 1. as d e p riv a tio n , revo­
c a tio n o f a p re d ic a te a n d 2. as n e g a tio n w h e re in th e n e g a tin g p r e d ic a te d e n ie s
th e su b je ct n o t only th e a ttr ib u te b u t also its essen ce.
' R o lf K o n ra d Ilo c e v a r, S ta n d u n d Repräsentation· beim ju n g e n Ilegel. E in Beitragzu
seiner Staats- u n d Gesellschaftslehre sowie zu r Theorie der Repräsentation. M ü n ch en :
B eck 1968, p. 31.
' HPRV, p. 223: “O n e c a n c a ll th is d e p ra v ity | Verdorbenheit] th a t th e ric h assu m es
h im s e lf to b e a t lib e rty to d o a n y th in g ." In te r e s tin g in th is c o n te x t is a ls o H e g e l’s
r e m a rk in th e Encyclopedia th a t “e v e ry th in g in th e w o rld th a t h a s b e c o m e c o r­
r u p t h a s h a d a g o o d re a s o n fo r its c o r r u p tio n .” I-ILH, p . 229.
 N oies 187

5 T h e w ay in w h ich a p r o h ib itio n o f u n b in d in g is in sc rib e d in to an y c o n c e p tio n o f

th e ‘state* is d e s c r ib e d a t BBF., p p . 104-11.
6 S e e H O P R . p . 172.
7 T h e fo rm a l style o f w ritin g is h e r e a n d in th e follow ing solely e m p lo y ed as an
a b b re v ia tio n o f th e lo g ic a l c h a in s.
8 I w rite sm a ll “i" as a n a b b re v ia tio n o f in te r n a l (i.e. sub jectiv e o p e ra tio n ) a n d “e**
fo r e x te rn a l.
9 O n e c o u ld also claim th a t h e r e th e o p p o s itio n o f a th o u g h t o f p a rtic u la riz a ­
tio n o f th e u n iv e rsa l a n d a th in k in g o f th e u n iv e rsa liz ab ility o f th e p a rtic u la rity
o p e n s u p . T h e first claim s th a t p a r tic u la rity h a s alw ays a n d a t all to re m a in
s ta b le (is a n d in Ihr form o f th e p a rtic u la rity . T h e s e c o n d by c o n tra s t claim s th a t
p a r tic u la rity c a n in its e lf h av e a u n iv e rsa l c h a ra c te r, w h ic h a s a n e ffe c t o f u n i­
v ersa liz atio n su sp e n d s th e sta b ility o f all p a rtic u la ritie s . S ee A la in B a d io u , Saint
Paul. The Foundation o f Universalism, S ta n fo rd : S ta n fo rd U n iv ersity P re ss 2003.
10 T h e o d o r W. A d o rn o , Negative Dialectics, L o n d o n : R o u tle d g e 1990, p. 312.
11 H e g e l seem s to h av e re c o g n iz e d th is p e c u lia r p o sitio n o f th e ric h ra b b le a n d
ils sp e cific d a n g e r fo r th e e th ic a l c o m m u n ity clea rly w h en h e sp e a k s a b o u t th e
h a r m f u l e ffec t o f th e c o n c e n tra tio n o f la rg e f o r tu n e s in th e h a n d s o f th e few.
S ee: H V O R L 4. p. 611.
12 In th is w ay h e is, even a g a in st h is w ill a n d in a m a n n e r th a t also I leg el c a n n o t enjoy,
in c lu d e d in th e form al g e n e ra l co n te x t o f m e d ia tio n in th e e th ic a l co m m u n ity .
15 O n e c a n r a th e r claim th e p o o r ra b b le rela tes to th e p o o r in a s im ila r w ay to
th a t in w h ich th e w h ite s q u a re re la te s to th e w h ite g r o u n d o n M a lev ich ’s p a in t­
in g fro m 1918 "W h ite o n W h ite." S ee: A lain B a d io u , The Century, C a m b r id g e /
M alden: P o lity P re ss 2007, p p . 55ff., h e re : p. 56.

C h a p te r 7

1 H P M , 178.
2 F rie d ric h N ietzsch e, T hus spoke Zarathustra, p. 159.
4 T h e re c o n s tru c te d c o u rse h e re follow s th e m a x im o f early B ad io u : "Contradiction
has no other mode o f existence but s c i s s i o n A lain B a d io u , Theory o f the Subject,
L o n d o n /N e w York: C o n tin u u m 20 0 9 , p. 14.
4 I e m p lo y th is n o tio n h e re w hile d e lib e ra te ly n o t d isc u ssin g its d e te r m in a tio n s in
N ietzsc h e’s works.
'· J o a c h im R itte r, “M o ra litä t u n d S ittlich k e it. Z u H eg e ls A u s e in a n d e rs e tz u n g m it
d e r k a n tis c h e n E th ik (1966)." in : Metaphysik u n d Politik. Studien zu Aristoteles
u n d Hegel, E rw e ite rte N e u a u sg a b e . M it e in e m N ach w o rt von O d o M a rq u a rd ,
F r a n k f u r t a. M .: S u h rk a m p 200 3 , p. 284.
6 A lrea d y in th e le c tu r e s o f 1819/20 I le g e l c la im s th a t th e c o n scio u sn e ss o f th e
c o rru p tib ility o f r ig h t th a t th e ric h h av e is th e c o u n te r p a r t to th e loss o f loyalty
to th e r ig h t in th e poor.
7 I ow e th is p o in t to d isc u ssio n s w ith C h ris to p h M enke.
8 P e te r L a n d a u , "H eg els B e g rü n d u n g d e s V e rtra g s re c h ts " in : M aterialien zu Hegels
Rechtsphilosophie, vol. 2, e d . by M a n fre d R ied el, F ra n k fu r t a. M.: S u h rk a m p 1975,
p. 179.
188 N otes

9 J o a c h im R itte r, “M o ra litä t uncl S ittlic h k e it" in : Metaphysik u n d Politik, p. 282.

10 H o n n e th em ploys W ittg e n ste in 's p h r a s e w ith r e g a rd to th e p ic tu r e th a t h o ld s us
ca p tiv e in o r d e r to d e lin e a te th e s tr u c tu r e o f c o n c e p tu a l c o n fu sio n . B u t co u ld
o n e n o t ask: Isn ’t it H e g e l’s in c o n siste n cy w h ich h o ld s us captive? D o cs n o t th e
c o n c e p tu a l c o n fu s io n lie r a th e r in H e g e l ( a n d e v e n m o re in H o n n e th ) th a n in
th e rab b le?
11 O b viously h e r e in consists o n c e a g a in th e ra b b le 's p ro x im ity to th e homo sacer.
S e e A g arn b en , Homo Sacer.
12 T o u n d e r s ta n d th is to ta liz a tio n n o t o n ly as p a th o lo g ic a l b u t as ev il, H o n n e th
w o u ld n e e d a n e la b o r a te d c o n c e p tio n o f tr u th th a t also c a n b e fo u n d in H e g e l’s
ph ilo so p h y . A c o n c e p tio n o f ev il as to ta liz a tio n w h ich is n o t d e s c rib e d as ‘p a th o ­
lo g ic a l’ c a n b e fo u n d in A lain B a d io u , Ethics. A n Essay in the U nderstanding o f Evil,
L o n d o n /N e w York: V erso 2001.
1:1 T h e o d o r W. A d o rn o , Negative Dialectics, p. 324
11 I u se h e r e th e p h r a s e absolute rabble to d if fe r e n tia te h im m o re clea rly fro m th e
r ic h ra b b le . D u e to re a so n s th a t w ill b e c o m e c le a re r in th e fo llo w in g , I w ill use
th e n o tio n s ‘ra b b le ,’ ‘a b s o lu te p o v erty ’ a n d ‘a b s o lu te ra b b le ' synonym ously.
15 S e e Sylvain L a z a ru s, Anthropologie du nom, P a ris J996.
16 O n e c a n fro m th is p e rsp e c tiv e o n ly a g r e e w ith Z izek w h e n h e re m a rk s : “W h e n
a th in g b e c o m e s ‘fo r itself,’ n o th in g a c tu a lly c h a n g e s in it: it ju s t re p e a te d ly
a s s e rts ( ‘re -m a rk s') w h a t it a lre a d y w as in itself." T h e re fo re th e v oid in th e for
its e lf o f th e ra b b le is n o th in g b u t th e r e p e titio n o f th e in its e lf o f th e v oid w ith in
p o v e rty itself. S ee Slavoj Z izek, The Ticklish Subject. The Absent Centre o f Political
Ontology, L o n d o n /N e w York: V erso 20 0 0 , p.74.

C h a p te r 8

1 G . W. F. H eg e l, Vorrede z u H in n ch s Religionsphilosophie, in : Werke, F ra n k fu r t a .M.:

S u h rk a m p 1970, vol. I I , p. 49.
* T he m o st system atic r e c o n s tr u c tio n o f th e H e g e lia n n o tio n o f h a b it c a n b e fo u n d
in C a th e r in e M a la b o u , The Future o f Hegel. Plasticity, Temporality a n d Dialectic,
O x fo r d /N e w York: R o u tle d g e 2004.
' F or a p re s e n ta tio n o f th e h isto ry o f th e n o tio n se e G e r h a r d F u n k e , Gewohnheit,
A rc h iv f ü r B c g rilfsg esc h ich te, B d. 3, B o n n 1961.
1 H e r e H e g e l c a n b e re a d as p r e c u rs o r o f N ietzsc h e’s c ritiq u e if asceticism . S ee
P aul T illic h , Vorlesung über Hegel, p p . 120ff.
H P M . 136. A h e lp fu l d iscu ssio n o f h a b it m a y b e f o u n d in Slavoj Z izek, “D isciplines
b e tw e e n tw o F re e d o m s - M a d n e ss a n d H a b it in G e r m a n Id ea lism ,” in M ark u s
G a b rie l, Slavoj Z izek, Mythology, Madness, an d Laughter. Subjectivity in German
Idealism, L o n d o n /N e w York: C o n tin u u m 20 0 9 , p p . 9 5 -1 2 1 .
" É m ile C h a r tie r A lain , Idées. Introduction à lu philosophie. Platon - Descartes - Hegel -
Comte (1939), P aris: F la m m a rio n 1983. p. 200.
7 J u n -H o W on, Hegels B egriff der politischen Gesinnung. Zutrauen, Patriotismus und
Vertrauen, W ü rz b u rg : K ö n ig sh a u se n 8c N e u m a n n 2 0 0 2 , S. 9 4 . My em p h asis.
8 Cf. H O P R . pp . 188ff.
 N oies 189

T h e n o tio n o f h a b it is sy n o n y m o u s w ith s e c o n d n a tu re . Cf. M a la b o u , The Future

o f Hegel, p. 77; H e g e l h im s e lf a r tic u la te d th is in IIO P R . p . 159.
F or th is re a so n , as Z izek claim s, in (h e a n th ro p o lo g y , th e se ctio n o n h a b it fol­
lows th e o n e o n m a d n e ss. I f h a b it, in its p e r p e tu a te d p ro c e ss o f u n iv e rsa liz atio n ,
c o n s ta n tly tra n s fo rm s th e n a tu r e o f in d iv id u a ls retro activ ely , th is p ro c e ss d o e s
n o t know a n y stability. H a b it as m e c h a n ic a l r e p e titio n w o u ld b e a fo rm o f s ta ­
b iliz e d m a d n e ss, i.e. th e only th in k a b le a n d c o n s iste n t fo rm o f a co n stitu tiv ely
u n s ta b le p ro ce ss. Cf., Slavoj Z izek, “D iscip lin es b e tw e e n tw o F reed o m s."
M a lab o u , T h e Future o f Hegel, p . 24.
M a n fre d R iedel, “T ra d itio n u n d R ev o lu tio n in H eg e ls ‘P h ilo s o p h ie des R echts',"
in R ied el, Studien z u Hegels Rechtsphilosophie, p . 114.
T h e d isc o u rs e o f th e r e b ir th in th e s e c o n d n a tu r e ste m s fro m H e g e l (H O P R .
159). M a la b o u rig h tly r e m a rk s th a t fo r H egel “n a tu r e is alw ays second n a tu re”
a lth o u g h sh e w rongly assu m es th a t H e g e l w o u ld d e v ia te fro m th is in sig h t in
th e P h ilo so p h y o f R ig h t. M a lab o u , The Future o f Hegel, p . 108. It s h o u ld b e c le a r
th a t it is o n ly a g a in s t th is b a c k g ro u n d th a t th e re fe re n c e to n a t u r a l rig h t w h ich
H egel in d ic a te s in th e s u b title c a n b e g ra sp e d .
P re c ise ly th is p o in t is m issed b y T h e u n is s e n w h o c la im s th a t H eg el w o u ld in
th e d ev e lo p m e n t o f th e Philosophy o f R ight p e rv e rt “a n y re la tio n s h ip o f p e rs o n s
to e a c h o th e r in to a re la tio n s h ip o f th e su b s ta n c e to th e s e p e rso n s" a n d w o u ld
th e re b y in te r p r e t “th e s u p p o s e d b a s a l re la tio n s h ip as a r e la tio n s h ip o f th e
su b s ta n c e to itself." T h a t th e re w ith th e a u to n o m y o f p e rso n s w o u ld d is a p p e a r
a n d th a t th e y w o u ld b e m e re a c c id e n ts o f th e e th ic a l su b sta n c e , is a claim th a t
m ay b e s u s ta in e d o n ly if o n e d is re g a rd s th e tw ofold d e te r m in a tio n o f h a b it in
th e re a lm o f th e e th ic a l a n d o n ly co n sid e rs th e p u re ly m e c h a n ic a l sid e o f it.
M ichael T h e u n is s e n , “D ie v e r d r ä n g te In te rsu b je k tiv itä t in H eg e ls P h ilo s o p h ie
d e s R echts,” in Hegels Philosophie des Rechts, e d . by D ie te r H e n ric h /R o lf-P e te r
H o rs tm a n n , S tu ttg a rt: K le tt/C o ta 1982, p. 328
J u n -H o W on, Ilegels B egriff der politischen G esinnung, p . 99.
B ean sp o k e in re la tio n to H e g e l (a n d B ism arck) o f a “subversive in flu e n c e c re ­
a te d by th e id le n e ss o f th e la b o u rin g classes." Cf. P h ilip B ean , “Law, O rd e r
a n d W elfare,” in In Defence o f Welfare, e d . by P h ilip B e a n /J o h n F e rris /D a v id K.
W h y n e s, L o n d o n N ew York: R o u lle d g e 1985, p . 213. F o u cau lt p o in ts in a sim i­
la r d ire c tio n w h en h e claim s th a t “id le n e ss w as a n a c t o f re b e llio n ." Cf. M ichel
F o u cau lt, H istory o f Madness. O x fo rd : R o u tle d g e 2 0 0 6 . p. 70.
K a rl M a rx , Debates on the L aw on Thefts o f Wood, o n : h ttp ://w w w .m a rx is ts .o rg /
a r c h iv e /m a r x /w o r k s /1 8 4 2 /1 0 /2 5 . h im .
T h is m o tto fro m F e rd in a n d K ü rn b c rg e r is p la c e d a t th e b e g in n in g o f T h e o d o r
A d o rn o , M inim a Moralia. Reflections on Damaged Life, L o n d o n /N e w York: V erso
2005, p. 16.
Ci. W. F. H egel, On N atural Right an d Political Science. The First Philosophy o f Right.
Heidelberg 1817-1818 with Additions from the Lectures o f 1818-1819, B e rk e le y /L o s
A n g e le s /L o n d o n : U niversity o f C a lifo rn ia P re ss 1995, p . 210.
I b o rro w th e n e o lo g ism ‘to in e x ist’ f ro m B a d io u w ho u se s it to n a m e a m o d e
o f th e b e in g -th e re o f a m u ltip lic ity in a w orld s tr u c tu r e d by a n o n -su b jec tiv e
tra n s c e n d e n ta l. T h e tra n s c e n d e n ta l, in its f u n d a m e n ta l o p e r a tio n , r e g u ­
lates th e a p p e a r a n c e o f m u ltip lic itie s by a s c rib in g th e m p r o p e rtie s th a t le ad
190 Noies

to d iffe re n tia lly u n d e r s to o d d e g re e s o f in te n sity o f a p p e a r a n c e . T o in e x ist fo r

