2 Hemispheric Reactions

Paper 3 WWII 2 hemispheric reactions
Hemispheric reactions
1930s foreign policy: Good Neighbour policy 3
Introduction of Good Neighbour policy 3
1933: Inter-American Conference @ Montevideo 3
Relations b/t US & L. America 3

1936: Buenos Aires Conference 4
1938: 8th Pan-American Conference, Lima 5
FDR’s foreign policy 5

Latin America 5
US’ policy of neutrality 6

Rationale behind neutrality 6
The Nye Committee 6
Neutrality Acts 7
1st Neutrality Act (1935) 7
The Ludlow Amendment 7
2nd Neutrality Act (1936) 7
3rd Neutrality Act (1937) 7
4th Neutrality Act (1937) 8
Problems w/ neutrality 8
US neutrality & Sino-Japanese War 8
Quarantine Speech 8
Roosevelt & the mounting European crisis 9
War in Europe, Sep 1939 9

5th Neutrality Act (1939) 10
Neutrality & US rearmament 10

Reduction of US armed forces 10
Growth of navy 11
Increasing military budgets 11
The US & Japan in 1930s 12

The Immigration Act 1924 13
Economic rivalry 13
Japan & Manchuria 13
USS Panay incident 1937 14
Jin 2020 1
Key debate 15
Main views of debate 16
US response to European war 1939-40 18

Public opinion in US 18
The Committee to Defend America (CDA) 18
The America First Committee (AFC) 19
Government reaction 19
US reaction to German success in Europe 1940 19
US aid to UK 20
The peacetime draft 21
1940 presidential election 21

The presidential campaign 22
Consequences of the election 22
US involvement in the European War 1941 22
The extension of Lend-Lease 23
Opposition to Lend-Lease 23
The erosion of neutrality 24
The Atlantic Charter 1941 24

Reaction to Atlantic Charter 25
The US Navy 26
US Naval action 1940-1 26
Convoy support 26
The Robin Moor Incident 1941 26
“shoot on sight” policy 26
The amended Neutrality Act 26
War with Germany 27
Jin 2020 2
1930s foreign policy: Good Neighbour policy

- FDR didn’t want to involve in European affairs
- Wanted US to follow a policy of friendship towards other countries
Introduction of Good Neighbour policy

- FDR’s foremost task: overcome economic crisis
- Encouraged economic & diplomatic co-operation through Good Neighbour policy -
persuasion & economic pressure to exert influence on Latin America
- Mutual hemispheric action against aggressors

- Secretary of State Cordell Hull carried out the policy
- Hull & FDR aware Smoot-Hawley Tariff damaged economies of L. America & amendments
needed to restore improved trading relations
- Hull inclined to free trade; FDR wanted follow protectionist policies

• FDR did not agree w/ decisions made @ world economic conference in London - disliked
internationalist1 approach
1933: Inter-American Conference @ Montevideo

- US & all Latin American states agreed no country had right to intervene in internal/external
affairs of another
Relations b/t US & L. America

- In accordance to GN policy
• US troops left Haiti, Dominican Republic, Nicaragua
• 1934: treaty w/ Cuba, nullified(废⽌) Platt Amendment (authorized US occupation of Cuba)
• Did retain 1 naval base @ Guantanamo
• By 1938: 10 treaties w/ L. American countries —> huge trade increase for US
• Hull’s policies of low tariffs - improved economies of L. American countries (esp. Cuba
when tariff on Cuba sugar reduced)
1 Advocate co-operation & understanding b/t nations
Jin 2020 3
- 1934: Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act

• Repealed several 1920s isolationist trade policies - US could compete better in foreign trade
• Move towards lower trade barriers & +global engagement
• Tempered(neutralized) by Johnson Act
- Congress forbade gov. loans to defaulted(failed to repay loans) countries
- By 1934: all foreign countries except Finland had defaulted
- Major reason Europeans defaulted: Hawley-Smoot Tariff
- 1936: Panama Canal Treaty
• Panama & US: General Treaty of Friendship & Cooperation
• US forfeited(丧失) right to participate in Panamanian politics & yielded right to seize
additional land for its admin/deffence of the canal
• Annual rent to Panama raised to $430,000

• Good example of GN policy - US trying to conciliate(和解) L. America, but used economic
influence to dominate several L. American economies
1936: Buenos Aires Conference

- Japan’s attacks on China (1931), Italy’s attacks on Abyssinia (1935), Spanish Civil War
(1936), spread of fascism in Europe —> FDR called for peace conference held in Americas
- Valued the conference, spent a month visit S. America - made several speeches promoting GN
policy & hemispheric solidarity
- 1st day of conference: FDR outlined plan for an American peace programme
• All nations agreed to consult each other if there was a security threat
• US proposed neutrality pact for American nations in Western Hemisphere (N & S America
• Delegates drew up convention called for all to follow a common policy of neutrality in the
event of conflict
- 16 Dec 1936: No-Intervention Protocol

