Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Mathematical Problems in Engineering

Volume 2014, Article ID 397538, 9 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/397538

Research Article
An Analytical Tire Model with Flexible Carcass for
Combined Slips

Nan Xu,1 Konghui Guo,1,2 Xinjie Zhang,1,2 and Hamid Reza Karimi3
1
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130022, China
2
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacture for Vehicle Body, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China
3
Department of Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Science, University of Agder, 4898 Grimstad, Norway

Correspondence should be addressed to Nan Xu; xu.nan0612@gmail.com

Received 27 October 2013; Accepted 19 December 2013; Published 2 January 2014

Academic Editor: Xiaojie Su

Copyright © 2014 Nan Xu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The tire mechanical characteristics under combined cornering and braking/driving situations have significant effects on vehicle
directional controls. The objective of this paper is to present an analytical tire model with flexible carcass for combined slip
situations, which can describe tire behavior well and can also be used for studying vehicle dynamics. The tire forces and
moments come mainly from the shear stress and sliding friction at the tread-road interface. In order to describe complicated tire
characteristics and tire-road friction, some key factors are considered in this model: arbitrary pressure distribution; translational,
bending, and twisting compliance of the carcass; dynamic friction coefficient; anisotropic stiffness properties. The analytical tire
model can describe tire forces and moments accurately under combined slip conditions. Some important properties induced
by flexible carcass can also be reflected. The structural parameters of a tire can be identified from tire measurements and the
computational results using the analytical model show good agreement with test data.

1. Introduction parameters and tire behavior [3]. So it can be employed to

Tires are the only components of a road vehicle to directly
contact with the road surface, and the forces and moments
generated in the contact patch have significant effects on
the vehicle performance [1–4]. Hence a huge number of tire
models have been proposed for use in calculating the forces
and moments at the tire-road interface [5–13].
The empirical models are often employed for the vehicle
simulation and control, which rely basically on curve-fitted
experimental data and can provide a good representation
of experimental data for longitudinal force, lateral force,
and aligning moment. However, empirical models would
become quite complicated without theoretical support while
considering all kinds of operating variables, such as slip angle,
inclination angle, slip ratio, vertical load, inflation pressure,
road friction, and rolling speed. The analytical models, which
usually include carcass model (beam, string or rigid) with
elastic tread elements, such as Brush model, Fiala model and
String model, establish the relationship between tire structure
derive some useful qualitative conclusions for understanding
tire properties, but most of these models are either relatively
simple or more complicated, which limit their practical use.
In this paper, we do not see the carcass as an actual beam
or string, and the carcass deformation is described with
relatively simple and general forms, composed by trans-
lational, bending, and twisting deformations. Besides, the
arbitrary pressure distribution, dynamic friction coefficient,
and anisotropic stiffness properties are also considered.
Consequently, the analytical model would become more
suitable for application and also appropriate for analyzing tire
properties in detail.
In this paper, the key factors for developing the analytical
tire model are firstly discussed; then, considering all these
factors, the analytical tire model with flexible carcass for
combined slips is introduced. By employing the model, effects
of carcass compliance on tire properties are discussed, which
are valuable for understanding tire properties; at the end, the
analytical model is validated by test data.
2 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