B a d io u m e a n s th a t a c c o rd in g to th e tr a n s c e n d e n ta l o f a c e r ta in re g io n o f a p p e a r­
a n c e w hich h e calls ‘w o rld / th e in e x iste n t— in re la tio n to th e o th e r a p p e a rin g
m u ltip lic ities— h a s th e low est d e g r e e o f a p p e a r a n c e . H e re I ta k e ‘to in e x is t' o nly
a s a n a m e fo r th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e ra b b le — to b e p r e s e n t w ith o u t a n y d e te r m in a ­
tio n o f ex iste n ce. C f. A lain B a d io u , Logics o f Worlds. Being a n d E vent 2, L o n d o n /
N ew York: C o n tin u u m 20 0 9 , p p . 3 0 3 -2 4 .
21 J e a n Iiy p p o lite , Genesis a n d Structure o f Hegel's Phenomenology o f Spirit, E v an sto n :
N o rth w e ste rn U niversity P re ss 1974, p. 266.
22 H e in z K im m e rle, “O n D e rrid a ’s H egel I n te rp re ta tio n ,” in Heget after Derrida, ed .
by S tu a r t B a rn e tt, L o n d o n /N e w York: R o u tle d g e 1998, p. 2 3 4 . T o m y k n o w led g e
th e r e is n o d e ta ile d r e c o n s tr u c tio n of th e H e g e lia n th e o ry o f th e h a n d w h ich I
m y se lf c a n o n ly very b riefly to u c h u p o n .
2Î T h e G e r m a n w o rd fo r a c tio n ‘H a n d lu n g ’ re fe rs lite ra lly to th e h a n d . F ro m th is
p o in t o f view o n e c a n fo re se e a d if fe r e n t in te r p r e ta tio n o f H e g e l's d e fin itio n o f
th e su b je ct as th e “series o f his actions [H andlungen]" H O P R , p . 122.
24 E ty m o lo g y show s th a t in G e rm a n , ‘V e rfa u le n ’ is sy n o n y m o u s w ith ‘V erw esen.’
S e e th e e n try ‘faul* in F rie d ric h K luge, Etymologisches Lexikon der deutschen
Sprache, q u o te d fro m th e CD R om version.
25 I o w e th is fo rm u la tio n to J a n V ölker.
26 T h is p u n d o e s n o t tra n s la te in to E n g lish . T h e G e r m a n ‘W esen’ n a m e s b o th a
b ein g , a n d th e n a tu r e o r e sse n c e o f it. ‘V er-W esen' th e re fo re plays o n th is re fe r­
e n c e in s c rib e d in to th e G e r m a n w o rd fo r to ro t, to d e c o m p o se : ‘v erw esen .’
27 T h is fo rm u la tio n o f H e g e l’s re fe rs to th e sta te . A few lin e s a b o v e it h e ta lk s a b o u t
th e se v e re d h a n d th a t is in c a p a b le o f s o d o in g . Cf. H O P R . p . 253.
28 A s S teffen S c h m id t h a s m a d e clear— th u s u n d e rlin in g m y re a d in g — I leg el speaks
in h is early ‘system o f e th ic a lity ' (1802) o f a d istin c tio n b etw e en th e o rg a n ic a n d
in o rg a n ic n a tu re o f th e e th ic a l. T h e o rg a n ic sid e n a m e s th e d o m a in o f e th ic a l­
ity w h ich u n ifie s th e “m u ltip licity a n d m ak es it in to th e in d iffe re n t"; w hile th e
in o rg a n ic n a m e s “th is m u ltip lic ity o f d iffe re n t sub jectiv e d riv es a n d n e e d s ’ alo n g
w ith th e objective activities w hich “c a n n o t b e u n ifie d com pletely." Cf. S teffen
S c h m id t, Hegels System der Sittlichkeit, B e rlin : A k a d e m ie \ re rla g 2 0 0 6 . p p . 135f.
2,1 A g a in st th is b a c k g r o u n d o n e c a n o n ly a g r e e w ith Slavoj Z iz ek ’s r e m a rk th a t
H egel th e re fo re “in sists on th e n ecessity o f w a r w h ich , fro m tim e to tim e m u st
allow th e s u b je c t to re g a in th e ta s te fo r a b s tra c t n eg a tiv ity a n d sh a k e o f f his
fu ll im m e rsio n in to th e c o n c r e te to ta lity o f th e so cial S u b sta n c e qua h is ‘sec­
o n d n a tu re ' . . Slavoj Z izek, T h e Ticklish Subject, p . 82. T h e q u e s tio n o f th e
g lo rific a tio n o f w ar b e lo n g s to th e c a te g o ry o f “H eg el M yths a n d L eg e n d s.’’
Cf. a c o n s te lla tio n o f te x ts in T h e Ilegel Myths a n d Legends, e d . by J o n S tew art,
E v an sto n : N o rth w e ste rn U niversity P re ss 1996.
30 A rs e n i G uly g a, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, L eipzig: R eclam 1980, p. 31.
31 H egel d e s c rib e s th is as follows: “by th e c o m p le te c u ltiv a tio n o f h is activity, th e
v ita lity o f th e activ ity e x p ire s . . .” (H P M , 61). D u e to h is u se o f th e w o rd ‘c o m ­
p le te ’ a p e c u lia r A risto te lia n r e m a in d e r a p p e a rs in H e g e l’s rem a rk .
32 A lrea d y th e e a rly Ile g e l w rites: “L ife w h ic h is clo se to d ecay c a n b e re o rg a n ­
iz ed o n ly by th e m o st d ra s tic m e a n s.” G. W . F. H eg e l, The German Constitution
(1798-1802). in : H egel. P olitical W ritin g s, C a m b rid g e : C a m b rid g e U niversity
P re ss 20 0 4 , p. 80.
 N oies 191

55 E d u a rd G a n s, Naturrecht u n d Universalgeschichte. Vorlesungen nach G.W.F. Hegel,

T ü b in g e n : M o h r S ieb e ck 20 0 5 , p . 204.
34 D u e to th is m u tu a l re la tio n o f d e te r m in a tio n H eg el also ta lk s a b o u t (th e sta te
as) “in w a rd o rg a n ism ." H O P R . 234, tra n s . m o d .
r ' Ci. W. F. I Ieg el, O n the Scientific VI//jv o f Treating N atural I.aw, on its Place in Practical
Philosophy, a n d its Relation to the Positive Sciences o f Right (1802-1803), in H egel.
P o litical W ritin g s, p p . 1 0 2 -8 0 . 149 also cf. H V O R L 3, p . 726.
v’ T h e r e f o r e th is n o tio n re fe rs to th e K a n tia n d is tin c tio n o f th e th r e e d iffe re n t
fo rm s o f ju d g m e n t (positive, n eg a tiv e , in fin ite ) as e la b o ra te d b y Z izek. I f th e p o s­
itive ju d g m e n t a s se rts a positive p re d ic a te o f a su b je c t (X is d e a d ), th e n eg a tiv e
ju d g m e n t d e p riv e s it o f a p re d ic a te a n d c a n logically b e re w ritte n as a po sitiv e
j u d g m e n t (X is n o t d e a d ; X lives). T h e in fin ite ju d g m e n t a s se rts a n o n -p re d ic a te
o f th e su b je c t (X is u n d e a d ) a n d th e re b y o p e n s u p a d o m a in th a t u n d e r m in e s
th e u n d e rly in g d istin c tio n . Cf. Slavoj Zizek, Die politische Suspension des Ethischen,
F r a n k f u r t a. M.: S u h rk a m p 20 0 5 , p. 49. S ec A lso th e b r illia n t in v e stig a tio n in
J a n V ölker, Ä sthetik der Lebendigkeit. K ants dritte Kritik. M ü n c h en : F in k 2011.
,7 T h a t th e ra b b le is lazy a n d evil a t th e sa m e tim e d u e to th e s ta n d p o in t w h ic h h e
ta k e s o n th e n e g a tiv e as su c h re fe rs p a rtic u la rly to K a n t. A d o rn o o n c e r e m a rk e d
o f K a n t th a t h e h a s “ta k e n th e w o rk e th ic o f b o u rg e o is so c iety . . . a s h is ow n
s u p re m e p h ilo s o p h ic a l s ta n d a r d ” a n d th e re fo r e fo r h im “r a d ic a l evil is n o th ­
in g o th e r th e n la zin e ss . . T h e o d o r W . A d o rn o , Problems o f M oral Philosophy,
S ta n fo rd : S ta n f o rd U niversity P re ss 2001, p. 131.
M I Ieg el a tte m p ts in th is p assag e to disavow th e d e fe n d e rs o f th e p h y sical th e o ry o f
la te n t w a rm th . I h a v e p r e s e n te d a n in itia l c o m m e n ta ry o n th is p a s sa g e in F ra n k
R u d a. “N a m e n lo sig k eit. V on n ic h ts zu N ich ts o d e r v om P ö b el z u m P ro le ta ria t,”
in: Latenz. 40 Annäherungen an einen B egriff e d . b y S te fa n ie D ie c k m a n n /T h o m a s
K h u ra n a , B e rlin : K adinos 2007.
s·' O n e c a n claim th a t in th is p a ssa g e s o m e th in g a p p e a r s th a t d riv e s th e s tru c ­
tu r e o f H e g e l's d ia le c tic o r H e g e l’s ‘s tr u c tu r a l d ia le c tic ’ to its lim it. T h e te rm
‘s tr u c tu r a l d ia le c tic ’ n a m e s a d ia le c tic a l th in k in g w h ich k n o w s o n ly o n e fo rm
o f c o n tra d ic tio n , d e te r m in a te n e g a tio n . S ee A la in B a d io u , Theory o f the Subject,
p p . 5 3 -6 4 .

w S e e H S L , p . 87.
41 H e r b e r t S c h n ä d e lb a c h , Hegels praktische Philosophie. Ein Kom m entar der Texte in der
Reihenfolge ihrer Entstehung, F r a n k f u r t a.M .: S u h rk a m p 2 0 0 0 , p p . 228ff.
12 M y r e a d in g b e a r s c e r ta in s im ila ritie s to a th e sis o f G e o rg e s B a ta ille . A s A g a m b e n
h a s e la b o r a te d . B a ta ille also p ro p o s e d th e n o tio n o f “u n e m p lo y e d negativity."
“I f a c tio n (“d o in g ”) is— as H e g e l says— n eg a tiv ity , th e q u e s tio n a rise s a s to
w h e th e r th e n e g a tiv ity o f o n e w h o h a s “n o th in g m o re to d o " d is a p p e a rs o r
re m a in s in a s ta te o f “n e g a tiv ity w ith n o u s e " . . . (I w o u ld n o t b e a b le to d e fin e
m y se lf m o re precisely). I re c o g n iz e th a t H e g e l h a s fo re se e n s u c h a p o ssib ility ;
a t a n y r a te h e d id n 't s itu a te it a t th e end o f th e p ro c e s s h e d e s c rib e d .” Q u o te d
in : G io rg io A g a m b e n , The Open: M an a n d A nim al, S ta n fo rd : S ta n f o rd U niversity
P ress, 200 4 , p. 7.
45 T h is c o rre s p o n d s to H e g e l’s claim th a t o n e n e e d s to s te p o u t o f “th e n ig h t o f
p o ssib ility in to th e daylight o f th e p r e s e n t . . . " H P S , p . 242.
E ric W eil, Hegel et l ’E tat. Cinq conférences suivies de M arx et la philosophie d u droit,
P aris: V rin 20 0 0 , p. 96 .
m Notes

45 T h is a n a lo g y is its e lf su g g e ste d by th e early H e g e l w h en h e ta lk s a b o u t th e fact

th a t “m a tte r . . . in th is way . . . d o e s n o t exist in a n d f o r itself, b u t r a th e r to co m e
to th is in d iffe re n c e it m u st its e lf h av e b e c o m e a p re d ic a te , a su b la te d m o m e n t.
T h u s , in itself, to b e m a tte r m e an s: it is o n ly ta k e n in its a b s tra c tio n .” G . W. F.
Ile g e l, Jenaer Realphilosophie. Vorlesungsmanuskripte zu r Philosophie der N a tu r und
des Geistes von 1805-1806, B erlin: M e in e r 1969, p . 22.
46 A lth o u g h th is m ig h t se em a b it (b reed , it is n o t a t all a rb itra ry . H e g e l h im s e lf
sp e a k s o f th e e th ic a l h u m a n b e in g in te rm s o f “f r e e m a tte r.” Cf. IIP N , p . 49.
47 T h e ra b b le is th e re fo re in a d o u b le se n se u n iq u e . H e is o n o n e sid e th e o nly
th in g th a t is in d if f e r e n t to d iffe re n c e a n d w h ich s ta n d s in in-difference to (the)
difference (o f d e te rm in a tio n ) a n d o n th e o th e r s id e o n e c a n d e riv e fro m th is th e
claim th a t th e ra b b le is u n iq u e in H e g e l’s p h ilo so p h y , w h ich is in n o o th e r p la ce
c o n f r o n te d w ith su c h a p ro b le m . A d e fin itio n o f ‘u n ic ity ' c a n b e fo u n d in BBE,
p p . 6 8 ff.
48 A s H e g e l w rites: “M a tte r fills sp a ce . . . " H P N . p. 47.
4‘·' H e lm u t R e ic h elt h a s rig h tly p o in te d o u t th a t M a rx d o e s n o t m e a s u re th e
Philosophy o f Right a c c o rd in g to th e H e g e lia n Logic h u t r a th e r o p p o se s th e logic
o f th e Philosophy o f Right to th e lo g ic o f th e Logic. H e lm u t R e ic h elt, D ie Marxsche
Kritik der Ilegelschen Rechtsphilosophie, on: w w w .m a rx fo rsc h u n g .d e /d o c s/0 7 0 3 _
re ic h e li.p d f. T h e r e a d in g s u p p o r ts th e th e sis b y T h e u n is s e n , in te n d e d as a
criticism o f M a rx , th a t th e la tte r p r o c e e d s in h is criticism o f th e P h ilo so p h y o f
R ig h t in su c h a way th a t "h e tu r n s th e logic th a t is d e n ie d in it a g a in s t itself."
M ichael T h e u n is s e n , Sein u n d Schein. Z ur kritischen Funktion der Hegelsehen Logik,
F ra n k fu r t a. M.: S u h rk a m p 1980, p . 477. T h is re m a rk im p lies th a t th e logic o f
th e Philosophy o f R ight m a y /c o u ld be d if fe r e n t fro m th e logic o f th e Logic.
50 O n e c o u ld also say th a t it r e p e a ts its e lf a s a n im m e d ia te re su lt in th e fo u rth
sta g e o f th e d ia le c tic a l process.
51 T h is n o tio n w h ich obviously p re s e n ts a c o u n te r-c o n c e p t to th e D eleu zian ,
G u a tta r ia n n o tio n o f a ‘b o d y w ith o u t o r g a n s ' I b o rro w fro m Z izek. Cf. Slavoj
Zizek, Organs without Bodies. Deleuze and. Consequences, N ew Y o rk /L o n d o n :
R o u tle d g e 20 0 4 . I w ill d e lin e a te it m o re p re c ise ly in w h a t follows. K an t, w ho
c o m e s close to a s im ila r in sig h t, su b sta n tia liz e s th e ra b b le in th e a n th ro p o lo g i­
ca l c a te g o rie s o f a p re-so cial sta te o f n a tu re : “(B)y n a tu r e all m e n a r e rab b le,
a n d th o s e w ho a r e n o t, a r e r e fin e d by th e so c ia l o r d e r a n d d isc ip lin e . I f th e y
w o u ld ce ase to exist, also th e re fin e m e n t w o u ld ce ase a n d all m e n w o u ld b e su ch
ra b b le ." Cf. Im m a n u e l K a n t/F r ie d lä n d e r , Ms. g e rm q u a r t. 4 0 0 p . 678 / X X V
678f.) O r d e r a n d d isc ip lin e ta k e a s tru c tu ra lly a n a lo g o u s p o sitio n a s d o h ab it
a n d m a d n e ss in H egel.
52 T h e re la tio n o f re p u lsio n a n d a ttr a c tio n im p lie d h e r e o b v io u sly refers to
N e w to n ia n m e c h a n ic s.
5S D ie te r W a n d sc h n e id e r, R aum , Zeit, Relativität: G m ndbestim m ungen der Physik in
der Perspektive der Hegelschen Naturphilosophie, F ra n k fu r t a. M.: K lo s te rm a n n 1982,
p. 123.
M T h e se n se in w h ich H e g e l is h e r e re p e a lin g a n A ris to te lia n p ro b le m b ec o m e s
c le a r w h en o n e tak es in to c o n s id e ra tio n th e p ro b le m o f lo c a liz in g th e ‘v o id ’ in
A risto tle as d e v e lo p e d by B a d io u . T h e void w o u ld have to b e a n ab s o lu te ly em p ty
 N oies 193