- FDR keen to keep L. American countries close to US - concerned abt spread of fascism
Jin 2020 4
1938: 8th Pan-American Conference, Lima

- FDR wanted to avoid entanglements w/ Europe tensions
- Conference to develop collective security in Americas
- Testimony: each state sought to avoid war & any actions might lead to war
Declaration of the Solidarity of American
- Continue to co-operate, work to defend each other against all foreign intervention, allow
foreign ministers to meet whenever it was deemed desirable
Declaration of American Principles
- Intervention of any state in internal/external affairs of another is inadmissible(不允许)

- Differences of international character should be settled by peaceful means
- Use of force for national/international policy is forbidden
- International co-operation should be used to ensure maintenance of the agreed principles
FDR’s foreign policy

Latin America
- 1938: Mexico nationalized2 US-owned oil companies
• FDR showed determination to keep his promise of Montevideo Conference
• Took no aggressive action & didn’t intervene despite pressure from powerful US oil
GN policy viewed as successful
- Strengthened L. American relations

- Breadth of policy allowed US gov. to promote cultural exchange programme
• 1938: FDR created Cultural Division of the State Department
- 4 conferences covered education, art, music, publications, libraries
- Hollywood filmmakers agreed change stereotypical L. Americans in films
2 place under state control
Jin 2020 5
- Time started publish Spanish & Portugueses

- Policy also indirectly supported pro-US dictatorships (eg. Trujillo in Dominican Republic,
Batista in Cuba )
• b/c they brought stability to their country after uprisings

• FDR happy to support them, secured friendship by acknowledging them as legitimate
authorities
US’ policy of neutrality

- General feeling: involvement in WWI had been a mistake, unnecessarily lost men & meterial
- Congress passed a series of Neutrality Acts - intended keep US out of future wars
Rationale behind neutrality

The Nye Committee
- major influence on public opinion & attitudes to war in early part of FDR’s admin: Special
Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry
- Chaired by Republican Senator Gerald Nye (isolationist)

- Established to examine causes of US’ involvement in WWI
- report: 1915-1917, US lent Ger $27 million & UK and allies $2.3 billion
Jin 2020 6
• .˙. people think US had a vested interest helping UK to win - key reason for entering the
conflict
- Committee’s findings raised public awareness, increased non-interventionist feelings
Neutrality Acts
1st Neutrality Act (1935)
- Gave president power to prohibit US ships carrying US-made munitions(军需品) to countries
@ war
- prevent US citizens from travelling on ships of countries at war except @ their own risk
• Avoid Lusitania incident(1915): German submarine sunk UK passenger ship, 128 US
citizens killed
The Ludlow Amendment

- Many opposed US involve in a future war
- Congressman Ludlow suggested a national referendum(公投) on any declaration of war
(except if US was attacked 1st)
- Introduced amendment several times in Congress (1935-40), defeated each time

- April 1935: 50,000 veterans peace march in Washington DC
• Clear indication of anti-war feeling in US
- 1936 presidential election campaign showed FDR wary about foreign affairs - only made 1
speech on the issue (his opponent Alf Landon only made 2)
2nd Neutrality Act (1936)

- Banned loans/credits to countries @ war
- Set no limits on trade in materials useful for war, US companies (eg. Ford) able to sell such
items on credit to General Franco in Spanish Civil War
3rd Neutrality Act (1937)

- Forbade export of munitions for use by either forces in Spain
- Still permit nations involved in war to buy goods other than munitions from US (have to pay
cash & use their own ships) (known as ‘cash & carry’)
Jin 2020 7
4th Neutrality Act (1937)

- Authorized US president to determine what could & couldn’t be bought (other than munitions)
to be paid for on delivery
- Made travel on ships of countries @ war illegal
Problems w/ neutrality
US neutrality & Sino-Japanese War
- Following policy of neutrality was not straightforward
- July 1937: Japan vs. China
• Decided not to invoke Neutrality Acts b/c neither officially declared war
• FDR supported China, sent arms
• Many in Congress outraged by FDR - said it threatened US policy of isolation
• Sino-Japanese war created range of problems for US
• Worsening relation w/ Japan
- Dec 1938: FDR extended commercial credits worth $25 million to China w/o incurring
displeasure of isolationists
Quarantine Speech
- 1930s: totalitarian & militaristic states of Ger, Italy, Japan, Spain openly built up large armed
forces
- FDR despised spread of totalitarianism in Ger & Italy