The contact pressure 𝑞𝑧 along the contact patch length 2𝑎

𝛾 is expressed as an arbitrary form as
Tire revolution
axis Wheel traveling 𝐹𝑧
direction 𝑞𝑧 (𝑥) = ⋅ 𝜂 (𝑢) , (4)
V
2𝑎
Ω X
where 𝐹𝑧 is the tire vertical load; 𝑢 = 𝑥/𝑎 is the relative
𝛼 coordinate. 𝜂(𝑢) is the normalized pressure distribution
Z
Mx function and is expressed as
Y Mz
Tire revolution
direction
𝜂 (𝑢) = 𝐴 ⋅ (1 − 𝑢2𝑛 ) ⋅ (1 + 𝜆 ⋅ 𝑢2𝑛 ) ⋅ (1 − 𝐵 ⋅ 𝑢)
My
(2𝑛 + 1) (4𝑛 + 1)
𝐴= , (5)
O 2𝑛 (4𝑛 + 1 + 𝜆)
Fz Fy
Fx 3 (2𝑛 + 3) (4𝑛 + 3) (4𝑛 + 1 + 𝜆) Δ
𝐵=− ⋅ ,
Figure 1: Tire axis system. (2𝑛 + 1) (4𝑛 + 1) (4𝑛 + 3 + 3𝜆) 𝑎
where 𝑛, 𝜆, and Δ are the parameters which determine the
shape of pressure distribution. With these three parameters,
2. Tire Axis System and Slip Ratios (5) can be employed to express arbitrary pressure distribution
over contact patch, as shown in Figure 2.
The tire axis system is shown in Figure 1. The positive
direction of the 𝑋-axis and the 𝑌-axis is coincident with tire 3.2. Carcass Structure Parameters. The deformation of car-
revolution direction (not wheel traveling direction); the 𝑍- cass has an important effect on the tire properties under
axis is perpendicular to road plane and upward. The wheel combined slip conditions. In this paper, three tire carcass
traveling speed is denoted as 𝑉, 𝛼 is the slip angle, and stiffness parameters for tire lateral carcass deformation are
𝛾 is inclination angle. The figure shows all the forces and introduced, that is, tire carcass lateral translation stiffness 𝐾𝑐𝑦 ,
moments associated with a wheel. carcass bending stiffness 𝐾𝑐𝑏 , and carcass twisting stiffness
The longitudinal and lateral slip ratios are defined in the 𝑁𝜃 . So, the carcass deformation includes lateral translating
unified form [11] part 𝑦𝑐0 , bending part 𝑦𝑐𝑏 , and twisting part 𝑦𝜃 , as shown in
Figure 3. The carcass longitudinal deformation is assumed to
−𝑉𝑠𝑥 𝑉 cos 𝛼 − Ω𝑅𝑒 include longitudinal translating part 𝑥𝑐0 , and the longitudinal
𝑆𝑥 = =− 𝑆𝑥 ∈ (−∞, +∞) ,
Ω𝑅𝑒 Ω𝑅𝑒 translation stiffness is 𝐾𝑐𝑥 .
(1) The lateral translating deformation of carcass can be
−𝑉𝑠𝑦 𝑉 sin 𝛼 calculated as
𝑆𝑦 = =− 𝑆𝑦 ∈ (−∞, +∞) ,
Ω𝑅𝑒 Ω𝑅𝑒 𝐹𝑦
𝑦𝑐0 = , (6)
𝐾𝑐𝑦0
where Ω is the angular speed, 𝑅𝑒 is the effective rolling radius
and 𝑉𝑠𝑥 and 𝑉𝑠𝑦 are the longitudinal and lateral sliding speeds where 𝐾𝑐𝑦 is the lateral translation stiffness of carcass; 𝐹𝑦 is
of tire with respect to road surface. the lateral force.
Usually, the longitudinal slip ratio used in tire force test is The lateral bending deformation of carcass can be calcu-
defined as lated as
𝐹𝑦 𝑥
−𝑉𝑠𝑥 𝑦𝑐𝑏 (𝑥) = ⋅ 𝜉( ), (7)
𝜅= . (2) 𝐾𝑐𝑏 𝑎
𝑉 cos 𝛼
where 𝐾𝑐𝑏 is the carcass bending stiffness; 𝜉(𝑥/𝑎) is the
The relationship between 𝑆𝑥 and 𝜅 can be obtained easily: general function of carcass bending deformation.
The zero-order moment and first-order moment of 𝜉(𝑢)
𝜅 are expressed as
𝑆𝑥 = . (3)
1+𝜅 1
𝐷0 (𝑢) = ∫ 𝜉 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢,
𝑢
3. Key Factors for Analytical Tire Model (8)
1
3.1. Arbitrary Pressure Distribution. Contact pressure distri- 𝐷1 (𝑢) = ∫ 𝑢 ⋅ 𝜉 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢.
𝑢
bution over contact patch strongly influences tire behaviors.
Here, the contact patch is assumed to be rectangular in The twisting deformation of carcass is calculated by
shape, and the contact pressure distribution is assumed 𝑦𝜃 (𝑥) = 𝜃 ⋅ 𝑥,
to be uniform in lateral direction and of arbitrary form
in circumferential direction to represent different kinds of 𝑀𝑧 (9)
𝜃= ,
pressure distributions. 𝑁𝜃
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 3

1.4 1.4

1.2 1.2

1.0 1.0

0.8 0.8
𝜂(u)

𝜂(u)
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.5 0.5

0.0 0.0
−1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 −1.0 −0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Relative longitudinal coordinate u Relative longitudinal coordinate u

𝜆=1 n=2
n=1 𝜆 = 0.5
n=2 𝜆=1
n=3 𝜆=2
(a) (b)

Figure 2: Pressure distribution.