p la ce in A ris to tle w h ich d u e to th is e m p tin e s s w o u ld c o n tra d ic t th e d efin itio n

o f p la c e its e lf b e c a u s e it w o u ld b e ev e ry w h e re a t th e sa m e tim e. It is te llin g th at,
a s a re su lt o f th is c o n tra d ic tio n . A risto tle leaves o p e n th e p o ssib ility o f th in k in g
th e v o id as th e d e te r m in a tio n o f m a tte r. S e c BBE, 7 0 -8 0 . B u t th e ra b b le is th u s
n o t so m e th in g lik e a n u n m o v e d m o v e r b e c a u s e h e c a n o n ly b e g e n e r a te d in
re la tio n to th e (h isto ric a lly s itu a te d ) e c o n o m ic m o v e m e n t o f civil society.
‘ A lrea d y th e e a rly H e g e l h a d r e f e r r e d to — in h is criticism o f th e m e c h a n ism o f
in d u s tria l la b o r— a “n eg a tiv e liveliness.” Cf. G . W. F. Hegel»,Jenaer Realphilosophie
l: Die Vorlesungen von 1803/04, L eipzig: M e in e r 1932, p p . 232, 237. I le also in d i­
c a te s th e r e th a t m o n e y h a s th e “m o v in g life o f t h e d e a d .” Ib id .. p p . 239ff.

C h a p te r 9

1 G. W. F. H egel, The Positivity o f Christian Religion, in Early Theological Writings,

C h ic a g o : U niversity o f C h ic a g o P re ss 1975, p. 152.
2 T h a t p a trio tis m is (stru c tu ra lly ) sy n o n y m o u s w ith p o litica l a ttitu d e is rightly
s ta te in C la u d io C esa, “L ib e rté e t lib e rté p o litiq u e d e F ic h te à H e g e l,” in A u to u r
de Hegel. Hommage à Bernard Bourgeois, e d . by F ra n ç o is D a g o g n e t/P ie r r e O sm o,
P aris: V rin 20 0 0 , p. 56.
Λ Cf. H O P R , p . 134. T ra n s , m o d .
1 E n d r e Kiss, “D ie B e g riffsv a ria tio n e n d e r G e s in n u n g in H eg e ls D e n k e n ,” in:
Phänomenologie des Geistes. Hegel-Jahrbuch 2002. Zweiter Teil, e d . b v A n d re a s
A rn d t/K a r o l B a r /H e n n in g O ttm a n n , B e rlin : A k a d e m ie 2 0 0 2 , p . 100.
' R o b e rt P. P ip p in . “H egels P ra k tis c h e r R ealism u s. R a tio n a le s H a n d e ln als
S ittlich k e it,” in Hegels Erbe, e d . by C h ris to p h Ila lb ig /M ic h a e l Q u a n te /L u d w ig
S iep, F ra n k fu r t a. M.: S u h rk a m p 2004, p. 297.
6 Je a n -L u c N ancy, Hegel, p. 56.
7 H e g e l clea rly sta te s th a t th e e th ic a l laws “a r e n o t s o m e th in g a lie n to th e su b ­
je c t. O n th e co n tra ry , h is s p irit b e a r s w itn e ss to th e m a s to its own essence . .
H O P R . p . 155. T h is is th e re a s o n w hy E rn s t T u g e n d h a t is sim p ly w ro n g in c la im ­
ing— a n d th u s re p e a tin g th e o ld lib e ra l-b o u rg e o is to p o s o f H ay m — th a t H e g e l’s
p h ilo so p h y w o u ld le a d to th e m e re ju s tific a tio n o f th e ex istin g o rd e r. Cf. E rn s t
T u g e n d h a t, Self-Conscious a n d S e lf Determination, C a m b r id g e / L o n d o n : T h e M IT
Press 1989. F or e x a m p le , th e law n o t to k ill is f u n d a m e n ta lly d if fe r e n t a c c o rd in g
to w h e th e r it is r e a d as a n e x te r n a l n o r m o r as a n o r m w h ic h o n e subjectively
h o ld s a s necessary. H eg e l's p o sitio n is, c o n tra ry to T u g e n d h a t's re a d in g , th e
latter.
* C f. H G P R , p . 296.
T h e a ttitu d e is n o t a m e re e m o tio n , b e c a u s e it re m a in s b o u n d to m o m e n ts
o f a rb itra rin e s s . B ut th e d im e n s io n o f e m o tio n c a n n o t b e co m p letely e ra s e d
fro m a ttitu d e as is su g g e ste d by th e e ty m o lo g y o f th e G e r m a n ‘G e s in n u n g ’
w h ich a lre a d y refers to se n se (sensus) fro m w h ic h ‘G e f ü h l’ also ste m s. Cf.
W ilh e lm T ra u g o tt K ru g , “G e fü h l,” in Allgemeines Handwörterbuch der philoso­
phischen Wissenschaften nebst ihrer Literatur u n d Geschichte, L eipizg: B lo c k h a u s
1833, vol. 2, pp . 1 3 9 -4 3 .
194 Notes

10 In th is w ay th e c h ild h a s th e rig h t to b e e d u c a te d a s a re a liz a tio n o f its fre e d o m

to b e c o m e a m e m b e r o f civil so c iety (w hich is in itia lly m e re ly p r e s e n t in itself)
a n d a t th e sa m e tim e it h a s a d u ty to its p a re n ts to s u b o r d in a te its e lf to th is e d u ­
c a tio n . Cf. H O P R . p p . 172-9.
11 L e o R au ch , "H eg el, S p irit a n d Politics," in R out ledge History o f Philosophy, Volume
IV, The Age o f German Idealism. L o n d o n /N e w York: R o u tle d g e 2 0 0 3 , p . 278.
12 T h e o d o r W. A d o rn o , S exual Taboos a n d L aw Today, in Critical Models: Interventions
a n d Catchwords, N ew York: C o lu m b ia U niversity P re ss 2005, p . 75.
13 T h e fo rm u la tio n o f "a r ig h t to h av e rig h ts" c a n b e f o u n d in th e h a n d w ritte n
n o te s to § 94. Cf. H G PR . p. 181. H egel is th e re fo r e th e in v e n to r o f th is p h ra se ,
a n d n o t A re n d t.
14 Cf. H O P R . p p . 176ff.
15 In P ip p in 's r e a d in g o n e w o u ld n e e d to claim th a t th e fa c t th a t in m o d e rn ity th e
p rin c ip le o f subjectivity b e c o m e s im p o r ta n t su p p lie s p r o o f o f “th e h isto ric ally
effectiv e c h a r a c te r o f p ra c tic a l rea so n s" a n d show s th a t th o s e s h o u ld n e v e r b e
v alid as “in s ta n c e s o f a n a-h isto ric a l ty p e." H ow ever, th is in te r p re ta tio n m isses
th e fa c t th a t w ith th e h isto ric a l m o m e n t in w hich th e p rin c ip le o f subjectivity
b e c o m e s th e g u id e f o r th e c o n s titu tio n o f th e sta te , th is p rin c ip le b e c o m e s ir r e ­
versible, a n d th is m e a n s th a t it m u st en jo y a n a-h isto ric validity. T h is m e a n s th a t,
in a h isto ric a l se ttin g , a s so o n as th e su b je ct h a s e n te r e d in to a fre e a n d ra tio n a l
se lf-d e te rm in a tio n , a n y revision o f th is p r in c ip le is a v io la tio n o f its ratio n ality .
T h e re fo re in H egel s o m e th in g tak es p la ce w ith in th e sp ecificity o f h is to ry w h ich
e x c e e d s th e h isto ric a l p la ce o f its a p p e a ra n c e . Cf. R o b e rt P. P ip p in , “H eg els
P ra k tisc h e r R e a lism u s,"p p . 3 0 2 -3 .
16 Cf. in c o n tra s t K arl-H ein z lltin g , “R e c h tp h ilo so p h ie als P h ä n o m e n o lo g ie des
B ew usstseins d e r F re ih e it,” in Aufsätze über Hegel, p p . 1 3 5 -6 5 .
17 L udw ig H ey d e, “S ittlic h k e it u n d Iro n ie . H egels K r itik d e r m o d c r n e n S u b jek tiv ität
in d e n G rundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts," in D ie Folgen des Hegelianismus.
Philosophie, Religion u n d Politik im Abschied von der Moderne, e d . by P e te r Koslowski,
M ü n c h e n : F ink 1998, p. 316.
,s T h is im p lies th a t in th e su p p o se d fin itu d c o f ev e ry d e te r m in a tio n o f w ill th e
tr u e in fin ity o f th e w ill’s fre e d o m a p p e a rs.
W h a t g o e s fo r th e c h ild g o e s fo r th e e th ic a l h u m a n b e in g : “h e s ta n d s o nly in
so fa r as h e wills to sta n d ; as so o n a s w e n o lo n g e r will to s ta n d , we co llapse;
s ta n d in g is, th e re fo re , th e h a b it o f th e w ill to s ta n d .” H P M , p . 57. T h e s ta n d in g
[Stehen] a n d th e e s ta te [Stand] s h a re o n e s tr u c tu re . B o th art* e x p re ssio n s o f th e
w ill r e la tin g to th e o b jectiv e re a lity a n d w a n t to b e s ta b le w ith in it.
20 F or th e n o tio n o f p o litic a l c o n s titu tio n w h ic h I la rg e ly leave u n d isc u ss e d , cf.
R H S , pp . 134-57.
21 H egel clea rly p o in ts to th is w 'hen h e c o m m e n ts c o n c e r n in g th e a ttitu d e : “T h e
T r u th is fre e d o m h a v in g its e lf as e n d in its rea liz a tio n ; to b e activ e, to rea lize
o n eself, th is is th e tr u e in a n d fo r itself." H V O R L 4 , p . 641.
22 O n e c a n n o tic e a g e n e ra l r a tio n a liz a tio n o f th e affectiv e d im e n s io n if eth ica lity .
O n e c a n th u s conceive o f th e e m o tio n , u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d re a so n in a stru c ­
tu r a l an a lo g y to th e c o m m u n ity o f s e n tim e n t (fam ily), o f u n d e r s ta n d in g (civil
society) a n d o f th e s ta te (re aso n ).
 N oies 195

25 D avid Ja m e s, Hegel's Philosophy o f Right. Subjectivity a n d Ethical Life, L o n d o n /

NewYork: C o n tin u u m 2007, p . 111. J a m e s is rig h t— to stale the obvious— th a t in
civil society th e b o u rg e o is is in itia lly b o u rg e o is. It is p re c ise ly in re la tio n to
th is p a ssa g e th a t th e early M a rx w ill b e g in to criticiz e H eg el, fo r w h ile e la b o ­
r a tin g h is c o n c e p t o f th e sta te , h e still d e p e n d s o n th e d e te r m in a tio n o f th e
c o r p o r a tio n a n d th e re b y re m a in s in fe c te d by th e lo g ic o f civil so ciety a n d its
a to m — in te rest.
24 T h is is th e re a s o n w hy I Ieg el is n o t in d a n g e r o f b e c o m in g ‘to ta litarian ,* a s B e rlin
claim s. B erlin — w h o se views a r e in h e r ite d by P o p p e r— d e v e lo p s /p ro p o s e s th e
th e sis th a t H eg e l's ‘p o litic a l p h ilo so p h y ’ d ev elo p s th e u n iv e rsa l o u t o f th e iso­
la te d in te re st. If th a t w ere th e c a se h e w o u ld n o t b e ab le to avoid a s itu a tio n in
w h ich a n y p o ssib le c o n te n t c o u ld c o m e in to th e s p h e re o f th e sta te . T h e re in
B erlin se es th e th r e a t th a t o n e in te re s t c a n a s se rt its e lf a g a in s t all o th e rs a n d
c o u ld b e c la im e d lo b e u n iv e rsa l. T h a t in th is r e a d in g th e im p o r ta n t d istin c ­
tio n b e tw e e n m o ra lity a n d e th ic a lity is s tr u c tu ra lly lo st—w h ic h H e g e l precisely
in tro d u c e s to avoid th is c o n s e q u e n c e — is w h a t B erlin m isses co m pletely. Cf.
Isa ia h B e rlin , Two Concepts o f Liberty, O x fo rd : C la re n d o n P re ss 1958, p p . 18ff. Cf.
a ls o Slavoj Z izek, D id Somebody say Totalitarianism? Five Interventions into the (Mis)
Use o f a Notion, L o n d o n /N e w York: V erso 2002.
25 J u n - H o W o n , Hegels B egriff der politischen G esinnung; p . 79.
26 O n e c a n re su m e H egel v e ry b riefly if o n e re a d s th e fo llo w in g se n te n c e o n ly in
re la tio n to a ttitu d e : “T h e sta te in its c o n s titu tio n p e n e tr a te s all re la tio n sh ip s.'’
H V O R L 3 , p. 752.
27 F rom th is p assag e o n e c o u ld d e riv e a m o d ifie d u n d e r s ta n d in g o f w h a t B a lib a r
c a lls— w ith S p in o /is t u n d e r to n e s — th e tra n sin d iv id u a l. T ra n s in d iv id u a l w o u ld
th e n n a m e th e a ttitu d e in H e g e l’s s ta te Cf. E tie n n e B alib ar, The Philosophy of
M arx, L o n d o n /N e w Y ork 2007, p p . 3 0 - 3 . A lrea d y A vineri— a lth o u g h o n ly in
re la tio n to la b o r— em p lo y s th e n o tio n o f th e tra n s in d iv id u a l w ith r e g a rd to
H eg e l. Cf. A H T , p. 91.
28 F o r th is re a s o n H ösle’s th e sis th a t H egel w an ts to “d im in ish " th e sub jectiv e
d im e n s io n in th e s ta te is c o rre c t a n d in c o rre c t a t th e sam e tim e, it is C o rre c t
i f o n e u n d e rs ta n d s th e subjective d im e n s io n exclusively as a m o ral d im e n sio n ;
in c o rr e c t if o n e c o n s id e rs H e g e l’s id e a th a t th e s ta le is n o th in g b u t a collective
su b je ct, as th is su b stan ce . Cf. V itto rio H ösle. “D e r S taat," in Anspruch u n d Leistung
von Hegels Rechtsphilosophie, cd. by C h ris to p h J e r m a n n , S tu ttg a rt/B a d -C a n n s ta tt:
F ro m m a n n -Ilo lz b o o g 1987, p. 190. T h e su b je ct is r e g a rd e d as su b stan ce le ss as
lo n g a s it d o e s n o t re la te its e lf to th e e th ic a l su b sta n c e in th e e th ic a l a ttitu d e . A t
th e sa m e tim e o n e n e e d s to a d d th a t th is su b sta n c e is n e v e r so m e sta b le e n tity b u t
is r a th e r a c o n s ta n t ren e w a l o f m u ltip lic ities o f rela tio n s.
2,1 O n e c a n r e m a rk h e r e th a t d u e to th e c o n s titu tio n o f H e g e l’s n o tio n o f a ttitu d e
it d o e s n o t se e m s u r p r is in g th a t R osen/.w eig w ho w ro te a n e a rly b o o k o n H e g e l’s
s ta te — if o n e follow s th e c o n v in c in g r e a d in g o f E ric S a n tn e r — a tte m p te d
to d e v e lo p a n e th ic s o f re sp o n sib ility . Cf. E ric S a n tn e r. O n the Psychotheology
o f Everyday Life. Rejlections on Freud a n d Rosenzweig, C h ic a g o : U n iv ersity o f
C h ic a g o P re ss 2001, pp . 8 6 -1 2 9 . T h e c ite d p h r a s e c a n b e f o u n d o n p . 9. My
in te r p r e ta t io n h e r e o p p o s e s th e c o m m e n t by P ip p in th a t ‘‘it is n o t c le a r, I will
196 Notes