- By 1937: FDR began to see US might need to become involved in European affairs
- FDR’s view differed from Congress & majority Americans
• For some going to war would end reforms of New Deal
• 1937: Gallup poll indicated ~70% Americans thought US involvement in WWI was a
mistake, ~95% opposed any future involvement in war
- FDR aware of public opinion
Jin 2020 8
• Oct 1937 Quarantine Speech: in Chicago, warned Americans abt situation in Europe & Far
East; consequent dangers of war; problems w/ neutrality
- FDR appalled by Nationalist bombing of civilians in Spain & aggressive nature of Japan in
declaring war on China
• Roosevelt suggested a quarantine of the aggressors, was careful not to mention specific
countries (隔离侵略者国家)
Roosevelt & the mounting European crisis

- FDR didn’t offer real action
• Concerned many citizens disagreed & concerned to be called an alarmist & warmonger
- rapid deterioration of relations in Europe & Hitler’s increasing power forced a change in
attitude - Americans began realize security of US was at stake
- FDR began express strong support for Western democratic states

- After Munich Agreement, Hitler announced further rearmament, FDR announced a further
$300 million granted to the defence budget
- Oct 1938: FDR opened secret talks w/ French on how to bypass(绕开) neutrality laws,
allowed French to buy US aircraft
• After negotiations in 1939, French gov. placed large orders US aircraft

- Mar 1939: US condemned Ger for breaking Munich Agreement & seizing parts of Czech; US
recalled its ambassador
- Tensions heightened in Europe, FDR called on Ger & Italy to give assurances that they
wouldn’t attack any European country in 10 years
• Proposed discussions abt armaments reductions & restoration of world trade - rejected,
Hitler said he had no aggressive intentions
- During Danzig crisis: FDR suggested arbitration - rejected by Ger
War in Europe, Sep 1939

- 2 days after outbreak of war in Europe: US gov. announced its neutrality, prohibited export of
arms & munitions to all war powers (according to Neutrality Act of 1937)
Jin 2020 9
- Oct 1939: Pan-American Conference

• A 500km security zone off the coasts of Americans established; all hostile action by
belligerent(好战的) powers forbidden w/in the zone
• Known as Hemisphere Neutrality Belt

• Hoped it would insulate Americas from European conflict
- FDR had to accept position of neutrality but sought ways to assist UK & Fr
• 1939: regular secret correspondence w/ First Lord of the Admiralty Churchill (later prime
minister), discuss ways of supporting UK
- 1939: FDR said US would not be involved in a fireside chat

- Gallup poll: 94% approved of FDR’s statement; but 80% wanted allies to win
• +50% wanted to send aid to UK & Fr if there’s no risk to US
5th Neutrality Act (1939)
- Nov 1939: US made further amendments to Neutrality Act
- President could authorize “cash & carry” export of arms & munitions to countries @ war, but
had to be transported in countries’ own ships
- President could specify which areas were theatres of war in time of war - where US citizens &
ships forbidden to travel
• proclaimed North Atlantic a combat zone - did this b/c German U-boats were attacking
British ships & brining war close to US
• FDR ordered US Navy to patrol western Atlantic & reveal location of German submarines
to UK
Neutrality & US rearmament

Reduction of US armed forces
- After WWI: US - isolation & non-involvement; working on assumption that war could be
avoided
• Army reduced to ~19,000 officers & 200,000 enlisted men - created a force that can defend
US & overseas territories/possessions
Jin 2020 10
- Jan 1921: Congress reduced army to 175,000

- 1 year later: limited regular army to 12,000 commissioned officers & 125,000 enlisted men
- Until 1936: size of army remained that lvl
- After early 1920s: budget for War Department fixed @ ~$300 million / year
- Naval expansion restricted by agreements made in Washington Naval Conference &
KelloggBriand Pact
• K Pact outlawed use of war as means of policy; gave US a clear rationale for limiting other
branches of its armed forces
- Until mid-1930s: only navy increased in size, w/in terms of international agreements
Growth of navy
- Navy seen as mainstay of country’s defence; but US never built to the naval limits in the
Washington agreements
- 1934: NIRA provided navy w/ $237 million for warship construction

• Navy ordered 20 destroyers, 4 submarines, 4 light cruisers, 2 aircraft carriers
- Expenditure can be justified on grounds of national defence & creation of jobs
- 1934: Vinson-Trammel Act
• Further improvements to navy
• Allowed construction of 102 new warships over next 8 years, still kept US w/in terms of
Washington Agreements
• Ensured as US ships became obsolete, they were replaced