y y y 3.4. Anisotropic Stiffness Properties. The anisotropy of tire slip

stiffness will arouse the difference of tire shear stress direction
y𝜃 (x)
in adhesion region and sliding region, which are expressed as
yc0 [15]
ycb (x) −a 𝜃
−a 0 a x −a 0 a x 0 a x
(𝐾𝑦 𝑆𝑦 )
Figure 3: Tire lateral carcass deformation. adhesion : 𝜃ad = arctan ( ),
(𝐾𝑥 𝑆𝑥 )
(12)
𝑆𝑦
where 𝜃 is the carcass twisting angle; 𝑁𝜃 is the carcass twisting sliding : 𝜃𝑠 = arctan ( ),
stiffness; 𝑀𝑧 is the aligning moment. 𝑆𝑥
The longitudinal translating deformation of carcass is
expressed as
where 𝐾𝑥 and 𝐾𝑦 represent the longitudinal slip and corner-
𝐹 ing stiffness, respectively.
𝑥𝑐0 = 𝑥 , (10)
𝐾𝑐𝑥0
where 𝐾𝑐𝑥0 is the longitudinal translation stiffness of carcass; 4. Analytical Tire Forces and Moments Model
𝐹𝑥 is the longitudinal force.
4.1. Tire Forces and Moments without Sliding. In order to
3.3. Dynamic Friction Coefficient. Friction coefficient used in obtain the shear force in the contact patch, the deformations
the analytical tire model is the dynamic friction coefficient, of the tread and carcass along the 𝑋 and 𝑌 axes must be
which considers the significant influence of slip speed. The known firstly. The longitudinal and lateral deformations of
expression is as follows [14]: the tread and carcass, under combined slip condition, are
shown in Figure 4. In this figure, XOY is a coordinate system
𝜇𝑑 before the carcass is deformed, and xoy is a relative coordinate
system for describing the tread deformation and bending
= 𝜇𝑠 + (𝜇𝑚 − 𝜇𝑠 )
(11) and twisting deformation of carcass. 𝑥𝑐0 and 𝑦𝑐0 are the
󵄨󵄨 𝑉 󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨 𝑉 󵄨󵄨 longitudinal and lateral translating deformation of carcass.
󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨
⋅ exp (−𝜇ℎ2 ⋅ log2 (󵄨󵄨󵄨 𝑠 󵄨󵄨󵄨 +𝑁 ⋅ exp (− 󵄨󵄨󵄨 𝑠 󵄨󵄨󵄨))) , “ABC” is the contact line of the contact patch under combined
󵄨󵄨 𝑉𝑠𝑚 󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨 𝑉𝑠𝑚 󵄨󵄨
slip condition. 𝑉 is the wheel traveling speed; 𝛼 is the slip
where 𝜇0 , 𝜇𝑠 , 𝜇ℎ , and 𝑉𝑠𝑚 are friction characteristic param- angle and 𝜃 is the carcass twisting angle. In general case, the
eters; 𝑁 (usually 𝑁 = 0.8) is a factor to make the friction whole length of contact patch, 2𝑎, is divided into two parts,
coefficient increase slightly around the origin; 𝑉𝑠 is the slip the adhesion region “AB” and the sliding region “BC,” by the
speed between the road and tire. initial sliding point “B.”
4 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

y Y

xc0
Wheel plane
𝛼
O
X
yc0 x
A
o 𝜃
Pc a
−a x
C Δy Pt
Belt
Tread element
Δx Vr t
B
Vtcos 𝛼

Contact line
Wheel spin axis

Figure 4: Deformation of carcass and tread element under combined slip condition.

𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑡 in the figure represents the tread element after rolling The shear force in the directions 𝑋 and 𝑌 can be determined
for a period of time 𝑡. The upper point of tread element, 𝑃𝑐 , is as follows:
attached to the belt of tire. Its coordinate could be written as
𝑎

𝑥𝑝𝑐 = 𝑥, 𝐹𝑥 = ∫ 𝑞𝑥 𝑑𝑥,
−𝑎
(13)
𝑎
𝑦𝑝𝑐 = 𝑦𝜃 (𝑥) + 𝑦𝑐𝑏 (𝑥) .
𝐹𝑦 = ∫ 𝑞𝑦 𝑑𝑥,
−𝑎

The lower point of tread element, 𝑃𝑡 , is contacted with the 𝑎 𝑎

ground. Its coordinate could be written as 𝑀𝑧 = − ∫ 𝑞𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦𝑝𝑐 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑞𝑦 ⋅ 𝑥𝑝𝑐 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐹𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦𝑐0 + 𝐹𝑦 ⋅ 𝑥𝑐0 .
−𝑎 −𝑎
(17)
𝑥𝑝𝑡 = 𝑥 − (𝑉𝑡 cos 𝛼 − 𝑉𝑟 𝑡) = 𝑥 + (𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑆𝑥 ,
(14) Considering the previous equations (6)∼(10), (13), and (16),
𝑦𝑝𝑡 = −𝑉𝑡 sin 𝛼 + 𝑎𝜃 = 𝑎𝜃 + (𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑆𝑦 .
the forces and moments could be written as