su g g e st, how th e c itiz e n s a r e to ‘u n d e r s ta n d ’ th e s ta te |. . I w a n t to claim

th a t th is ‘u n d e r s ta n d in g ’ is a k n o w le d g e a b o u t th e u n c o n s c io u s . I f o n e c a n
in te r p r e t th is re la tio n w h ich a ttitu d e n a m e s still in te r m s o f a h e rm e n e u tic a l
u n d e r s ta n d in g is ho w ev er c e r ta in ly q u e s tio n a b le . Cf.. R o b e rt B. P ip p in , Hegel's
Political A rgum ent a n ti the Problem (/V e r w irk lic h u n g , in : Political Theory, vol. 9,
no . 4 (N ov. 1981). p. 531.
M' D o la r m a d e th is p o in t w ith re g a rd s to I.a c a n ’s r e a d in g o f th e co g ito : "the sub­
ject emerges only a t the point o f a non recognition: [. . .] a “th is is n o t m e," “I was not
th e re ,"“" a lth o u g h th e y a r e p ro d u c e d by th e su b je c t h im /h e r s e lf . M la d e n D olar,
Cogito as Subject o f the Unconscious, in : Cogito an d the Unconscious, ed . by Slavoj
Zizek, D u r h a m /L o n d o n : D u k e U niversity P re ss 1998, p . 14.
31 E ric S a n tn e r, On the Psychotheology, p. 26.
32 C h r is to p h M e n k e, Tragödie im Sittlichen, p . 49.
M Ib id ., p. 55. Je a n -L u c N an cy h a s rig h tly c la im e d th a t I le g e l’s s ta n d p o in t is o n e in
w h ich “it is n o lo n g e r ju s t a m a tte r o f c h a n g in g fo rm , o f r e p la c in g o n e v isio n a n d
o n e o r d e r by so m e o th e r a n d so m e o th e r o rd e r, b u t in w h ic h th e o n e a n d o nly
p o in t— o f view a n d o f o rd e r — is th a t o f tr a n s fo rm a tio n itself." J e a n -L u c N ancy,
Hegel, pp . (iff.
G io rg io A g a m b e n , The Open. p. 7.
:l' K arl M a rx /F r ie d r ic h E n g els, The Holy Family, p. 28.
E arly H egel d e fin e s in n e r in d ig n a tio n as th e “h ig h e st in n e r c o n flic t o f th e will,
in n e r in d ig n a tio n a n d h a tre d " p ro d u c e d b y th e " in e q u a lity o f w ea lth a n d pov­
erty." T h e re w ith in n e r in d ig n a tio n sig n ifie s n o t o n ly th e m e re c o n v ic tio n o f
th e p o o r a g a in st th e rich . B ut r a th e r th e scissio n o f p o v e rty a n d w e a lth itself.
In d ig n a tio n as th e n a m e fo r th e te a r in g u p o f th e e th ic a l b o n d is th e h ig h e st
in n e r c o n flic t. I w ill in th e follow ing c la im , a g a in s t H eg el, th a t th is in n e r in d ig ­
n a tio n p ro d u c e s c le a r e x te r n a l effec ts a n d d o e s n o t r e m a in in m e r e in te rio rity .
Cf. G . W. F. H egel, Jenaer Realphilosophie. Vorlesungsmanuskripte zu r Philosophie der
Natur, p p . 232ff.
,7 F or th e n o tio n o f c o n tra d ic tio n , s e e A lain B a d io u , Théorie de la contradiction,
P aris: F. M a sp e ro 1975.
M H e re M a rx ’s w o rd — d ir e c te d a g a in s t S tir n e r — fits: “T h e b e lie f th a t c o n s c io u s­
n ess is to b la m e fo r e v e r y th in g is h is d o g m a w h ic h m a k e s h im a ra b b le a n d
th e ra b b le a s in n e r.” K arl M a r x /F r ie d r ic h E ngels, The German Ideology, 1998,
p. 40 8 , tr a n s . m o d . H e g e l w o u ld b e in th is se n se a re b e l a g a in s t th e re b e llio n
o f th e r a b b le w h ic h h e u n d e r s ta n d s m e re ly as a m o ra lly ev il a ttitu d e r e m a in ­
in g fo r itself. H e m is ju d g e s th e re w ith th e r a n g e o f h is o w n d e s c r ip tio n . A t th e
sa m e tim e o n e c a n se e in th e r a b b le -p ro b le m w h a t th e e a rly B a d io u re m a rk e d :
“W e m u s t u n d e r s ta n d w h a t L e n in r e p e a te d all o v e r th e p lace: th e re tro s p e c ­
tive g o o d new s th a t H e g e l is a m a te ria lis t!" A la in B a d io u , Theory o f the Subject,
p . 3.
59 A lso H egel w an ts to say th a t a p p e a r a n c e is n o t a m e re se m b la n c e b u t in it th e re
is always a n e sse n c e e x p re ssin g its e lf w h ich ex ists o n ly a s a p p e a r a n c e a lth o u g h
it d o e s n o t c o in c id e w ith it.
H egel h e r e tak es u p a d is tin c tio n fro m K an t. F or h im th e ra b b le a n d th e vulgus
th e re fo re c o in c id e : “Bv th e w o rd people (populus) is m e a n t th e num ber o f h u m a n
 N oies 197

b e in g s u n ite d in a re g io n , in s o fa r as th e y c o n s titu te a whole. T h is n u m b e r, o r

ev en a p a r t o f it th a t re c o g n iz e s its e lf a s u n ite d in to a c ivil w h o le th r o u g h com ­
m o n an c estry , is c a lle d a nation (gens); th e p a r t th a t e x e m p ts its e lf fro m th e se
laws, th e u n r u ly crow d w ith in th is p e o p le ) is c a lle d a rabble (vulgus) w hose illegal
a sso c ia tio n is th e mob (agere per turbas); th is c o n d u c t th a t ex c lu d e s th e m fro m
th e q u a lity o f a citiz en .” Im m a n u e l K an t. Anthropology from a pragmatic point of
view (1788), in K a n t, Anthropology, Histoiy, a n d Education, C a m b rid g e : C a m b rid g e
U n iversity P re ss 2007, p . 407. W h a t K a n t n a m e s agere per turbas is w h at I r e c o n ­
s tr u c t as d isso lv in g in I Iegel.
41 G. W. F. H egel, Politische Schriften, F ra n k fu r t a . M .: S u h rk a m p 1966, p . 160.
W e rn e r C o n z e , Vom Pöbel zum Proletariat. Sozialgeschichtliche Voraussetzungen f ü r den
Sozi a lis m us in Deutschlan d [1941 /.in : Gesellschaft - Staat - N ation. Gesam melteA uf'sätze,
S tu ttg a rt: K lett-C o tta 1992. p . 222.
4Ä O n e c a n fin d a c o m m e n ta ry o n th e h isto ric a l sig n ific a tio n o f th e w o rd in W e rn e r
C o n z e , Proletariat - Pöbel, Pauperismus, in : Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe. Historisches
Lexikon zu r politisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland, S tu ttg a rt: K lett-C o tta 1984,
vol. 5.
" N icc o lo M achiavelli, The Prince, L o n d o n : P e n g u in 2 0 0 3 , p . 5 8 , Ira n s, m o d .
45 A g e m ir B avaresco h a s a lig n e d th e vulgus w ith “m u ltitu d o ” a n d “tu rb a .” Cif.
A g e m ir B avaresco, La théorie hégélienne des l'opinion publique, P aris: L 'H a rm a tta n
2000 .
4fi G . W. F. H egel, Politische Schrif ten, p. 161.
17 F rie d ric h N ietzsch e, Thus spoke Zarathustra, p. 350.
4M O n th e lo g ic o f ‘tr a n s c e n d e n ta l illu sio n ' se e Slavoj Z izek , Tarryingw ith the Negative.
K ant, Hegel, a n d the Critique of Ideology, D u r h a m /L o n d o n : D u k e U n iv ersity P ress
2 0 0 3 , p p . 8 9 -9 1 .

4,1 I f o n e re a d s th e a ffirm a tio n o f th e im p o ssib ility as th e lo g ic o f th e rab b le -a tti-

tu d c a n d h is w ill, th e re a r e tw o ways o n e c a n ta k e fro m th e re . O n o n e sid e it is
co n c eiv ab le fo r o n e to in sist o n th e in te r r u p tio n o f th e s tr u c tu r e o f th e e th ic a l
a n d o n th e su sp e n sio n o f an y a c tio n a n d o rg a n iz a tio n . O n th e o th e r it is th in k ­
a b le to u n d e r s ta n d th e in te r r u p tio n o f th e e th ic a l s tr u c tu r e as a first m o m e n t
w h ich in w h at e n s u e s , th r o u g h a c tio n s , le a d s to th e co n v e rsio n o f a n im p o s­
sib ility in to a p o ssib ility th a t h a d p rev io u sly n o t e x is te d a n d to re p e a t s u c h a
co n v e rsio n a p o te n tia lly in fin ite n u m b e r o f tim es. O n e c a n say th a t th e first way
is A g a m b c n ’s, th e s e c o n d B adiou's.
™ T h is p h r a s e I b o rro w , o u t o f c o n te x t, fro m P e te r Ila llw a rd . Cf. P e te r H a llw a rd ,
D e p e n d in g o n Inconsistency: A la in B a d io u ’s A n sw er to th e “G u id in g Q u e stio n
o f A ll C o n te m p o ra ry P hilo so p h y ,’’ in : Polygraph. A n InternationalJournal o f Culture
an d Politics, 17 (2005), The Philosophy o f A lain Badiou, p . 9.
■i H e r e it is in te r e s tin g to r e f e r to B a d io u 's r e m a rk th a t th e tim e o f classical re v o ­
lu tio n a ry p o litic s w as th e fu tu re , b u t th e tim e o f p o st-classical p o litics is th e
f u tu r e a n te rio r. H e re as w ell th e a c tu a lity o f th e ra b b le -p ro b le m b e c o m e s clear.
C f. A la in B a d io u . Peut-on penser la politique?, p. 107.
r’2 It is im p o r ta n t to n o te is th a t to th in k stasis— th e b asic id e a o f an y P lato n ic
o n to lo g y — p recisely d o e s n o t m e a n to th in k o n to lo g ic a l in e rtia in a p u r e fo rm
b u t o n e n ec essarily n e e d s th e m o v e m e n t o f d ia le c tic s a n d also th e re tro a c tio n
 Notes

to g a in a c o n s iste n t c o n c c p t o f sta sis. Stasis th e re fo re alw ays alre a d y p re s u p p o se s

th e m o v e m e n t w h ich it p ro d u c e s s o th a t it c a n b e retro ac tiv e ly g ra s p e d a s th at
w h ich lies ‘p r io r ’ to m o v em en t. Stasis is always a lre a d y production o f stasis. In
p o litica l te rm s , B a d io u h a s re c e n tly n a m e d su c h a p ro d u c tio n w ith th e o ld w ord
‘c o m m u n is m ’ Cf. A la in B a d io u , The Communist Hypothesis, L o n d o n /N e w York:
V erso 2010. F o r H e g e l o n e c a n n o te : in th e ra b b le , id e a lis m — th e n a m e ‘rabble*
m a rk s a p u r e id e a l p la c e w ith o u t its ow n a p p e a r a n c e — a n d m a te ria lism — w ith
h im th e in sig h t in to th e m a tte r o f th e e th ic a l sp a c e is g e n e r a te d — co in cid e .
’3 H e r b e r t M a rc u se, Reason a n d Revolution. Hegel a n d the Rise o f Social Theoty,
L o n d o n : R o u tle d g e 1955, p. 150. O n e c a n also say th a t fo r th e ra b b le th e
H e g e lia n d ic tu m is n o t v a lid to th e effec t th a t “W h e n all c o n d itio n s o f a fact
a r e a t h a n d , th e fa c t ste p s in to c o n c re te ex iste n ce" (H S L . 416). F o r 1. th e ra b b le
d o e s n o t ste p in to e x iste n c e a n d c a n n o t 2. b e g ra s p e d by th e p re se n c e o f th e
c o n d itio n s p e c u lia r to h im . T h e w h o le q u e s tio n is if o n e th in k s th e re la tio n sh ip
o f d ia le c tic s a n d n o n -d ia le c tic s d ia le c tic a lly o r n o n -d ia le c tic a lly . T h e a u th o r is
p r e p a rin g a n e la b o ra tio n o f th is q u e s tio n u n d e r th e title o f a dialectics o f dialectics
a n d non-dialectics.
r’’ Briefe von u n d a n Hegel, e d . by. V. J . H o ffm e iste r/F . N ico lin . H a m b u rg : M e in er
1 9 69-81, vol. 2. pp . 85ff. T h is p assag e fro m o n e le tte r to N ie th a m m e r w h ic h 1
c ite h e r e in full— n o t o n ly b e c a u s e o f (h e o b v io u sn e ss o f its p r o s e b u t also in
o r d e r to b e p re c ise : “I stick to th e fact th a t th e w orld s p irit h a s g iven th e tim e th e
o r d e r to ad v a n ce . S u ch a c o m m a n d will b e o b ey e d ; th is e n tity s trid e s irresistib ly
fo rw a rd lik e a n a r m o r e d , firm ly u n ite d p h a la n x a n d w ith su c h a n im p e rc e p tib le
m o v e m e n t th r o u g h th ic k a n d th in a s th e s u n strid e s . U n c o u n ta b le lig h t in f a n try
a g a in s t a n d fo r th e sa m e fla n k a ll a r o u n d it. th e y m o stly d o n o t k n o w w h a t is
h a p p e n in g a n d all g e t s tru c k o n th e h e a d lik e b e in g s tr u c k by a n invisible h a n d .
All th e ta rr y in g sto ry -te llin g a n d th e m ak e-b eliev e s tr o k in g th e a ir is o f n o h elp
a g a in s t it. T h e r e c a n b e s o m e th in g w hich re a c h e s th e s h o e laces o f th is colossus
a n d sp re a d s a b it o f sh o e p o lish o r e x c re m e n t o n it b u t it is n o t ab le to lo o se n
th e m . . . T h e m o st se c u re (n am e ly i n n e r a n d o u te r) o p tio n is to k e e p sig h t o f
th is a d v a n c in g g ia n t.” T h e ra b b le w o u ld in H e g e l’s im a g e b e n o m o re th a n th e
b it o f e x c re m e n t o n th e s h o e o f th e w orld sp irit, w h ich s u rp risin g ly c a n b rin g
h im dow n.
G . W. F. H egel, Jenaer Realphilosophie. Vorlesungsmanuskripte zu r Philosophie der
Natur, p . 232.