- By 1937: US navy had aircraft carriers, cruisers, destroyers, subs under construction
- By 1939: possessed 15 battleships
Increasing military budgets
- From 1935: armed forces’ budget increased b/c felt existing forces would find it difficult to
defend US as result of years of lack of investment
- 1938: Naval Expansion Act - FDR able to expand US navy
Jin 2020 11
- $1 billion allocated over next 7 years for continued development of navy

- By late 1930s: airforce had ~1600 planes
- Oct 1938: after Munich crisis
• FDR said would spend another $300 million on armaments
• Told reporters he would prob ask Congress for $500 million
- 3 months later: FDR asked Congress for $553 million - for defence expenditure to prepare
country for war
- US gov. planned to expand fortifications in Pacific & Caribbean

- Part military budget put towards development of Flying Fortress, indicating airforce was seen
as both offensive & defensive
- Late 1930s: US not adequately prepared for war despite increase in budgets
The US & Japan in 1930s

- Relationship deteriorated throughout 1920s & 30s
- Some ill-feeling @ Paris Peace Conference (1919) b/c Japan gov. felt Allies treated it & its ppl
as inferiors
Jin 2020 12
- Worsened after Immigration Act of 1924 - ended Japanese migration to US
The Immigration Act 1924

- Limited annual # of ppl could be admitted from any country
- completely prevented Asian immigration
- Introduced ‘to preserve ideal of American homogeneity’
- AKA Japanese Exclusion Act
- Stopped growth of Japanese community in US
- Japan gov. protested strongly - it felt the act violated 1907 Gentlemen’s Agreement b/c US & J
• Agreement: US wouldn’t impose restrictions on Japanese immigration & Japan wouldn’t
allow further emigration to US
- Antipathy Japan felt towards Western powers @ Peace Conference increased
Economic rivalry
- Late 1920s & 30s: increasing concern in US over rising economic & imperial power of Japan
- Japanese needed extra land & resource for fast-growing population & to stimulate further
economic expansion
• Also lack oil, rubber, other key natural resources

- 1930s: 80% Japan’s imported oil came from US - as main competitor of US in Pacific region,
important for Japan to move away from US oil dependence by securing new oil & energy
sources
- Japan looked @ China & South-east Asia’s natural resources (eg. oil, tin, rubber)
• Conflicted w/ open-door policy3 - sought to keep China’s natural resources & markets free
from control by any nation
Japan & Manchuria

- 1931: US anxieties abt foreign influence in China increased when Japan invaded Chinese
province of Manchuria
3 1 country grants opportunities for trade to all other nations equally
Jin 2020 13
• Japan captured & rename it Manchukuo

• Became puppet state of Japan (nominally(名义上) a sovereign sate but controlled by a
foreign power)
- President Hoover strongly disapproved of the invasion, morally condemned it
• But didn’t support idea of sanctions(制裁) against Japan

- FDR didn’t recognize the Japanese puppet state but did little else
• Followed Hoover’s policy, hoped to deal w/ issue of Japan later
- Open-door policy lapsed
- League of Nations condemned the invasion but unable to force Japan to leave Manchuria
• Japan left League, claiming Manchuria was essential for its economic & military security
- 6 years after invasion of Manchuria: Japan invaded northern China, bombed Shanghai & other
cities into submission
- US simply supported League of Nations in calling Japanese an aggressor & gave financial aid
to China
- FDR did not begin trade sanctions, merely asked Americans to boycott (抵制) Japanese silk
USS Panay incident 1937

- Dec 1937: Japanese bombers sank USS Panay & 3 tankers belonging to US Standard Oil
Company on Yangtze River @ Nanking
- USS Panay’s role: patrol river to protect US lives & property in China, had just rescued US
citizens in Nanking
- 2 Americans killed, 30 wounded

- US gov. demanded apology, compensation, a guarantee that there would not be a repeat of
such incident
- Japan did as they were asked

• Apr 22 1938: paid ~$2,200,000 of compensation, officially closing the incident
- FDR criticized for not invoking Neutrality Act & allowing US vessels to be in a warzone
Jin 2020 14
- FDR said the conflict was undeclared war, .˙. not covered by the Acts
- FDR didn’t take military action - knew US navy was unprepared for war & there would be no
support in Congress
- Sinking of USS Panay hardened attitudes towards Japan

- Many Americans contributed to relief funds to assist China
- The incident led to greater awareness of the militaristic nature of the fascist regimes around
the world
- 1937: bombing of Chinese civilians by Japan airforce