Therefore, the longitudinal and lateral deformations of tread

element is 𝐹𝑥 = 2𝑎2 𝑘𝑡 𝑆𝑥 ,
3
𝐹𝑦 = 𝜀 𝑀 + 2𝑎2 𝑘𝑡 𝑆𝑦 − 𝜀𝑏 𝐹𝑦 ,
Δ𝑥 = 𝑥𝑝𝑡 − 𝑥𝑝𝑐 = (𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑆𝑥 , 𝑎 𝜃 𝑧
𝑀𝑧 𝐹𝑦 𝑥 (15) 1
Δ𝑦 = 𝑦𝑝𝑡 − 𝑦𝑝𝑐 = (𝑎 − 𝑥) ( + 𝑆𝑦 ) − 𝜉( ). 𝑀𝑧 = − 𝑎𝜀𝑏 𝑆𝑥 𝐹𝑦 + 𝜀𝜃 𝑆𝑥 𝑀𝑧 + 𝑎𝜀𝑏 𝑆𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐷1 (−1) − 𝜀𝜃 𝑀𝑧
𝑁𝜃 𝐾𝑐𝑏 𝑎 2
2 1 1 1
− 𝑎3 𝑘𝑡 𝑆𝑦 − 𝑎𝜀𝑏 𝐹𝑦 𝐷1 (−1) + ( − ) 𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 ,
The main source of anisotropy is due to different tire struc- 3 2 𝐾𝑐𝑥0 𝐾𝑐𝑦0
tural flexibility in lateral and longitudinal direction, whereas (18)
tread anisotropy is present but comparatively small. In this
paper, the stiffness of tread, denoted as 𝑘𝑡 , is considered to
be isotropic. The shear stresses of tread element in 𝑋 and 𝑌 where the bending characteristic ratio and twisting charac-
directions can be expressed as teristic ratio have been introduced and defined by

𝑞𝑥 = 𝑘𝑡 ⋅ Δ𝑥 = 𝑘𝑡 ⋅ (𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑆𝑥 , 2𝑎𝑘𝑡
𝜀𝑏 = ,
𝐾𝑐𝑏
𝑀𝑧 𝐹𝑦 𝑥 (19)
𝑞𝑦 = 𝑘𝑡 ⋅ Δ𝑦 = 𝑘𝑡 ⋅ [(𝑎 − 𝑥) ( + 𝑆𝑦 ) − 𝜉 ( )] .
𝑁𝜃 𝐾𝑐𝑏 𝑎 2 𝑎3 𝑘𝑡
𝜀𝜃 = .
(16) 3 𝑁𝜃
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 5

Solving (18) to obtain the explicit expression of 𝐹𝑦 and 𝑀𝑧 , where 𝜃𝑠𝑥 and 𝜃𝑠𝑦 are, respectively, the longitudinal and lateral
(18) becomes components of shear stress direction 𝜃𝑠 in sliding region.
Substituted with (6)∼(12), (13), and (15), (25) becomes
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐾𝑥 𝑆𝑥 ,
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐾𝑦 𝑆𝑦 , 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐵6 ⋅ 𝐾𝑥 𝑆𝑥 + 𝐵3 ⋅ 𝜇𝐹𝑧 𝜃𝑠𝑥 ,
(20)
𝑀𝑧 = 𝐾𝑚 𝑆𝑦 , 𝐹𝑦 = [(𝑃1 𝐵6 ⋅ 𝐾𝑦0 + 𝑃4 𝐵7 ⋅ 𝐾𝑚0 ) 𝑆𝑦

with + (𝑃1 𝐵3 + 𝑃4 𝐵4 𝑎) 𝜇𝐹𝑧 𝜃𝑠𝑦 ]