C h a p te r 10

1 A lain B a d io u , Metapolitics, S. 96.

2 Q u o te d bv M a n fre d R ied el. “E in le itu n g ,” in Materialen zu r Hege/schen Rechtsphilo­
sophie, Vol. 1. e d , by M a n fre d R ied el, F ra n k fu r t a. M.: S u h rk a m p 1975, p. 23.
* W h y H egel c o n sid e rs th e c o n c e p t o f r ig h t in th e Philosophy o f Right as “p r e s u p ­
p o se d " (H O P R , 18) is e x p la in e d in C h ris to p h M e n k e, Tragödie im Sittlichen,
p p . 2 0 2 -3 2 .
4 R o b e rt P ip p in , “H egel, F re e d o m , T h e W ill,” in G rundlinien der Philosophie des
Rechts, e d . by L u d w ig S icp, B e rlin : A k a d e m ie 1997, p . 37.
 N oies 199

5 C f. M a n fre d R ie d e l, “D ialek tik in I n s titu tio n e n ,” in Zwischen Tradition und

Revolution, p p . 43ff.
6 Ib id ., p . 4 4 .
7 M y r e a d in g a tte m p ts to show th a t th e s p h e re o f a b s tra c t r ig h t w h ich is th e first
p a r t o f th e Philosophy o f Right is n o t a n a r b itra ry id e a o f H e g e l b u t h a s a sys­
te m a tic re le v a n c e , c o n tra st, f o r ex a m p le , K now les' c la im : “H ow c a n w e m a k e
se n se o f a ll this? It m u st b e a d m itte d th a t h e re H e g e l seem s to b e p u llin g o n e
ra b b it a f te r a n o th e r o u t o f a h a t, e a c h fa n ta stic a l, e a c h m a g ic a l, e a c h mystify-
in g ly u n in te llig ib le .“ D u d le y K now les, Hegel a n d the Philosophy o f Right, L o n d o n :
R o u tle d g e 20 0 2 , p . 48.
8 By d e riv in g a b s tra c t rig h t fro m th e fre e w ill H eg el d o e s n o t a d o p t th e lib eral
p o sitio n w h ic h b e g in s fro m th e fre e in d iv id u a l a s th e s ta rtin g p o in t fo r th e
co m m u n ity .
9 O n e c a n r e m a rk h e r e th a t th e a b s tra c tn e s s refers to th e fact th a t p e rso n a lity
a s f u n d a m e n t o f r ig h t is g a in e d by a b s tra c tin g fro m all d e te r m in a tio n s w hich
d e fin e a n in d iv id u a l liv in g in th e state.
10 J e a n n e L. S c h ro e d e r, The Vestal a n d the Fasces. Hegel, Lacan, Property a n d the
Feminine, B e rk e le y /L o s A ngeles: U niversity o f C a lifo rn ia P re ss 1998, p . 30.
11 J e a n n e L. S c h ro e d e r, T h e Vestal, p . 11.
12 J e a n n e I.. S c h ro e d e r, The Vestal, p. 19.
13 P e te r G. S tillm a n , “P ro p e rty , C o n tra c t a n d E th ic a l L ife P ro p e rty , C o n tra c t,
a n d E th ic a l L ife in H e g e l's Philosophy o f Right," in Ilegel a n d Legal Theoiy, e d . By
D ru c illa C o rn e ll/M ic h e l R o sen feld / D avid G ray C a rlso n , L o n d o n / N ew York:
R o u tle d g e 1991, p. 206.
H J e a n n e L. S c h ro e d e r, The Vestal, p . 34.
15 J o a c h im R itte r, “P e rso n u n d E ig e n tu m .” p. 267.
16 T h is c o n c lu sio n d e e p e n s w h en o n e co n sid e rs th e fact th a t H egel is th e in v e n ­
to r o f th e n o tio n “p riv a te p ro p e rty ". Cf. th e e n tr y o n ‘E ig e n tu m ’ in J o h a n n e s
H o ffm e iste r, Wörterbuch der philosophischen Grundbegriffe, H a m b u rg : M e in er
1955.
17 T o m R o ck m o re, M arx after M arxism. The philosophy o f Karl M arx, O x fo rd : Wiley-
Blackw ell 20 0 2 . p . 28.
18 H e r e o n e c a n c o n c lu d e th a t th e lu x u ry -ra b b le alw ays re ta in s th e s ta tu s o f a m e re
possessor. A t th e sa m e tim e H egel n e v e r g o e s as fa r a s d e n y in g leg al s e c u rity to
h is w ealth.
19 O n e h a s to in sist h e r e a g a in s t th e w id e sp re a d m is re a d in g , w h ic h a tte m p ts to
a lig n H egel w ith L ocke, th a t H egel d o e s n o t ju stify th e p o sse ssio n o f a p a rtic u ­
la r p r o p e r ty in a n o rm a tiv e way. R a th e r h e ta k e s it a s th e lo g ic al s ta rtin g p o in t
o f th e a b s tra c t p e rs o n . T h is is to say, th a t H e g e l is n o th e o ris t o f p rim o rd ia l
ac c u m u la tio n .
20 J e a n n e L. S c h ro e d e r, The Vested, p . 43.
21 J e a n n e L . S c h ro e d e r, The Vested, p.24.
22 P e te r G. S tillm a n , P ro p e rty , C o n tra c t, a n d E th ic a l L ife, p p . 207ff.
23 A n g e lic a N u zzo , "F re e d o m in th e body," in Beyond Liberalism, p . 121.
24 H e r b e r t M a rc u se , Reason a n d Revolution, pp . 194-5 .
25 G. W. F. H eg e l, Jenaer Realphilosophie. Vorlesungsmanuskripte zu r iJhilosophie der
Natur, p . 232.
200 Noies

26 T h is re d u c tio n o f ih c p o o r (w orker) to h is m e re b o d ily fu n c tio n s is w h a t th e

e a rly M a rx w ill s ta r t to criticize.
27 H e re o n e c o u ld d ra w a p a ra lle l to L u h m a n n w ho n o te s th a t in m o d e rn ity o nly
'b o d ie s ' a r e le ft in th e d o m a in o f ex c lu sio n . S ec N ik las L u h m a n n , Inklusion und
Exklusion, p. 262. T h e p o ssib ility o f r e a d in g H e g e l a n d L u h m a n n to g e th e r o n th is
q u e s tio n I h av e p re s e n te d in , "A lles v e rp ö b e lt sich zu seh e n d s! N am e n lo sig k eit
u n d g e n e ris c h e In k lu sio n .” in: Soziale Systeme. Zeitschrift f ü r soziologische Theorie,
Jg. 14, (2008),e d . by S in a F a rz in /S v e n O p itz /lJ r s S tä h e li, p p . 2 1 0 -2 8 .
2Λ H e r e a r e m a rk o f B a d io u c o n c e r n in g L e ib n iz g a in s a n o th e r m e a n in g . H e sta te s
th a t: “T h e sta te is p r o g ra m m e d to solely re c o g n iz e as a p a rt, w hose c o u n t it
e n s u re s , w h a t th e s itu a tio n ’s re so u rc e s them selv es allow to b e distinguished."
(BBE, 283) F o r L e ib n iz it follow s th a t th e in d is tin g u is h a b le w h ich c a n n o t b e
s e p a r a te d by a n a m e a r e n e c e ssa rily id e n tic a l. H e g e l h e re o b v io u sly g o e s fu r ­
th e r th a n L e ib n iz by d is tin g u is h in g b e tw e e n p o o r a n d ra b b le a lth o u g h w ith o u t
re so lv in g th e p ro b le m o f in d istin g u ish a b ility .
39 P e te r G . S tillm a n , “P ro p e rty , C o n tra c t, a n d E th ic a l Life," p . 211.
30 W e rn e r H a m a c h e r, The Right N ot to Use Rights. H um an Rights a n d the Stuclure of
Judgm ents, in Political Theologies. Public Religions in a Post-Secular World, c d . by
H e n t d e V rie s/L a w re n c e E. S u lliv a n , N ew York: F o rd h a m U n iv ersity P re ss 2006.
p. 681. T h a t fo r th e ra b b le it c a n n o t b e a q u e s tio n o f u s in g th e d im e n s io n
im p lie d in th e rig h t n o t to u s e rig h ts, sh o u ld b e clear.
31 M a rk T u n ic k , Hegel's Political Philosophy, p . 27.
32 It s h o u ld b e c le a r th a t th is un-right is clo se to th e A re n d tia n ‘r ig h t to h av e
rig h ts.’ S in ce I c a n n o t p u r s u e th is lin k a g e h e r e I r e f e r to th e fa r-s ig h te d inves­
tig a tio n s o f W e rn e r H a m a c h e r, in 'T he R ight to H a ve R ights (Four-and-a-H alf
Rem arks),' in South A tlantic Quarterly 1 0 3 :2 /3 , S p rin g /S u m m e r , D u rh a m N C
2 0 0 4 . A t th e s a m e tim e 1 se e a p r o b le m in H a m a c h e r s c o n c e p tio n o f a r ig h t to
h ave rig h ts w h ic h is b o u n d to th e n o tio n o f e x is te n c e th a t fo r h im h a s to b e th e
d ec isiv e n o tio n o f th is rig h t. H is r e fe re n c e to th e r ig h t o f “b a r e h u m a n ex ist­
e n c e ,” th e n o tio n o f e x iste n c e — even s tr ip p e d o f all d e te r m in a tio n s — re fe rs
to a tr a n s c e n d e n ta l— o b v io u sly th a t o f la n g u a g e — w h ich m a k e s th is e x iste n c e
th in k a b le in th e firs t p lace. 1 ho w ev er claim th a t th e r a b b le h e r e ev en sus­
p e n d s th is fo rm o f tr a n s c e n d e n ta l s in c e h e 1. In -e x ists a n d 2 . D o es im p o ssib ly
a p p e a r . B a d io u e x p o u n d e d a s im ila r c ritic is m w ith r e g a r d to A g a m b e n . Cf.
A lain B a d io u , I n te rv e n tio n d a n s le c a d r e d u C o llè g e in te r n a tio n a l d e p h ilo s ­
o p h ie s u r le liv re d e G io rg io A g a m b e n : la C o m m u n a u té q u i v ie n t, th é o rie
d e la s in g u la r ité q u e lc o n q u e , o n : h ttp ://w w w .e n tre te m p s .a s s o .f r /B a d io u /
A g a m b e n .h lm .

C h a p t e r 11

1 A lain B a d io u , Politics: -4 non-expressive Dialectics, in Beyond Potentialities? Politics

between the Possible a n d the Impossible c d . by M a rk P o to c n ik /F r a n k R u d a /J a n
V ö lker, Z u ric h : d ia p h a n e s 2011, p . 20.
2 F rie d ric h N ietzsch e, Ecce Homo. How to become w hat one is, p. 109
 N oies 201

3 H e r b e r t M a rc u se , Reason a n d R evolution, p. 185.

1 T h is is w hy I le g e l c a n w rite in th e Aesthetics: “In th is w ay m a n b re a k s th e b a r r ie r
o f h is im p lic it a n d im m e d ia te c h a ra c te r, so th a t p re c ise ly b e c a u se h e knows th a t
h e is a n a n im a l, h e ceases to b e a n a n im a l a n d a tta in s k n o w led g e o f h im s e lf as
sp irit." H A 1, p . 80.
H egel m a k e s it c le a r th a t th is d o e s n o t ta k e p la c e w h en o n e c o n s id e rs th e will as
in d e te r m in a te a n d “a ls o d e te r m in e d . . Cf. H O P R . p . 32.
6 Cf. IIO P R , 33.
7 R o b e rt P ip p in , “I le g e l. F re e d o m , T h e W ill,” p. 51.
8 H egel c a lls th is a “w h o le o f h ap p in ess." Cf. H O P R , p . 41.
9 C f. H V O R L 4, p. 141 a n d H O P R . p. 43.
10 F o r th e n o tio n o f c o n c re te u n iv ersality se e A le n k a Z u p a n c ic , The 'Concrete
Universal’ a n d w hat Comedy can tell us about it, in Lacan: The Silent Partners, ed .
Slavoj Z izek, I .o n d o n /N c w York: V erso 2006.
" Cf. H V O R L 4, p. 142.
12 T h is e n u m e ra tio n b ec o m e s c le a r w h en o n e also u n d e r s ta n d s th e e th ic a l will
a s th e a b s o rp tio n o f th e will in to its o b je c t s o th a t th e w ill is e th ic a l b u t its—
su b jectiv e— c o n te n t is u n e th ic a l. T h e e th ic a l will p r e s e n ts th e m o st un iv ersal
o b jectiv e will in th e e n u m e ra tio n .
13 H e r b e r t M a rc u se, Reason a n d Revolution, p. 188.
" J ü r g e n H a b e rm a s, H e g e l's C ritiq u e o f th e F re n c h R ev o lu tio n , in Theory and
Practice, B e a c o n P re ss 1973, p . 82.
Ir‘ O n e c a n h e r e c ite R itte r’s rig h t in sig h t th a t H e g e l’s p h ilo so p h y "is u p to its most
in n e r incentives a philosophy o f rexfolution . . ." J o a c h im R itte r, “H e g e l u n d d ie
fra n z ö sisc h e R evo lution," p. 192.
Ib R e b e c c a C om ay, Dead Right, p. 379.
17 R e b e c c a C om ay, Dead Right, p. 385.
18 O n e c a n claim th a t such a w ill is alw ays c o n ta m in a te d by w h at B a d io u calls a
d e s tru c tiv e “p a ssio n fo r th e real." A lain B a d io u , The Century, p p . 5 3 -5 4 .
19 In th is c ritiq u e , H e g e l a n tic ip a te s N ietzsch e.
20 Cf.. J o a c h im R itter, “H egel u n d d ie fra n z ö sisc h e R evolution," p p . 196ff.
-1 J ü r g e n H a b e rm a s, “H eg e ls K ritik d e r F ra n z ö sis c h e n R ev o lu tio n ,” p . 133.
22 A d isc u ssio n o f th is d is tin c tio n c a n b e f o u n d in A lain B a d io u , L a volonté.
Cours d ’a grégation (2 0 0 2 -2 0 0 3 ), o n : h ttp ://w w w .e n tr e te m p s .a s s o .f r /B a d io u /
0 2 - 0 3 .2 .h tm .
23 C f. A la in B a d io u , Conditions, L o n d o n /N e w Y ork 2009.
24 In a c e r ta in se n se in th e w illin g o f th e ra b b le th e r e is a p ro x im ity to th e
‘I n te r n a tio n a l’: “W e a r e n o th in g , now let’s b e all.”