• Outrage in US
• US State Department openly stated it didn’t look favourably on aircraft companies supplied
countries w/ equipment for use against civilians
K
ey debate
- 1930s: US passed 5 Neutrality Acts yet armed forces’ budget increased
- FDR increased trade links & drew closer to L. America
Jin 2020 15
- FDR made comments abt events in Europe but always wary abt challenging US ppl’s wish to
avoid involvement in a war
- 1933: FDR became president, faced w/ extremely serious economic problems

• These dictated his foreign policy
- FDR personally appalled by growth of militarism & totalitarianism, both Congress & public
opinion opposed to any future US entanglements in international conflicts
- Historians tend to consider FDR & his foreign policy from 3 view points: isolationist,
gradualist, pragmatist
Main views of debate

- Historian debates
Isolationist
- Mar 1920: US refused to ratify Treaty of Versailles, consequently not became a member of
League of Nations
• Internationalist credentials damaged

- US geographical position - safe from international aggression, helped foster idea of being
isolated from Europe problems
- Public opinion: against any involvement in war - memories of WWI were still powerful
- When FDR is president: wish to remain isolated had become entrenched
- Nye Committee convinced many that US had gone to war in 1917 so that bankers & arms
manufacturers can make profits
- Strong, pervasive feeling that ppl were persuaded to support a just war when in fact they were
duped by profiteers
- Divine: “Americans were frightened by the complex forces threatening the peace of the world
& sought to escape them by taking refuge in ironclad neutrality”
- Snowman: suggest +events became potentially dangerous in world in 1930s —> + US gov.
seemed want to cut off US from the world
- Passing of 5 Neutrality Acts: clearest indication of Congress’s attitude to US involvement in

war
Jin 2020 16
- FDR’s acceptance of these acts: clear evidence of his attitude

- FDR didn’t openly condemn actions of Hitler / Mussolini / Japanese militarism
- Jan 4 1939: FDR speech to Congress
• Urged US “avoid any action, or lack of any action, which will encourage, assist, or build up
an aggressor”
• Seen as his marker for US neutrality

- FDR’s love of democracy & hatred of totalitarianism didn’t challenge Congress over the
Neutrality Act; was happy to follow his Good Neighbour policy so US avoided entanglements
in 1930s
Gradualist
- FDR believed changes to public opinion could happen in small, discrete increments rather than
abrupt strokes
- Dallek: “FDR’s prevailing inclination was to move slowly in foreign affairs”

- Rosenberg: she views New Deal as widening FDR’s authority over international economic
policy, securing his aim to have powers w/o resorting to Congress
- Despite 2nd Neutrality Act, FDR found ways to assist China in Sino-Japanese War b/c public
opinion favoured China
- Schulzinger: the Quarantine Speech was “a trial ballon which did not explode”; FDR was
slowly preparing US public for further action
- Conferences & naval actions testify to FDR’s gradual approach

Pragmatist
- FDR’s policies were determined by practical consequences rather than by any philosophy
- Consummate politician - always aware of power of public opinion, wanted to remain in power
- O’Neill: FDR couldn’t go to war against Hitler b/c public opinion blocked him
- McCoy: FDR “was shackled by public opinion & by Congress’s obedient response to it”
- Dallek: FDR would only act when certain of “an unequivocal popular consensus”
Jin 2020 17
- Snowman: sees inconsistencies of FDR’s actions, but argues FDR was trying to work out a
compromise form conflict pressures around him
• eg. FDR invoked neutrality in Italo-Abyssinian War (1935-6) b/c didn’t wish to offend
Italian Americans
- FDR also realized intervention in Spain civil war (1936-9) likely cost Democrats much of
Catholic vote in elections
- FDR opposed Neutrality Act of 1937 on grounds that it penalized victims of aggression (eg.
Ethiopia) & that it restricted his right as president to assist friendly countries
• But signed the Act b/c public opinion

- Rosenberg: FDR’s quiet support of the Johnson Act gave him flexibility & allowed him to
offend as few ppl as possible
- Some suggested FDR not concerned about US involvement in foreign affairs & was pragmatic
in pursuit of & retention of power
- Speech @ Chautauqua, NY(Aug 1936) saw him praise Neutrality Acts but then also seek
discretionary powers for president in foreign affairs
• Try to please both sides of involvement/non-involvement debate

- Even if FDR advocated intervention in foreign conflict, he knew US could face defeat b/c por
state of its armed forces
US response to European war 1939-40

Public opinion in US
- FDR stated US would not involve in a fireside chat
The Committee to Defend America (CDA)
- A political action group formed in May 1940
- Supported FDR in wanting to help UK
- Founded by W. White - a Kansas City journalist
- 600 branches across US
Jin 2020 18
- Did not wish to become involved in the fighting, refused accept any funds from steel industry,
armaments manufacturers, international bankers - these were thought by public to encourage
nations to fight wars
The America First Committee (AFC)