𝐾𝑥 = 2𝑎2 𝑘𝑡 ,
−1
× (𝑃2 𝑃4 + 𝑃1 𝑃3 ) ,
𝑎 (1 + 𝜀𝜃 − 𝜀𝜃 𝑆𝑥 ) 𝐾𝑦0 − 3𝜀𝜃 𝐾𝑚0
𝐾𝑦 = , (21) 𝑀𝑧 = [(−𝑃2 𝐵6 ⋅ 𝐾𝑦0 + 𝑃3 𝐵7 ⋅ 𝐾𝑚0 ) 𝑆𝑦
𝑎 (1 + 𝜀𝑏 ) (1 + 𝜀𝜃 − 𝜀𝜃 𝑆𝑥 ) + 3𝑎𝜀𝑏 𝜀𝜃 𝑆𝑥 − 3𝜀𝜃 𝑐𝐹𝑥
𝑎 + (−𝑃2 𝐵3 + 𝑃3 𝐵4 𝑎) 𝜇𝐹𝑧 𝜃𝑠𝑦 ]
𝐾𝑚 = [(1 + 𝜀𝑏 ) 𝐾𝑦 − 𝐾𝑦0 ] ,
3𝜀𝜃
−1
where 𝐾𝑥 is the longitudinal slip stiffness, 𝐾𝑦 is the cornering × (𝑃2 𝑃4 + 𝑃1 𝑃3 ) ,
stiffness, and 𝐾𝑚 is the aligning stiffness with flexible carcass. (26)
𝐾𝑦0 and 𝐾𝑚0 are the cornering stiffness and aligning stiffness,
respectively, when the carcass is assumed to be rigid, which with
are expressed as
1 1
2 2 𝐵1 = 𝜀𝑏 𝐷0 (𝑢𝑐 ) , 𝐵2 = 𝜀𝑏 𝐷1 (𝑢𝑐 ) ,
𝐾𝑦0 = 2𝑎 𝑘𝑡 , 𝐾𝑚0 = 𝑎3 𝑘𝑡 , (22) 2 2
3
1
where 𝑐 in (21) is the translating compliance coefficient that 𝐵3 = 𝑚0 (𝑢𝑐 ) ,
is defined by 2

1 1 1 1
𝑐= − . (23) 𝐵4 = 𝑚1 (𝑢𝑐 ) , 𝐵5 = 𝑚𝐷 (𝑢𝑐 ) ,
𝐾𝑐𝑥0 𝐾𝑐𝑦0 2 2
2
(1 − 𝑢𝑐 ) 1 (27)
4.2. Tire Forces and Moments in General Case with Sliding 𝐵6 = , 𝐵7 = (1 − 3𝑢𝑐2 + 2𝑢𝑐3 ) ,
Region. Considering that the sliding region might exist, the 4 4
shear force in this area should be expressed as 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝜇𝑞𝑧 (𝑥), 1
based on which the coordinate of initial sliding point, 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑐 , 𝑃1 = 1 − 𝐵7 𝜀𝜃 + 𝐵7 𝜀𝜃 𝑆𝑥 + 𝐵4 𝜇𝐹𝑧 𝜃𝑠𝑥 𝑎 ,
𝑁𝜃
or the relative coordinate 𝑢𝑐 = 𝑥𝑐 /𝑎, can be solved. The
coordinate of initial sliding point will satisfy the following 1
𝑃2 = (𝐵2 + 𝐵1 𝑆𝑥 − 𝐵2 𝑆𝑥 ) 𝑎 + 𝐵5 𝜇𝐹𝑧 𝜃𝑠𝑥 − 𝑐𝐹𝑥 ,
equation: 𝐾𝑐𝑏
𝜇𝐹𝑧 3
𝑞 = √𝑞𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑦2 = ⋅ 𝜂 (𝑢𝑐 ) . (24) 𝑃3 = 1 + 𝐵1 , 𝑃4 = 𝐵𝜀,
2𝑎 𝑎 6 𝜃
Integrating through both adhesion and sliding regions, the where 𝑚0 (𝑢𝑐 ), 𝑚1 (𝑢𝑐 ), and 𝑚𝐷(𝑢𝑐 ) are defined by
tire forces and moments can be derived as
𝑎 𝑥𝑐 𝑢𝑐 𝑢𝑐
𝜇𝐹𝑧 𝑥
𝐹𝑥 = ∫ 𝑘𝑡 ⋅ Δ𝑥𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ⋅ 𝜂 ( ) ⋅ 𝜃𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥, 𝑚0 (𝑢𝑐 ) = ∫ 𝜂 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢, 𝑚1 (𝑢𝑐 ) = ∫ 𝑢𝜂 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢,
𝑥𝑐 −𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 −1 −1
(28)
𝑎 𝑥𝑐 𝑢𝑐
𝜇𝐹𝑧 𝑥 𝑚𝐷 (𝑢𝑐 ) = ∫ 𝜉 (𝑢) 𝜂 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢.
𝐹𝑦 = ∫ 𝑘𝑡 ⋅ Δ𝑦𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ⋅ 𝜂 ( ) ⋅ 𝜃𝑠𝑦 𝑑𝑥,
𝑥𝑐 −𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 −1