C h a p te r 12

1 B B E , p . 109.

2 T h e follow ing c o m m e n ts w ill in a c e r ta in se n se p r e s e n t a n id e a w h ich relies o n

th e c o n n o ta tio n o f th e G e r m a n w o rd 'Menge' w h ic h c a n m e a n 'a lo t,’ ’m ass,’ o r
‘s e t’ in th e m a th e m a tic a l se n se o f th e term .
202 Notes

3 T o w h a t e x te n t H e g e l p e r p e tu a te s a p ro b le m th a t a lre a d y in s tru c te d th e P lato n ic

d ia lo g u e , P a rm e n id e s, b e c o m e s c le a r if o n e re c a lls B a d io u ’s p re c ise in v estig a­
tio n : BBE, p p . 31-7.
* A g o o d s h o rt overview o f th e h isto ry o f se t th e o ry m ay b e fo u n d in P e te r H allw ard ,
Badiou. A Subject to Truth, M in n e ap o lis: U niversity o f M in n e s o ta P re ss 2003,
pp . 3 2 3 -4 8 . A m o re d e ta ile d a c c o u n t is given by S h a u g h a n L avine, Understanding
the Infinites C a m b rid g e : H a rv a rd U niversity P ress 1998.
* T h e e x c u rsu s e sta b lish e s a c o n n e c tio n th a t H e g e l h im s e lf criticizes: th e lin k a g e
o f p h ilo s o p h y a n d m a th e m a tic s. H e g e l’s w ell-know n criticis m first o f th e in d e ­
te rm in a c y o f th e n u m b e r a n d se c o n d ly o f th e m a th e m a tic a l c o n c e p t o f in fin ity
w h ich is in c o n c u r re n c e w ith th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l o n e . I w a n t to leave th is c o n ­
sciously a s id e b e c a u s e I o n ly w a n t to p o in t to a c o n s e q u e n c e w h ic h re s u lts if o n e
tak es u p th e c o n n o ta tio n o f th e c o n c e p t o f th e “M e n g e” w h ic h is n o t d ep lo y ed
in th e H e g e lia n te x t. O n H eg e l's re la tio n to m a th e m a tic s , se e A lain B adiou,
"P h ilo so p h y a n d M a th em atic s,” in Conditions, pp . 9 3 -1 1 3 .
6 G e o r g C a n to r, “B e iträg e z u r tr a n s f in ite n M e n g e n le h re ,” in: Mathematische
A n nalen 46 , 1895, p. 481. T h a t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f se i th e o ry — ev en w ith
C a n to r— dissolves all o f th e c o n c e p ts involved in th is d e fin itio n c a n b e re a d in
BBE. p p . 2 3 -5 2 .
7 T h e su b s e q u e n t e x a m p le s fu n c tio n o n ly a s c la rific a tio n — a lth o u g h th e y n e c e s­
sa rily in tr o d u c e in a c c u ra c ie s. I a c c e p t th e m fo r th e p u r p o s e o f g r e a te r clarity.
8 Cf. B e r tr a n d R ussell, Introduction to M athem atical Philosophy, L o n d o n : S im o n &
S c h u s te r/T o u c h s to n e 1920, p p . 12ff.
9 P e te r H a llw a rd , Badiou, p. 323.
10 T h a t th is a ssig n a tio n is fa r m o re co m p lex c a n b e s e e n fro m th e re c o n s tru c tio n
in A lain B a d io u , Number a n d Numbers, C a m b rid g e /M a ld e n : Polity P re ss 2008,
pp . 16-23.
11 Cf. G o ttlo b F re g c , The Foundations o f Arithmetic: A Logico-Mathematical Enquiry into
the Concept o f Number, E van sto n : N o rth w e ste rn U n iv ersity P re ss 1980.
12 A n illu stra tiv e v e rsio n o f th is p a r a d o x b e c a m e fam o u s: I f a b a r b e r o n ly c u ts th e
h a ir o f th o se w ho n o t d o c u t th e ir ow n h a ir, d o e s h e c u t his ow n h air? I f yes, th e n
h e d o c s n o t o n ly d o th e h a i r o f th o se w h ich d o n o t th e m se lv es d o it. I f n o . th e n
h e d o e s th e h a ir o f th o s e w h o se h a i r lie d o e s , w h ich is to say w h o d o n o t d o th e ir
h a ir them selv es a n d th e re fo re h e d o e s h is ow n h air. S ee also: H o w ard Eves, An
Introduction to the History o f Mathematics, N ew York: B ro o k s C o le 1975. p . 476.
13 T o w h a t e x te n t th is h a d a “d o w n rig h t c a ta s tro p h ic effect" fo r th e in te n sio n a l co n ­
c e p tio n o f se t th e o ry cf. C o n s ta n c e R eid. Hilbert, L o n d o n : S p rin g e r 1970, p . 98.
M L e tte r to D e d c k in d . J u ly 28, 1899, q u o te d fro m th e tra n s la tio n o f M ich ael
H a llc tt, Cantorian Set Theory a n d the Lim itation o f Size, O x fo rd : O x fo rd U niversity
P re ss 1996 p. 166.
15 My re m a rk s a r e in a c e r ta in se n se h isto ric a lly im p re c ise b e c a u se o n e c a n fin d
th is th r e e fo ld d e te r m in a tio n o n ly a f te r th e a x io m a tiz a tio n by Z e rm e lo a n d
F ra e n k e l. C a n to r still d is tin g u is h e s b etw e en o b je c ts a n d g r o u p s o f o b jects.
H ow ever, a s th e a x io m a tiz a tio n se e m s to m e lo b e a n ec essarily im p lie d effect
o f th e C a n to r ia n th e o ry , I b eliev e m y a r g u m e n t a c c o rd s w ith th e lo g ic o f th e
m a tte r in h a n d . A lso se e E rn s t Z erm e lo , Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der
Mengenlehre, in : Mathematische A nnalen 65, 1908.
 N oies 203

16 O n e c a n f o rm u la te h e r e a lo n g sid e th e se t th e o re tic a l a x io m o f s e p a ra tio n w h ich

c a n easily b e p r e s e n te d in a fo rm a l way. I th e re fo r e r e fe r to B a d io u (Cf. BBE,
6 0 - 6 ) T h e a s su m p tio n o f th e in te n s io n a l c o n c e p tio n c a n b e w ritte n as follows:
(3/J)(V a)|A (a)-»(a g ß ) \ . T h is reads: th e r e exists a b e ta a n d fo r all a lp h a it is th e
c a se th a t if a lp h a h a s a p r o p e r ty (la m b d a ), th e n a lp h a is a n e le m e n t o f b e ta .
A lre a d y in th e ty p e fa c e — a n d I w ill b e d e a lin g exclusively w ith th is — it is clearly
th e p r e s u p p o s e d e x iste n c e (w ritten Ξ) o f b e ta w h ich n a m e s a m u ltip lic ity in
w h ich a c e r ta in d o m a in c a n b e sin g le d o u t (alp h a) w h ic h c o n ta in s ele m e n ts
w h ich s h a re a c e r ta in p ro p e rty . T h e a s su m p tio n o f th e e x te n sio n a l c o n c e p tio n
lead s to a d if fe r e n t fo rm a liz a tio n : (Va)(3ß)(V y)[|(y g a ) & A(y)l-»(y g ß ) \ . T h is
re a d s— a n d I sh a ll d e a l o n ly w ith th e first p a rt: fo r an y a lp h a th e re ex ists a b e ta ,
etc. T h a t th is fo rm a liz a tio n d o e s n o t b e g in w ith a n e x iste n tia l p re s u p p o s itio n
b u t o n ly w ith a n im p lic a tio n — o f 's o m e th in g ' (ß ) i f it is c o rre c t th a t a lp h a exists.
T h is tr a n s f o r m s th e w h o le th in k in g o f th e c o n s titu tio n o f sets. 3 a n d V a r e ca lle d
(ex isten tial / u n iv e rsa l) q u a n tifie rs. T h e d if fe r e n c e b etw e en in te n s io n a l a n d
e x te n sio n a l c o n c e p tio n is th e re fo re a d iffe re n c e in th e o r d e r o f q u a n tifie rs
17 I h a v e sh o w n to w h at e x te n t th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n tw o fo rm s o f e x iste n c e (a
d e te r m in a b le e x iste n c e a n d o n e w h ich h a s n o o th e r d e te r m in a tio n th a n th a t o f
ex iste n ce) is n e c e s sa ry f o r an y p o litic a l analysis o f c o n c re te s itu a tio n s in “B ack to
th e Factory. A P lea fo r a R enew al o f C o n c re te A nalysis o f C o n c re te S itu atio n s,"
in Beyond Potentialities? Polities between the Possible a n d the Impossible, c d . by M ark
P o to cn ik , F ra n k R u d a, Jan V ölker, B erlin: D ia p h a n e s 2011.
ls F or th e s e t th e o re tic a l n o tio n o f th e p a r t cf. A b ra h a m A d o lf F ra e n k e l,
E in leitu n g in die Mengenlehre. E ine gem einverständliche H in fü h ru n g in das Reich
der unendlichen Grössen, B e rlin / H c id c lb c r g /N c w York: K e ss in g e r P u b . 1972,
p p . 15 ff.
19 O n e c a n also claim th a t th is is th e se t th e o re tic a l fo rm u la tio n o f th e logic o f a
double latency. I m p o rta n t c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th is will b ec o m c s c le a re r in th e fol­
low ing. A lso se e A la in B a d io u , N um ber a n d Numbers; a ls o th e im p o r ta n t re m a rk s
c o n c e r n in g th e ex cess o f in c lu sio n over b e lo n g in g in BBF„ p p . 8 4 - 6 .
20 O n e n e e d s to in d ic a te th a t h e re in consists a fu n d a m e n ta l a m b iv alen c e o f
H eg e l's c ritiq u e : o n o n e sid e it c a n b e r e a d a s a c ritiq u e o f a n u n o r g a n iz e d fo rm
o f b e in g to g e th e r o f th e k in d d e a r to a n a rc h is m . T h is c a n o n ly b e s u p p o rte d .
O n th e o th e r sid e it is a c ritiq u e o f a c o n tin g e n t e m e rg e n c e o f a n in a n d for
its e lf in d e te r m in a te p a r tic u la rity w h o se u n iv ersality H e g e l d o e s n o t rec o g n ize .
T h is c ritiq u e c a n n o t b e s u s ta in e d , sin c e th e c o n tin g e n t e m e rg e n c e o f so m e ­
th in g w h ich is in d e te r m in a te in n o w ay ex c lu d e s th a t in c o n s e q u e n c e th e r e c a n
b e (th e in v e n tio n o f) a s tric t a n d d isc ip lin e d o rg a n iz a tio n .
21 F ra n k Schalow , The Question o f Being a n d the Recovery o f Language within Hegel's
Thought, in The O w l o f M inerva 24, 2 (S p rin g 1993), p . 179.
22 C f. A lso K arl L öw ith, "H e g el u n d d ie S p ra ch e ," in Sämtliche Schriften I. Mensch
u n d Menschenwelt, e d . by K laus S tich w e h , S tu ttg a rt: M e tz le r 1981 a n d J a c q u e s
D e r rid a , " T h e P it a n d th e P y ra m id e : I n tr o d u c tio n in to H e g e l’s Sem iology," in
M argins o f Philosophy, Sussex: U niversity o f C h ic a g o P ress 1982.
25 C f. My a rtic le o r ie n te d a t th e w orks o f Z izek a n d N ancy: “T h e N a m e o f th e
M o n a rc h : H e g e l’s C o m m u n is t C o n c e p tio n o f th e S tate " (in p re p a ra tio n ).
21 H P M . p p . 184-201.
204 Notes

25 Ja cq u es D e rrid a , The Pit. p. 76.

2* Ib id ., p . 90.
27 G.VV.F H egel, Jenaer Realphilosophie. Vorlesungsmanuskripte zur Philosophie der
Natur; p. 180.
28 J a c q u e s D e r rid a , The P it, p. 84.
29 Ib id .. p. 88.
:{fl Slavoj Z izek, The Métastasés o f Enjoyment. On Women a n d Causality. L o n d o n /N e w
Y ork: V erso 2005. p. 44.
31 G.W.F. I le g e l, Jenaer Realphilosophie. Vorlesungsmanuskripte zu r Philosophie der
Natur, p. 183.
32 I h e r e follow th e c o m m e n ta ry o f Z izek. Cf. Slavoj Z izek, The Métastasés of
Enjoyment, p p . 4 6 -5 0 .
35 Ib id ., p. 48.
34 Cf. J o h n M c C u m b c r, The Company o f Words: Ilegel, Language, a n d Systematic
Philosophy, E v an sto n 1993, pp . 1 3 0 -4 3 .
35 M cC um ber clarifies th e ex p lan a tio n w ith th e form ula: “M nfl <= (M„;x........ Mn), w h ere
n > x (‘exp licatio n ’)" a n d th e ab b rev iatio n by th e form ula: “(M n.t............M„) => Mn. P
w h e re n > x (‘abbreviation*).” Ib id .. p. 132. M sta n d s h e r e — as a to k e n f o r a
m a rk e r— b o th in sid e th e b ra c k e ts a s th a t w h ich I have m a rk e d as th e se rie s o f
c o n c re te d e te r m in a tio n s a n d o u ts id e o f th e m as a n a m e . T h e e x p la n a tio n lead s
fro m a n a m e to th e u n ity o f a se rie s o f d e te r m in a tio n s , th e a b b re v ia tio n lead s
fro m a se rie s o f d e te r m in a tio n s to a n am e.
** Slavoj Z izek, The Métastasés o f Enjoyment, p. 49.
17 T h is is th e first p assag e in th e m a n u s c r ip t o f 1821/22 in w h ich H egel ta lk s a b o u t
th e rab b le.
38 T o w h at e x te n t I Ieg el is w ro n g to th in k th e ra b b le fo llo w in g th e lo g ic o f n e g a tio n ,
I h av e n o te d se v eral tim e s by sh o w in g th a t h e is h e r e p re s e n te d w ith a p ro b lem
o f c a te g o riz a tio n w h ich c a n n o t b e co n c eiv ed m e re ly in te rm s o f n e g a tio n .

C onclusion

1 I I P R l, 120.
2 A lain B a d io u , Théorie d u sujet, p. 19.
3 Cf. E u g è n e F le is c h m a n n , L a philosophie politique de Hegel: sous la form e d'un
commentaire des Fondements de la philosophie d u droit, P aris: G a llim a rd 1964. A
p ro b le m a tiz a tio n o f th is n o tio n , n o t re la tin g to H eg el, b u t re le v a n t fo r th e q u e s ­
tio n d isc u sse d ab o ve m ay b e fo u n d in A la in B a d io u . Metapolitics, p p . 10 -2 6 .

C oda

' M C IIR , 89.