- Set up in Sep 1940, opposed CDA & anything might risk US neutrality
- Claimed UK only continued to refuse negotiate w/ Hitler b/c it wanted to convince US to enter
war on its side so it could preserve its empire
- AFC leaders made clear - US intervention would result national bankruptcy & collapse of US
capitalism & free enterprise system
• Won much support across US, 800,000 members @ peak

- Sep 4 1940: 1st public statement - put forward its basic ideas
• US must build an impregnable(坚不可摧) defence for the country

• If US fully prepared for war, no foreign powers / group of powers should be able to attack
successfully
• Idea of aid weakened national defence @ home & threatened to involve US in foreign war
- Opposed all FDR & Congress’ war-related measures
- Ensured the possibility of entering war kept in public’s minds
Government reaction
US reaction to German success in Europe 1940
- Jul 1940: after French surrender to Germany
- FDR & advisers concerned Hitler might take over French Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe &
Martinique
- FDR organized Pan-American Conference in Cuba

- North & South American countries stated in interests of defence, American republics4 could
take over& admin any European possession in New World which faced aggression
• Hope prevent any European colony being captured by Nazi

4 All independent republican countries of the Americas
Jin 2020 19
- Jul: Two Ocean Navy Act

• US planned to expand size of navy by 70%
• 201 new warships, incl. 7 battleships ($5.2 billion)
- Aug 1940: FDR met Mackenzie King (Canada PM)
• Agreed set up a Joint Board of Defence - co-ordinate US & Canada defence efforts
US aid to UK
- Jun 1940: after Dunkirk evacuation
• FDR ordered US should send war material to assist UK
• Circumvented(规避) Neutrality Act by saying the items were surplus(剩余) to US
requirements
- By Oct: UK had received 970,000 rifles, 87,500 machine guns, ~900 artillery pieces
- Aug 1940: PM Churchill asked US again for 40-50 destroyers
• FDR was keen, but Neutrality Acts prevented this
• US gov. lawyers suggest to circumvent Neutrality Acts - deal for having US naval & air
bases on UK territory in Americas in exchange for the ships
• Sep 3: deal announced, US supply 50 destroyers in return for bases; US granted land on 99-
year rent-free leases on:
- Newfoundland, Bahamas eastern side, Jamaica southern coast, St Lucia western coast,
Trinidad west coast, Antigua, British Guyana
• FDR endure tremendous criticism b/c he bypassed Congress by making executive decision
- Opponents pointed out if UK was defeated, then Hitler would be able to use the ships
against US in future
• Deal brought US closer to enter war

- Nov: closer co-op w/ UK continued
• US secretary of War H. Stimson & British Minister of Supply Sir W. Layton: agreed to a
partial standardization of British & US military weapons & equip
Jin 2020 20
• Established a general policy of sharing UK & US technical knowledge for weapons

production
The peacetime draft

- Following deal w/ UK: Congress + US budget for defence spending (previous year: $173
million —> $669 million); passed Selective Training & Service Act
• Act required all man 21-35 age to register

• Meant that US had a peacetime draft for 1st in its history
• Recognition that US might face foreign aggression in near future
• Men conscripted had to serve 12 months, no more than 900,000 could train for service @ 1
time, servicemen had to stay in US / US territory while serving
• Soldiers could also fight for US / its allies if needed
1940 presid
ential electio
n
- Growing world crisis —> FDR decide to run for 3rd term as president
Jin 2020 21
• An issue b/c presidents were expected to stand down after 2 terms - show office was more
important than man
- By now: Hitler conquered western Poland, Noway, much of Western Europe

• FDR had to be careful b/t assisting UK & taking US into war, while keeping public on his
side
The presidential campaign

- Focused on US’ neutrality & isolationist policies
- AFC: opposed involve in war, consistently attacks on FDR
• Accused FDR deliberately creating a situation - US was being pulled into war
- During campaign: FDR always made the point he was against any US involvement in Europe
- W. Willkie (FDR’s Republican opponent) - former Democrat, agreed w/ much of FDR’s New
Deal & foreign policies
• Attacked FDR during presidential campaign, accusing him secretly planning to take US to
war
• Accusation win Wilkie some support, pushed FDR into making pronouncements abt US’
neutrality
- W. O’Neill5: both candidates for presidency knew chances of avoiding war were slim
Consequences of the election

- FDR won, but share of vote fall (60.8% —> 54.7%)
- Interpreted victory as strong public support for a programme of military preparedness &
aiding UK, yet acknowledged there was no overwhelming desire to take US into war
- Jan 6 1941: Four Freedoms speech