𝑎 𝑎
𝑀𝑧 = − ∫ 𝑘𝑡 ⋅ Δ𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦𝑝𝑐 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑘𝑡 ⋅ Δ𝑦 ⋅ 𝑥𝑝𝑐 𝑑𝑥 5. Simulation Analysis and
𝑥𝑐 𝑥𝑐 (25) Experiment Validation
𝑥𝑐 𝜇𝐹𝑧 𝑥
−∫ ⋅ 𝜂 ( ) ⋅ 𝜃𝑠𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦𝑝𝑐 𝑑𝑥 According to the analytical tire model, the tire forces and
−𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 moments under combined slip conditions can be simulated
𝑥𝑐 𝜇𝐹𝑧 𝑥 and the effects of carcass structure parameters can be ana-
+∫ ⋅ 𝜂 ( ) ⋅ 𝜃𝑠𝑦 ⋅ 𝑥𝑝𝑐 𝑑𝑥 lyzed. Furthermore, the analytical tire model can also be
−𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎
used in vehicle dynamics simulation by identifying the model
− 𝐹𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦𝑐0 + 𝐹𝑦 ⋅ 𝑥𝑐0 , parameters with test data.
6 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

1.15 50
Normalized cornering stiffness (—)

1.1

Aligning moment Mz (Nm)

1.05

0
1

0.95 𝛼 = 2∘
Fz = 3000 N

0.9 −50
−0.05 0 0.05 −3000 −2000 −1000 0 1000 2000 3000
Longitudinal slip ratio 𝜅 (—) Longitudinal force Fx (N)

Figure 5: Variation of cornering stiffness under combined slip c=0 c = −10e10−6

condition. c = −5e10−6 c = −15e10−6

Figure 6: Influence of carcass compliance on aligning moment

under combined slip condition.
5.1. Effect of Carcass Flexible on Tire Cornering Stiffness
under Combined Slip Condition. First of all, the cornering
stiffness under pure side slip condition could be calculated 3000
𝛼 = ±2∘
by assuming 𝑆𝑥 = 0 in (21),
−4∘
2000 −8∘
1
𝐾𝑦pure = 𝐾𝑦0 ⋅ . (29)
(1 + 𝜀𝑏 ) (1 + 𝜀𝜃 )
Longitudinal force Fx (N)

−20∘
1000
It can be seen that the bending characteristic ratio 𝜀𝑏 and the
twisting characteristic ratio 𝜀𝜃 have important influence on 0
cornering stiffness. With the increase of 𝜀𝑏 or 𝜀𝜃 , the cornering
stiffness will decrease obviously.
−1000
Then, the variation of cornering stiffness under combined
slip condition is also our concern, which often has important
influence on tire characteristics. Divided by 𝐾𝑦pure , the −2000
normalized cornering stiffness could be derived as
−3000
𝐾𝑦 (1 − 𝜀𝜃 𝑆𝑥 ) (1 + 𝜀𝑏 ) (1 + 𝜀𝜃 ) −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
= . Longitudinal slip ratio 𝜅 (—)
𝐾𝑦pure (1 + 𝜀𝑏 ) (1 + 𝜀𝜃 − 𝜀𝜃 𝑆𝑥 ) + 3𝜀𝑏 𝜀𝜃 𝑆𝑥 − (3/𝑎) ⋅ 𝜀𝜃 𝑐𝐹𝑥
Fz = 3000 N
(30)
Figure 7: Longitudinal force characteristics.
It can be seen that the normalized cornering stiffness is
a function of 𝑆𝑥 , which means that the longitudinal slip
ratio (or longitudinal force) will have influence on the tire the diagram. These phenomena correspond reasonably well
cornering stiffness. Figure 5 shows the relationship between with the experimental results given in the previous scholars’
the normalized cornering stiffness and longitudinal slip ratio. researches [2].
It indicates that the cornering stiffness will increase with the
action of braking force does not and decrease when acting 5.3. Simulation Results of Tire Forces and Moments under
driving force. Combined Slip Condition. In this part, a number of example
results of using the analytical tire model have been presented,
5.2. Effect of Carcass Compliance on Aligning Moment under as shown in Figures 7–11. Some important characteristics
Combined Slip Condition. The carcass translating compliance have been reflected.
has a significant influence on aligning moment for a braked
or driven wheel. In Figure 6, 𝑐 is the translating compliance (1) Dynamic friction coefficient: Figure 7 shows the lon-
coefficient defined in (23). As shown in Figure 6, the curve gitudinal force under combined slip conditions. With
becomes more and more asymmetric when 𝑐 increases the increase of slip angle 𝛼, the longitudinal force
(absolute value) and 𝑀𝑧 changes its sign in the braking half of will decrease because of the limitation of friction
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 7