2 A la in B a d io u , Metapolitics, p. 93.
3 I w ill d e v e lo p my r e a d in g w ith r e fe re n c e to th e te x ts u p to 1844. My c o n c lu d in g
r e m a rk s s ta n d in a tw ofold r e la tio n to A lth u sser: O n o n e sid e th e y s h a re th e id e a
 N oies 205

c o n c e r n in g th e M a rx ia n e c o n o m ic -p h ilo so p h ic a l m a n u s c rip ts th a t “O n e d ay we
sh a ll h a v e to stu d y th is tex t in d e ta il a n d give a w ord-by-w ord e x p la n a tio n o f i t .
. . ” Cf. L o u is A lth u sser, For M arx, L o n d o n /N e w York: V erso 2 0 0 5 . p . 158. O n th e
o th e r sid e th e y d o n o t s h a re th e th e sis th a t th e criticism o f th e H e g e lia n sta te
p h ilo s o p h y c a n only b e g r a s p e d in th e c o n te x t o f F e u e rb a c h ia n p h ilo s o p h y (Cf.
Ib id ., p. 37). R a th e r I w an t to claim th a t th e te x ts o f early M a rx c a n b e p ro p e rly
u n d e r s to o d a g a in s t th e b a c k g ro u n d o f th e ra b b le -p ro b le m .
I K a rl M a rx /F r ie d r ic h E n g els, The Holy Family, p. 28.
5 G. YV. F. I le g e l, Jenaer Realphilosophie. Vorlesungsmanuskripte zu r Philosophie der
Natur, p . 232.
r‘ S ta th is K ouvelakis, Philosophy a n d Revolution. From K a n t lo .Marx, L o n d o n /N e w
York: V erso 2003, p. 331.
7 M a rx a ls o sp e a k s o f “a b s o lu te p o v e rty ” (M EPM . 29 0 ). In th e Holy Family o n e can
e v e n fin d th e d e te r m in a tio n o f in e x iste n c e th a t m a rk e d th e ra b b le . M a rx writes:
"B ut n o t h a v in g is n o t a m e re categ o ry , it is a m o st d ism al rea lity ; to d a y th e m a n
w ho h a s n o th in g is n o th in g , fo r h e is c u t o f f fro m e x iste n c e in g e n e ra l, a n d still
m o re fro m a h u m a n e x iste n c e , fo r th e c o n d itio n o f n o t h a v in g is th e co n d itio n
o f th e c o m p le te s e p a ra tio n o f m a n fro m h is objectivity. T h e re fo re , n o t h av in g
se e m s q u ite ju s tif ie d in b e in g th e h ig h e st o b je c t o f th o u g h t fo r P ro u d h o n . . .”
S ee: K arl M a rx /F r ie d r ic h E n g els, The Holy Family, p . 32.
8 T h is d is tin c tio n h a s o f te n n o t b e e n a c k n o w le d g e d in th e c o n te m p o r a r y
d is c o u r s e (a lso w ith in th e M a rx is t tr a d itio n ) . B a d io u rig h tly r e m a r k e d c o n ­
c e r n in g th is fo rm o f “v u lg a r M a rx is m ” th a t “it th o u g h t th e w o rk in g class
a s t h e c la ss o f w o rk e rs , . . Yet th is d id n o t p r e v e n t k n o w le d g e (a n d p a r a ­
d o x ic a lly M a rx is t k n o w le d g e its e lf ) f ro m b e in g fo re v e r a b le to c o n s id e r ‘th e
w o rk e rs ’ a s fa llin g u n d e r a n e n c y c lo p e d ic d e t e r m i n a n t (so c io lo g ic a l, e c o ­
n o m ic a l, e tc .) . . ." BBF-, p . 33 4 . T h a t th is d is tin c tio n r e m a in s a p ro v o c a tio n
fo r so m e th in k e r s is e x p lic it in I .a c la if s d e b a te w ith Slavoj Z izek in w h ich
L a c la u , firs t q u o tin g a n d th e n c o m m e n tin g o n Z iz ek , c laim s: “‘M a rx d is tin ­
g u is h e s b e tw e e n w o rk in g c la ss a n d p r o le ta r ia t: th e w o rk in g c la ss e ffe c tiv e ly
is a p a r t i c u l a r s o c ia l g r o u p , w h ile th e p r o le t a r ia t d e s ig n a te s a su b je c tiv e p o s i­
tio n |. . . |. ’ N ow , to s ta r t w ith , M a rx n e v e r m a d e s u c h a d is tin c tio n .” E rn e s to
L a c la u , “W h y C o n s tr u c tin g a P e o p le is th e M a in T a sk o f R a d ic a l P o litic s,”
in : C r itic a l I n q u ir y 3 2 ( S u m m e r 2 0 0 6 ), p. 6 5 9 sq. T h e q u o te fro m Z iz ek is
fro m th e fo llo w in g te x t: Slavoj Z izek, “A g a in s t th e P o p u lis t T e m p ta tio n ,” in:
C r itic a l I n q u ir y 32 ( S u m m e r 2 0 0 6 ).
9 T h is in d ic a te s w hy M a rx refu ses an y fo rm o f a n a r c h ic p o litics. T h e a g e n t, th e s u b ­
je c t o f e m a n c ip a to ry tr a n s fo rm a tio n c a n n o t b e co n ceiv ed o f an -arch istically .
10 M a rx c ritic iz e s in th is p a ssa g e a w ro n g d e p ic tio n o f th e h isto ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t.
T h a t my r e a d in g re m a in s co n siste n t. I will d e m o n s tra te by sh o w in g th a t th e p r o ­
le ta ria t c a n o n ly b r e a k in to th e b o u rg e o is o r d e r w h en a c o n tin g e n t, sub jectiv e
o p e r a tio n su p p le m e n ts th e n e c e ssa rily p ro d u c e d c o n d itio n .
II M ic h ae l Löwy, The Theory o f Revolution in the Young M arx, C h ic a g o 2 0 0 5 , p . 16.
12 J a c q u e s R a n c iè re , I j? concept de critique et la critique de l ’é conomie politique des
‘M anuscrits de 1844' a u 'Capital', in L o u is A lth u s s e r /E tie n n e B a lib a r/R o g c r
E s ta b le t/P ie r re M a c h e re y /Ja c q u e s R a n c iè re , Lire le capital, P aris: Q u a d rig e ,
1996, pp . 103, e t sq.
206 Notes

13 T h e G e rm a n n o tio n o f “E ntwesung” is h e r e m o re p re c is e th a n th e E nglish

“im p o v e rish m e n t," b e c a u s e it im p lie s tw o se m a n tic c o m p o n e n ts : 1) a lo ss o f
e s s e n c e /b e in g (VVesen)and it re n d e rs 2) th is loss a s a process.
14 Cf. M EPM , p. 327.
15 (if. fo r th is also F ra n k R u d a, H um anism Reconsidered, or: Live liv in g Life, in:
Eilozofski vestnik, W hat is it to live?, vol. X X , no . 2 , 2 0 0 9 A n d L o re n z o C h ie sa s c o m ­
rad ely a n d c ritic a l re m a rk s in L o re n z o C h iesa , The Body o f the Structural Dialectic,
or, the Partisan an d the 'H um an Anim al', u n p u b lis h e d ty p e scrip t.
Ib I h e re a d d th e G e r m a n “Unwesen,” b e c a u s e it is im p o r ta n t to n o te th a t th e
G e r m a n te rm “Unwesen” im p lie s th a t th e e sse n c e [Mfcœw] o f m a n is a n e g a tio n o f
th a t e sse n c e its e lf [ Un-wesm] w h ic h sh o u ld n o t b e co n c eiv ed o f o n ly in te rm s o f
n e g a tio n , b u t also as a n in d ic a to r o f a n ex iste n ce.
17 I a d o p t th is a rg u m e n t fro m Z izek. See: Slavoj Z izek. In Defense o f Lost Causes,
L o n d o n /N e w York: C o n tin u u m 2010, p. 286.
18 O n e w o u ld h a v e to d e v e lo p f u r th e r how a n d w hy a n y re a c tio n a ry p o litic s g ro u n d s
its th o u g h t in th e p rin c ip le o f c o n stru c ta b ility . S ee a ls o BBE. p p . 2 6 5 -3 2 6 .
19 I re fe r h e r e to th e re la tio n o f ev e n ta l site, ev e n t, a n d su b je c t in B a d io u . T h e
w o rk in g class c a n b e c o n s id e re d a s th e ev e n ta l site o f th e p ro le ta ria t. S e e also:
BBE, p p . 104-11 a n d p p . 173-90.
20 T h a t u n iv e rsa lism in th is re g a rd c a n b e u n d e r s to o d as a u n iv e rsa l a d d re s s w ith in
a p o te n tia lly in fin ite p ro c e ss b e c o m e s in te llig ib le if o n e also c o n s id e rs B a d io u ’s
th e o ry o f fidelity a n d in v e stig a tio n . S ee: BBE. p p . 2 0 1 -6 4 .
21 A lain B a d io u , Peut-on penser la politique?, p. 101.
22 T h a t a n y e v e n t le a d s to th e a p p e a r a n c e o f s o m e th in g p rev io u sly in ex istin g
B a d io u claim s in Logics o f Worlds, pp . 3 5 5 -8 0 .
23 O n e c o u ld claim th a t th e a c tu a l c o m m u n is t a c tio n c h a n g e s th e tra n s c e n d e n ta l
o f c h a n g e o f th e e x is tin g b o u rg e o is w orld.
21 T h is ex p re ssio n in G e rm a n is "werktätiges Gattungsleben," w h ich im p lies a n activity
a n d th e c re a tio n o f a m a te ria l w ork. It sh a ll b e c o m e c le a r th a t m y r e a d in g d iffers
fro m A g a m b e n ’s, as h e is s ta rtin g fro m th e A risto te lia n n o tio n o f g en u s. G io rg io
A g a m b e n , The M an without Content, S ta n fo rd : S ta n fo rd U niversity P ress 1999.
25 T h e E n g lish tra n s la tio n d o c s n o t r e n d e r th e G e r m a n “Wahrheit" a s “t r u t h ” b u t
a s “fa c t o f life," I th e re fo re m o d ifie d th e tra n s la tio n .
26 A s also A lain B a d io u claim s: “T ru th s a r e e te r n a l b e c a u se th e y h av e b e e n c re ­
a te d , n o t b e c a u s e th e y h ave fo re v er b e e n th e re .” S ee: A lain B a d io u , S é m in a ire
su r: S'orienter dans la pensée, s'orienter dans l'existence (2). S essio n o f O c to b e r 19,
2005.
27 T h is is w hy it is false to re a d th e e a rly M a rx sim ply a s a n A risto te lia n .
2S U n iv ersa l p r o d u c tio n h e r e c o m e s clo se to th e H e g e lia n lo g ic o f h a b it w hich
c o n s ta n tly tra n s fo rm s retro ac tiv e ly th e c o n s titu tio n o f h u m a n n a tu re .
2<·' H a b e rm a s m isses p recisely th is p o in t. H e in d ic a te s th a t M a rx u n d e r s ta n d s id e n ­
tity as “f o rm in g o f . . . id e n tity ” b u t d o c s n o t ta k e th e te m p o ra lity o f th e fo rm in g
in to a c c o u n t a n d th u s m isses to lin k it to th e n ec essity o f a lie n a tio n (a n d th e re b y
to th e in d e te rm in a c y o f h u m a n b e in g ). J ü r g e n H a b e rm a s . Knoioledge a n d H um an
Interest, B o sto n : B e a c o n P re ss 1972, p. 40.
 N oies 207

30 I m o d ifie d th e tra n s la tio n b e c a u s e th e se n se o f th e G e rm a n ex p re ssio n

Ί ) urchsichselbstsein" w h ich M a rx em ploys h e re , lite ra lly m e a n s to b e th e c a u s e o f
o n e ’s ow n b ein g . T h is p re c ise se n se g ets lost if o n e tra n s la te s it as “se lf-m e d iated
b ein g ."
31 H e r e a g a in a c o u n te r-n o tio n to th e D e le u z ia n n o tio n o f th e b o d y w ith o u t o rg a n s
a p p e a rs . M a rx r a th e r d e v e lo p s th e c o n c e p t o f a b o d y w ith (p o ten tially ) in fin ite
o rg a n s . M a rx is n o D eleu zian .
38 T h is te r m is n o t tr a n s la ta b le in to E n g lish a n d its p r e c is e se n se w o u ld b e lo st
if r e n d e r e d a s “d e te rm in a b ility .” T h is is b e c a u s e “B estim m b ark eit* ' s h o u ld
b e r e a d in tw o ways: s o m e th in g c a n c o n s ta n tly b e d e te r m in e d b e c a u s e it is
s tr ip p e d o f all d e te r m in a tio n s (it is “b a r a lle r B e s tim m u n g e n ," as o n e c o u ld
p u t it in G e r m a n ) a n d also p r o d u c e s th is d o u b le c o n d itio n c o n s ta n tly a s any
re tro a c tiv e d e te r m in a tio n c h a n g e s th e b asis th a t it d e te r m in e s . T h e “b a r ” o f
“B e stim m b a rk e it" th e r e f o r e s ta n d s fo r th e c o n tin u o u s c o n d itio n o f th e e m e r­
g e n c e o f new d e te r m in a tio n s th a t a r e p r o d u c e d retro ac tiv e ly . T h is is h o w I
re a d c e n tr a l a s p e c ts o f w h a t B a d io u c a lls “s u b tra c tio n " . S ee: A la in B ad io u ,
Conditiona, p p . 113-29.
33 A f u r th e r d e v e lo p m e n t o f th is logic I h ave u n d e r ta k e n in Von der Treue als sub-
traktiver Institution, in Ereignis u n d Institution, e d . b y G e m o t K a m e c k e /H e n n in g
T eschke, T ü b in g e n : N a rr 20 0 8 . T h e o b je c tio n th a t M a rx w o u ld b e h a u n te d
b y th e H eg elian ra b b le -p ro b le m in h is d is tin c tio n o f p r o le ta r ia t a n d lu m p c n -
p ro le ta ria t, i.e. by th e e x c lu d e d o f th e ex c lu d e d , re a d s M a rx 's d e s c rip tio n o f
u n iv e rsa l p ro d u c tio n in th e se n se o f a sta b le c o n c e p t o f p ro d u c tio n a n d m isses
th e B estim m b ark eit o f th e p ro ce ss. R a th e r in th e d o u b le o f p ro le ta ria t-lu m p e n -
p ro le ta ria t th e d o u b le o f a b s o lu te a n d re se n tm e n t-ra b b le is r e p e a te d b e c a u se
th e lu m p e n p r o le ta r ia t is first a n d fo re m o st m a rk e d by its se lf-se ek in g p a r tic u la r
in te re s t w h ic h th ro w s it in to th e re v o lu tio n a ry m o v e m e n t h o p in g fo r a re -e s ta b ­
lis h m e n t o f th e b o u rg e o is p r o p e r ty o r d e r a n d fo r th e re s titu tio n o f th a t w h ich it
h a d lost.
31 S u ch a c o n c e p t o f life th a t im m a n e n tly r e la te d to its e lf o p p o se s th e n atio n al-
e c o n o m ic d u b lic a tio n o f m a n in to b o u rg e o is a n d citoyen. A c o m m e n ta ry o f th e
c ritiq u e o f th is in e a rly M a rx c a n b e f o u n d in H e lm u t R e ic h elt. Z u r logischen
S truktur des Kapitalbegriffs bet K arl M arx, F ra n k f u r t a. M . 1973, p p . 19-72.
35 M ichael T h e u n is s e n . Sein u n d Schein, p . 477.
36 E tie n n e B alibar, Ambigous Universality, in Politics a n d the Other Scene, L o n d o n /
N ew Y ork: V e rso 20 0 2 , p. 174.
37 G e o r g L ukacs, History a n d Class Consciousness. Studies in M arxist Dialectics,
L o n d o n : M a rlin P ress, p. 149.
:kH S e c fo r e x a m p le E ric h F ro m m , Marx's Concept o f M a n , L o n d o n /N e w York:
C o n tin u u m 20 0 3 . A lso F ra n k R u d a. H um anism Reconsidered, p p . 175-93.
39 Briefe von u n d an Hegel, e d . by F. N ico lin . H a m b u rg 1977, Bd. 4 , S. 136. T ra n s la te d
th is p h r a s e m e an s: “If th e r e w ere a g o v e rn m e n t o f a n g e ls, th e y w o u ld g o v ern
th em selv es d em o cratica lly .”
40 A lain B a d io u . Pocket Pantheon. Figures o f Postwar Philosophy, L o n d o n /N e w York:
V erso 20 0 9 , p. V III.
208 Notes