• Addressed to Congress, seemed to set down FDR’s aims for a post-war world
US involvement in the European War 1941

- After presidential election campaign: clear that attitudes in US were changing
5 historian
Jin 2020 22
- W. Willie: defeated, called for all Americans to support FDR’s policy to aid UK against fascists
- FDR increased materiel aid to UK
- Jun: German invasion of USSR , offered FDR opportunity to broaden US involvement
- Also extended US naval & military defences
- UK sought continued help from US
- Mar 1941: The Act Further to Promote the Defence of the US - aka Lend-Lease agreement
• FDR had power to “transfer/lend” arms & other goods to any country “whose defence was
necessary to US defence”
• UK able to defer payment for the goods (amounted to $31.4 billion) during course of war
• Before UK allowed any goods, had to pay outstanding debts to US in gold; forbidden from
re-exporting any Lend-Lease goods; couldn’t export manufactured goods containing
materials similar to those obtained under Lend-Lease
• —> US initially acquired $ & markets from the scheme

The extension of Lend-Lease
- Jul 1941: Lend-Lease extended after German invasion of USSR
- FDR offered Stalin goods to value of $1 billion via Lend-Lease scheme
• AFC issued a strong statement opposing the aid - illustrated how there was still antagonism
from ordinary citizens against US involvement in European conflict, esp. w/ assisting USSR
Opposition to Lend-Lease
- AFC continued put pressure on FDR after decision to help USSR
- AFC added a 5th principle: “The AFC advocates a national advisory referendum on the issue
of peace of war”
- Opponents of AFC pointed out ppl would always vote for peace & such a reduction of the
argument didn’t engender broad discussion of the issues
- 1941: Gallup polls showed 90% ppl favoured giving more aid to UK; but only 12% were
prepared for US to go to war
Jin 2020 23
The erosion of neutrality

- Jan-Mar 1941: FDR allowed UK & US military staff members to meet secretly to co-ordinate
military strategy in case US going to war against Germany
• ABC-1 Plan: determined Germany would be defeated 1st; US military strategy would be
defensive rather than offensive towards Japan if there’s any conflict in Pacific
- Mar 1941: FDR extended combat zone - included Iceland & Denmark Strait b/t Iceland &
Greenland
• Extended area east in which US navy was authorized to escort convoys to UK - US more
likely come into conflict w/ German ships
• US ships now able to defend themselves if attacked

• Extension cut into German submarine warfare zone - bringing war closer to US
- 1941: indirect involvement continued grow - FDR always able to say his actions were purely
for defence of US
• May-Dec: UK allowed to repair 1 aircraft carriers (HMS Illustrious) in docks @ Norfolk, VA

• May: FDR gave permission for 6 UK Flying Training Schools to be built
- End of Aug: ~8000 UK pilots trained in US territory
• Jul: 4000 US marines stationed in Iceland to prevent any German takeover
- Danish gov.-in-exile6 placed Greenland under US protection & authorized construction
of air & naval bases there
The Atlantic Charter 1941

- Jun 1941: German invasion of USSR
- Aug 1941: Atlantic Charter
• FDR & Churchill met on a ship off Newfoundland
• Meeting lasted 4 days, established a set of goals for post-war world
6 a political group claims to be a country’s legitimate gov. but unable to exercise legal power & instead
resides in a foreign country
Jin 2020 24
• Put forward idea of an international organization to protect security of all countries (origin
of UN)
• By end of Sep: 15 other countries were also signatories

8 points of Atlantic Charter
1. US / UK won’t seek territorial gains
2. Territorial adjustments accord w/ wishes of peoples concerned
3. All ppl had right to self-determination
4. Lower trade barriers
5. Global economic co-op & social welfare advancement
6. Freedom from want & fear
7. Freedom of seas
8. Aggressor nations disarmament & post-war common disarmament
Reaction to Atlantic Charter

- Germany, Italy, Japan: Atlantic Charter - potential alliance against them
- Tokyo: charter rallied support for militarists in Japanese gov. who pushed for a more
aggressive approach against US & UK
- US: Congress only had tiny majority when voted to extend conscription from 1 yr - 2.5 yr
- When returned from Newfoundland: FDR announced US wasn’t closer to war than he had left
- FDR pledged no military support for war
• But charter - a clear sign US was moving towards alliance w/ UK
Jin 2020 25
The US Navy
- + US Navy size & extending naval combat zone - examples of helping UK in war while
keeping US out of it
US Naval action 1940-1