3000 40
−8∘
𝛼 = 2∘
∘
2000 −20 20

Aligning moment Mz (Nm)

−4∘
Lateral force Fy (N)

𝛼 = −20∘
1000 ∘ 0
−2
−4∘ −8∘
𝛼 = −2∘
0 −20

−1000 −40
𝛼 = 2∘

−2000 −60
−1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 −3000 −2000 −1000 0 1000 2000 3000
Longitudinal slip ratio 𝜅 (—) Longitudinal force Fx (N)

Fz = 3000 N Fz = 3000 N

Figure 8: Lateral force characteristics. Figure 10: Aligning moment characteristics (𝑀𝑧 versus 𝐹𝑥 ).

3000 360 𝛼 = 1∘
𝛼 = −8∘
340 Driving
𝛼 = −4∘ 2
2000
Resultant force direction (deg)

320
𝛼 = −20∘ 4
300
Lateral force Fy (N)

1000
𝛼 = −2∘ 280

260
0 4
240

220 2
−1000
Braking
𝛼 = 2∘ 200
∘
𝛼=1
180
−2000 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
−3000 −2000 −1000 0 1000 2000 3000
Slip direction (deg)
Longitudinal force Fx (N)
Adhesion direction
Fz = 3000 N
Slip direction
Figure 9: 𝐹𝑦 versus 𝐹𝑥 characteristics. Resultant force direction

Figure 11: Resultant force direction.

force between the tire and the road. More important,

because we adopt the dynamic friction coefficient as
shown in (11), the sliding velocity dependent friction
coefficient can be seen obviously in Figure 7.
(2) The variation of cornering stiffness: Figure 8 shows
the lateral force for combined slip and Figure 9 shows
the 𝐹𝑦 -𝐹𝑥 characteristics, which indicate the decrease
of lateral force with the increase of longitudinal slip
ratio. Besides, it can be seen that the lateral force
has an increase to some extent when the wheel is
braked slightly, which is mainly due to the increase
of cornering stiffness.
(3) The asymmetry of aligning moment: Figure 10 shows
the aligning moment for combined slip. It is obvious
that the curve is asymmetric and 𝑀𝑧 changes its sign
in the braking half of the diagram.
(4) Anisotropic stiffness properties: the anisotropy of tire
slip stiffness will cause the variation of resultant force
direction under different combined slip conditions.
Figure 11 shows the relationship between the resultant
force direction and the slip direction. It can be seen
that the resultant force direction changes gradually
from adhesion direction to slip direction, which is
reasonably and coincides with the test data provided
in [15].
Some simulated results using the Brush model are shown
in Figures 12 and 13. Figure 12 is the 𝐹𝑦 -𝐹𝑥 characteristics
with different slip angles under combined slip conditions, and
 8 Mathematical Problems in Engineering

4000 5000
𝛼 = −8∘
∘
3000 𝛼 = −8
𝛼 = −4∘
∘
𝛼 = −2
𝛼 = −2∘
Lateral force Fy (N)

Lateral force Fy (N)

2000

𝛼 = −1∘
1000 0

0 𝛼 = 2∘

−1000 𝛼 = 4∘
∘ 𝛾 = 0∘
𝛼=1
Fz = 4000 N 𝛼 = 8∘
−2000 −5000
−3000 −2000 −1000 0 1000 2000 3000 −5000 0 5000
Longitudinal force Fx (N) Longitudinal force Fx (N)

Fz = 3000 N (Brush model) Test data

Analytical tire model
Figure 12: 𝐹𝑦 versus 𝐹𝑥 characteristics (Brush model).
Figure 14: The comparison between the analytical tire model and
test data.
40

30 𝛼 = 1∘
and both the longitudinal and lateral forces are tested when
the tire is rolling under combined tire cornering and braking
Aligning moment Mz (Nm)