41 H e r e o n e c o u ld a d d a d e ta ile d d isc u ssio n c o n c e r n in g th e d iffe re n c e o f th e p o lit­

ical th o u g h t o f G io rg io A g a m b e n a n d A lain B a d io u . B ut a s h o rt, sp e cu la tiv e
fo o tn o te h a s to suffice: I f A g a m b e n th in k s th e ir r u p tio n o f a c o m p le te in d e te r­
m in a c y in to th e e x is tin g s tr u c tu re s o r g a n iz e d in id e n titie s o r u n its by th e sta te
a s a n e v e n t w h ich m a k e s a fo rm o f u n c o n d itio n e d b e lo n g in g v isible, h e s h a re s
th is p o in t w ith B adiou. B o th — all th e ir d iffe re n c e s se t a s id e — a g r e e th a t an
e v e n t co n sists in a n ir r u p tio n — o f a m e re b e lo n g in g , o f th e v oid o f th e situ a tio n
(B ad io u ) o r o f a p u r e b e lo n g in g o f a n y sin g u la rity to la n g u a g e (A g a m b e n )— in to
a co n siste n t, c lo se d s tr u c tu r e w h ich g e n e ra te s its co n siste n cy via th e as sig n in g
o f d e te rm in a tio n s , q u a litie s, a n d p ro p e rtie s . W ith b o th o f th e m o n e c a n th e re ­
fo re th in k th e H e g e lia n ra b b le -p ro b le m . B ut A g a m b e n d o e s n o t id e n tify th e
r u p tu r e o f th e ev e n t o n ly w ith th a t w h ich will h av e b e e n lo g ically 'b e f o re ' th e
g e n e sis o f s tru c tu re s — th e ev e n t a s ir r u p tio n o f th is re tro a c tiv e ‘b e fo re ’— b u t
a ls o h e id e n tifie s s u c h a n e v e n t w ith th e tr u th th a t th e re fo re is always th e tr u th
o f b e in g . T h e ev e n t w h ich in tro d u c e s a p u r e b e lo n g in g o f a n y o n e is alw ays a
e v e n t o f t r u t h a n d th is t r u t h is th e t r u t h o f b e in g re p re s se d b y th e s tru c tu re .
A ny ev e n t, an y ir r u p tio n o f in d e te rm in a c y in to th e s tr u c tu re s d is trib u tin g d e te r­
m in a tio n s , th u s e x p re sse s th e sa m e tr u th (o f b e in g ) — a H e id e g g e ria n h e rita g e .
T h is is w hy A g a m b e n c a n th in k p o litic s a g a in s t th e b a c k g ro u n d o f p o litic a l (or
e c o n o m ic a l) th e o lo g y a n d assig n a m e ssia n ic c h a r a c te r to th e s e ev e n ta l ir r u p ­
tio n s. F or th e r e is one tr u th o f b ein g . In B a d io u o n e fin d s in c o n tra s t a d iffe re n t
c o n c e p tio n o f th e re la tio n o f b e in g , e v e n t a n d tr u th . A lth o u g h it m ig h t b e sa id
th a t b e in g is th a t w h ic h as in d e te rm in a c y (as void) b re a k s in to th e co n siste n t
s tr u c tu re s , tr u th is s e p a r a te d fro m th e ev e n t a n d a ls o fro m b ein g . T h e event
is th e ‘s tr u c tu ra l p la c e ' o f a n e m e r g in g p o ssib ility (o f a tr u th ) in e x is tin g p rev i­
ously w h ich after th e ev e n t h a s to b e u n f o ld e d by a su b je c t. T h u s tr u th is always a
su b jectiv e c o n s tru c tio n in e a c h a n d always sin g u la rly h isto ric a l situ a tio n s. T h is
is w hy B a d io u insists o n th e n ecessity o f th e c o n c e p t o f th e su b je ct, as a g e n t o f
th e d e p lo y m e n t o f a t r u t h in s in g u la r s itu a tio n s a n d o n th e p rim a c y o f (p o liti­
ca l, a rtis tic , etc.) p r a c tic e a g a in s t p h ilo so p h y . O n e c a n r e s u m e th e d iffe re n c e
b etw e en th e tw o th in k e r s sh o rtly : fo r A g am b e n is a multiplicity o f s in g u la r event
a s r u p tu r e s o f th e given w h ich always e x p o s e one a n d the sam e t r u t h (o f b ein g );
fo r B a d io u th e r e is a multiplicity o f s in g u la r ev en ts in s in g u la r s itu a tio n s w hich
a ls o e n a b le a multiplicity o f tr u th s u n fo ld e d by 'f a ith f u l' su b je cts. F or A g am b e n
th e r e is one t r u t h (of b ein g ) w hich show s its e lf in a m u ltip lic ity o f ev en ts in sin g u ­
la r situ atio n s; fo r B a d io u th e r e a r e (infinitely) multipit’ tr u th s w hose sub jectiv e
u n fo ld in g w ill h av e b e e n p o ssib le by a m u ltip lic ity o f ev en ts in s in g u la r situ a ­
tio n s. C o u ld o n e n o t say s o m e th in g q u ite s im ila r a b o u t th e re la tio n b etw een
R a n c iè re (as a n ti-p h ilo s o p h ic a l A g a m b e n ) a n d Z izek? A n d : C o u ld o n e not
a g a in s t th e b a c k g ro u n d o f th e p re v io u s in v e stig a tio n claim th a t th e d iffe re n c e
b etw e en th e in v a ria n c e o f o n e tr u th o f b e in g a n d a th in k in g o f th e p rac tica l
u n fo ld in g o f tr u th s by su b je cts, is th e d iffe re n c e b etw e en th e H e g e lia n ra b b le
a n d th e M a rx ia n p ro le ta ria t?
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 In d e x
A d o rn o , T h e o d o r W. 1-2, 33, 72, 104,
191
A g a m b e n , G io rg io 188. 191. 197. 200,
2 0 6 -8
A lain (É m ile C h a rtie r) 78
A lthusser, L ouis 180, 2 0 4 -5
A n d e r s o n ,J o e l 2 1 -2 , 183
a ttitu d e 100-23
rab b le -a ttitu d e 16-17, 5 3 -4 , 5 9 -6 3 ,
7 1 -4 , 166
rc sc n tm e n t-a tlitu d e 8 1 -2
B a d io u , A lain 19, 3 2 -3 , 124, 136,
145, 149, 1 5 2 ,1 5 5 ,1 6 5 , 169, 179,
187-92, 196-8, 200-8
B erlin , Isaiah 195
b o d y 7 8 -8 2 , 84, 90
as first possession 127-9
o rg a n w ith o u t b o d y 9 6 -8 , 119,
129-30, 179
p o litical b o d y 8 6 -7
C a n to r, G e o rg 1 5 1 - 3 ,1 5 6 ,2 0 2
c o m m u n ism 172, 179, 198
ac tu a l c o m m u n ist a c tio n 173-7
a n d stasis 198
c o rp o ra tio n 2 1 -4 , 32, 3 8 -4 1 , 52, 78,
80. 8 9 -9 0 , 108-11. 182-3
c rim e 17-19, 2 5 -6 , 59, 7 2 -3 , 125,
133-4
D e rrid a , J a c q u e s 157ff
eq u a lity xvi-xvii, 47. 106. 121-3, 135.
145-8, 156, 166-70, 171-4, 179
b e fo re fre e d o m 123, 148, 166-S
o f a ttitu d e 1 0 6 ,1 2 2 -3
o f th e ra b b le 47 , 121-3
u n -rig h t to eq u a lity 135, 145-7,
156-7, 166-9
estate xiv, 12 -1 3 , 1 5 -3 3 . 3 8 -4 1 , 76. 78.
80, 1 0 8 -1 0
N ot b e in g M e m b e r o f a n E sta te 13,
35, 3 9 -4 1 , 47. 52, 90
U n-E state o f P overty 13, 1 5 -3 3 ,4 6 ,
115
F re g e , G o ttlo b 1 5 Iff, 202
F re n c h R ev o lu tio n 5 , 143-6, 181
F re u d , S ig m u n d x-xiii
G an s E d u a rd 1 0 ,8 8 ,1 2 4
H ab erm as, J ü r g e n 201, 206
H a b it 17, 3 6 -7 . 5 3 , 7 2 -3 , 7 5 -1 1 3 , 117,
129-30, 159, 1 8 8 -9 , 194
H allw ard , P e te r 1 9 7 ,2 0 2
H am a ch e r, W e rn e r 134, 200
H o n n e th , A xel 6 8 -7 1 , 188
im possibility 30, 3 6 -7 . 4 2 , 6 1 , 64,
9 3 -4 , 113, 115, 120, 12 2 -3 , 130-2,
146-8, 165-70, 173, 176, 178-9,
186, 197
in d ig n a tio n xv, 3 5 -6 , 5 0 -1 , 53 -4 ,
5 9 -6 1 , 6 3 , 7 2 -3 , 1 1 4 -1 6 , 119-21,
132, 147, 169, 177. 196
K ant, Im m a n u e l 1, 9 8 , 127, 136, 172,
183, 191-2, 196-7
L a c a n .Ja c q u e s xi-x iii. 186
L aclau, E rn e sto 205
L eibnitz, G o ttfrie d W ilh elm 200
L e n in , V lad im ir I. 180, 196
life xii, 19, 174, 177
218
logic
o f d o u b le c o n tin g e n c y 48. 50 , 55,
6 4 -5
o f d o u b le latency 4 6 -7 , 55, 64—5,
7 2 -3 , 8 9 , 9 6 -7 , 9 9 , 118, 120-1,
146-7, 156, 166, 169-70, 173
o f p h ilo so p h y 4 ,1 6 8 , 179, 192
o f p o litic s 4, 168, 179
o f p u rific a tio n xii
I.o su rd o , D o m e n ic o 2 2 -3
L u h m a n n , N iklas 181, 183,200
L u th e r, M a rtin 6 -1 0 , 16, 181
lu x u ry 3 8 -4 6 . 5 3 -4 , 56, 71, 185-6
lu x u ry -rab b le 41 , 4 7 - 9 .5 1 ,5 5 - 8 ,
6 4 - 7 ,7 1 ,1 7 1 ,1 9 9
M achiavelli, N iccolo 118,180
M arcuse, H e rb e rt 122, 198
M a rx , K arl xvii. 1-6, 22, 36, 7 3 ,1 0 7 ,
114, 168-80, 192, 196, 200, 2 0 4 -6
M e n k c, C h risto p h 113, 184, 196
n egativity x-xviii, 68, 92 , 99, 113, 120,
1 2 3 ,1 2 6 ,1 9 0 ,1 9 1
N ietzsch e, F rie d ric h 32, 49, 58 , 119,
136. 187-8
p o lic e xv, 15, 2 4 -3 2 , 34, 71, 183
p overty 6 -3 9 , 42, 46, 58. 6 0 -3 , 73-4,
81, 85 , 8 8 -9 , 9 1 -6 , 9 8 -1 0 0 , 113-16,
119, 123, 130, 146, 165-7, 169-71,
1 7 4 .1 8 4 ,1 8 8 ,1 9 6 ,2 0 5
poverty-rabble 4 6 -7 , 4 9 -5 9 , 6 6 -7 , 71,
73, 171
In d e x
R a n cicre, J a c q u e s xiv, 13, 3 2 -3 , 171-2.
208
rig h t 124-5
a b stra c t 17, 2 5 , 37, 39, 79, 101, 106,
125, 1 3 4 ,1 4 2 -3 , 145, 199
rig h t w ith o u t r ig h t / u n -rig h t xv-xvi,
6 1 -2 , 6 8 , 70, 72, 82, 91, 114, 120,
1 2 4 - 5 ,1 4 5 -7 , 156, 16 6 -7 , 169-70,
200
Rosenzw eig, F ran z 10 5 -6 , 1 9 5 -6
Russell, B e rtra n d 151-2, 202
S a n tn e r, E ric 1 1 2 -1 3 , 1 9 5 -6
S m ith, A d am 110
su b sisten c e xv-xvii. 10 -1 3 , 15-17,
2 4 -9 , 3 3 , 36, 3 9 -4 2 , 56, 65, 91.
107-8, 111, 130
d e m a n d fo r su b sisten c e w ith o u t
W ork 29, 35, 62. 76, 1 3 0 ,1 3 2 ,
145-7
universality xii-xvi, 1 1 ,1 3 ,1 8 , 39, 42, 61,
65, 70, 7 7 -9 , 87, 1 0 4 -6 ,1 0 9 , 110,
112, 137. 141-2, 157-8, 161-2, 176
fo rm a l u n iv ersality 24, 29. 46, 110
o f th e ra b b le 44, 4 6 -7 , 51, 53, 55,
120, 122, 133-5, 1 3 8 -4 0 , 148,
1 6 7 -7 1 ,1 7 6
p ro d u c tio n o f universality 141,
176-7, 179
Zizek, Slavoj ix -x v iii, 4 7 , 1 5 9 -6 0 , 180,
186, 188-92, 1 9 7 ,2 0 4 -6 , 208
‘A rem arkably incisive and p o w e rfu l intervention in to the q u e stio n o f th e
re la tio n sh ip betw een p h ilo s o p h y and p o litic s . Taking th e su pposedly
m arginal notion o f the “ ra b b le ” fro m H egel’s P hilo so p h y o f R ight, Ruda
elevates it to th e s ta tu s o f a proper, y e t paradoxical p h ilo so p h ica l category.
A n extrem ely com p e llin g and o riginal p h ilosophical w ork, it is on its way to
becom ing a classica l reference in fu tu re p h ilo s o p h y -p o litic s debates.’
P ro fe s s o r A le n k a Z u p a n c ic , In s t it u te o f P h ilo s o p h y , S lo v e n ia n
A c a d e m y o f S c ie n c e s a n d A r t, S lo v e n ia

In Hegel’s Rabble , Frank Ruda identifies and explores a crucial problem in the
Hegelian philosophy of right that strikes at the heart of Hegel's conception o f the
state. This singular problem, which Ruda argues is the problem of Hegelian political
thought, appears in Hegel’s text only in a seemingly marginal form under the name
of the ‘rabble’ : a particular side-effect of the dialectical deduction of
the necessity of the existence of state from the contradictory constitution of
civil society. Working out from a thorough analysis o f this problem and drawing
on contemporary discussions in the work of such thinkers as Alain Badiou,
Jean-Luc Nancy and Slavoj Zizek, the book proceeds to re-examine and
reconstruct Hegel’s entire political project. Ruda goes on to argue that only by
re-thinking this problem of 'the rabble’ in Hegel’s thought - the only problem Hegel
is able neither to resolve nor to sublate - can the early Marxian conception of ‘the
proletariat’ be properly understood.

F rank Ruda is a Research Associate at the Collaborative Research Centre on

Aesthetic Experience and the Dissolution of Artistic Limits at the Free University
of Berlin, Germany.