Convoy support
- Early 1941: FDR & advisers see German U-boats damage on UK merchant fleet
• By late spring: ~400,000 tons ship loss / month
- FDR ordered mobilization of US Atlantic Fleet
- Summer 1941: + US assistance to UK
- Sep: US destroyers escorted convoys of UK merchant ships as far as Iceland; some UK ships
repaired in US shipyards
The Robin Moor Incident 1941

- US ships still attacked & sunk by German U-boats
- May 21 1941: Robin Moor sunk
• Merchant vessel
• Crew was left in lifeboats, no one killed
- US reaction: close down all German & Italian consulates(领事馆) in US
- FDR froze all assets owned by Germany, Italy, & countries they currently occupied
“shoot on sight” policy
- Sep 4 1941: German U-boat attacked US destroyer Greer in US combat zone
- FDR ordered navy “shoot on sight” @ German/Italian warships
- Undeclared naval war on German & Italian fleets in western Atlantic
- FDR asked Congress revise 1930 Neutrality Act - permit arming US merchant vessels
The amended Neutrality Act
- Torpedo explosion on destroyer Kearny, 11 sailors killed
Jin 2020 26
- Oct: USS Reuben James sunk; 115 lives killed

- Nov 17: Congress amended Neutrality Act
• Permit merchant vessels arm themselves & carry cargoes to belligerent ports
- 2 incidents had few outcry from US public - FDR didn’t have chance to use them as a casus
beli7
War with Germany

- End of Nv 1941: FDR had authority to do ~ everything to aid UK - except send US forces
- Americans still not prepared fro actual declaration of war
- Dec 7 1941: US declared war on Japan, there was no reason to think US should go to war w/
Germany
- Dec 11: Hitler declared war on US

- 2 final points about US before it became involved
• Oct: FDR privately proposed to Churchill - their countries pool resources & research
facilities into developing atomic bomb
• By early Dec 1941: ~15,000 Americans enlisted in Canadian/UK armed forces
7 event/act used to justify a declaration of war
Jin 2020 27

2 Hemispheric Reactions

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2 Hemispheric Reactions

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Paper 3 WWII 2 hemispheric reactions

Relations b/t US & L. America 3

FDR’s foreign policy 5

US’ policy of neutrality 6

War in Europe, Sep 1939 9

Neutrality & US rearmament 10

The US & Japan in 1930s 12

USS Panay incident 1937 14

US response to European war 1939-40 18

1940 presidential election 21

The Atlantic Charter 1941 24

War with Germany 27

1930s foreign policy: Good Neighbour policy

Introduction of Good Neighbour policy

- Mutual hemispheric action against aggressors

- Hull inclined to free trade; FDR wanted follow protectionist policies

1933: Inter-American Conference @ Montevideo

Relations b/t US & L. America

1 Advocate co-operation & understanding b/t nations

- 1934: Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act

• Annual rent to Panama raised to $430,000

1936: Buenos Aires Conference

- 16 Dec 1936: No-Intervention Protocol

1938: 8th Pan-American Conference, Lima

Declaration of American Principles

- Intervention of any state in internal/external affairs of another is inadmissible(不允许)

FDR’s foreign policy

GN policy viewed as successful

- Strengthened L. American relations

2 place under state control

- Time started publish Spanish & Portugueses

• b/c they brought stability to their country after uprisings

US’ policy of neutrality

Rationale behind neutrality

- Chaired by Republican Senator Gerald Nye (isolationist)

- Committee’s findings raised public awareness, increased non-interventionist feelings

The Ludlow Amendment

- Introduced amendment several times in Congress (1935-40), defeated each time

2nd Neutrality Act (1936)

3rd Neutrality Act (1937)

4th Neutrality Act (1937)

- Made travel on ships of countries @ war illegal

- FDR despised spread of totalitarianism in Ger & Italy

- FDR aware of public opinion

Roosevelt & the mounting European crisis

- FDR began express strong support for Western democratic states

• After negotiations in 1939, French gov. placed large orders US aircraft

- During Danzig crisis: FDR suggested arbitration - rejected by Ger

War in Europe, Sep 1939

- Oct 1939: Pan-American Conference

• Known as Hemisphere Neutrality Belt

- 1939: FDR said US would not be involved in a fireside chat

Neutrality & US rearmament

- Jan 1921: Congress reduced army to 175,000

- 1934: NIRA provided navy w/ $237 million for warship construction

• Ensured as US ships became obsolete, they were replaced

- 1938: Naval Expansion Act - FDR able to expand US navy

- $1 billion allocated over next 7 years for continued development of navy

- US gov. planned to expand fortifications in Pacific & Caribbean

The US & Japan in 1930s

- Worsened after Immigration Act of 1924 - ended Japanese migration to US

The Immigration Act 1924

- Antipathy Japan felt towards Western powers @ Peace Conference increased