20
conditions. From Figure 14, it can be seen that the analytical
10 tire model can describe the tire characteristics accurately
under combined slip conditions.
0
𝛼 = −8∘
−10 6. Conclusions
∘
−20 𝛼 = −1 This paper presented an analytical tire model with flexible
carcass for combined slips. With employing the model, the
−30 𝛼 = −2∘ effects of carcass structure parameters on tire properties are
−40 discussed. The simulation results and experiment validation
−3000 −2000 −1000 0 1000 2000 3000 of longitudinal forces, lateral forces, and aligning moments
Longitudinal force Fx (N) under combined slip conditions are also provided. Some
conclusions are summarized as follows.
Fz = 3000 N (Brush model)
Firstly, arbitrary pressure distribution, translational,
Figure 13: 𝑀𝑧 versus 𝐹𝑥 characteristics (Brush model). bending, and twisting compliance of the carcass, dynamic
friction coefficient, and anisotropic stiffness properties are
the key factors for developing the analytical tire model.
Secondly, the carcass compliance has a great influence
Figure 13 shows the 𝑀𝑧 -𝐹𝑥 characteristics. Comparing the on tire cornering stiffness. With the increase of bending
results of analytical tire model with flexible carcass proposed characteristic ratio 𝜀𝑏 or twisting characteristic ratio 𝜀𝜃 , the
in this paper, it is obvious that the Brush model have the cornering stiffness will decrease obviously. Moreover, the
capacity to express the declining friction coefficient and cornering stiffness is also influenced by the braking force or
the influence of carcass flexibility, which will lead to severe driving force and thus leads to the increase of lateral force
deviation for tire characteristics, especially for the aligning when tire has a slight braking.
moments. The dynamic friction coefficient will cause the Thirdly, the carcass translating compliance has a signifi-
curve of 𝐹𝑦 -𝐹𝑥 characteristics to turn inward, as shown in cant influence on aligning moment under combined slip con-
Figure 9. The flexible carcass will make the curve of 𝑀𝑧 -𝐹𝑥 ditions. The curve of 𝑀𝑧 becomes more and more asymmetric
characteristics asymmetric, as shown in Figure 10. when translating compliance coefficient 𝑐 increases (absolute
value) and 𝑀𝑧 changes its sign in the braking half of the
5.4. Experiment Validation. Test data for the P245/65R17 diagram.
specification at different slip angles are used to validate the Fourthly, the dynamic friction coefficient can express the
analytical tire model. Figure 14 shows the tire shear forces friction delay with sliding velocity effectively; the anisotropic
under combined slip conditions. The vertical load is 4000 N stiffness properties can express the resultant force direction
Mathematical Problems in Engineering 9

reasonably, which changes gradually from adhesion direction [10] D. J. Schuring, W. Pelz, and M. G. Pottinger, “A model for
to slip direction. combined tire cornering and braking forces,” SAE 960180, 1996.
Finally, considering all these key factors, the analytical [11] K. H. Guo and L. Ren, “A unified semi-empirical tire model
tire model is capable of describing all kinds of tire properties with higher accuracy and less parameters,” SAE Technical Paper
reasonably and accurately. The model parameters can also 1999-01-0785.
be identified from tire measurements and the computational [12] J. Svendenius and M. Gäfvert, “A semi-empirical dynamic tire
results using the analytical model show good agreement with model for combined-slip forces,” Vehicle System Dynamics, vol.
test data. 44, no. 2, pp. 189–208, 2006.
[13] M. K. Salaani, “Analytical tire forces and moments with vali-
dated data,” SAE Technical Paper 2007-01-0816, 2007.
Conflict of Interests
[14] K. Guo, Y. Zhuang, D. Lu, S.-K. Chen, and W. Lin, “A study on
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests speed-dependent tyre-road friction and its effect on the force
regarding the publication of this paper. and the moment,” Vehicle System Dynamics, vol. 43, pp. 329–
340, 2005.
[15] K. Guo, N. Xu, D. Lu, and J. Yang, “A Model for combined tire
Acknowledgments cornering and braking forces with anisotropic tread and carcass
stiffness,” SAE International Journal of Commercial Vehicles, vol.
The authors would like to thank the previous joint project 4, no. 1, pp. 84–95, 2011.
between the Research and Development Center of General
Motors and the State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simu-
lation and Control at Jilin University, from which the test
data presented in this paper are produced. Special thanks
are due to the Open Research Fund Program of the State
Key Laboratory of Advanced Design and Manufacturing
for Vehicle Body (31115028), the China Postdoctoral Science
Foundation (2012M520028), the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (51205155), and the National Basic
Research Program of China (973 Program) (2011CB711201)
for supporting authors’ research. The authors also thank the
staff in the State Key Laboratory of Automobile Dynamics
Simulation for their contribution to this study.

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