1. 4.

Definition of Research Research is a scientific way of answering

questions and testing hypothesis

2. 5. Definition of Research Research is the systematic and objective

analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the

development of generalizations, principles, or theories, resulting in

prediction and possible control of events .

3. 7. Approaches to Knowledge Five sources of evidence in the pursuit of

truth: 1. Authority 2. Custom and tradition 3. Personal experience 4.

Deductive reasoning 5. Scientific inquiry

4. 8. Deductive Reasoning A.k.a., Logic. ‫ القياسي‬/‫ االستنباطي‬Thinking proceeds

from general assumption to specific application GENERAL  SPECIFIC

Inductive Reasoning ‫ االستقرائي‬/‫ االستداللي‬Conclusions about events (general)

are based on information generated through many individual and direct

observations (specific). SPECIFIC  GENERAL

5. 9. Inductive Reasoning Researchers observe an individual or group of

individuals from a larger population  based on these observations,

generalizations are made back to the larger population • Two kinds of

induction: – Perfect • Conclusions based on observations made from ALL

members of a group or population – Imperfect • Conclusions based on

observations made from a random sample of members of a population

6. 10. Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning • Deductive: – Every mammal has

lungs. All rabbits are mammals. Therefore, every rabbit has lungs. •

Inductive: – Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs. Therefore,

every rabbit has lungs.

7. 11. • Sometimes we acquire knowledge through the use of logic. Here is

an example of a logical deduction: • All birds have feathers. This animal

has feathers. Therefore, this animal is a bird. • Many times, as in the case

above, logic leads us to the truth. However, sometimes using logic alone

leads us to incorrect conclusions. • Consider the example below: •

(Almost) all birds can fly. This animal can fly. Therefore, this animal is a

bird.

8. 13. Logical Steps of Scientific Method • Systematic; cyclic; series of

logical steps. – Identifying the problem – Formulating a hypothesis –

Developing the research plan – Collecting and analyzing the data –

Interpreting results and forming

9. 15. Theory vs. Hypothesis – A belief or prediction of the final outcome of

the research – A concrete, specific statement about the relationships

between phenomena – Based on deductive reasoning Theory – A belief or

assumption about how things relate to each other – A theory establishes a

cause-and-effect relationship between variables with a purpose of

explaining and predicting phenomena – Based on inductive reasoning

10.17. Empiricism • Acquiring information and facts through the observation

of our world Pragmatic observations – Developing theory through

experience and observation

11.18. TYPES OF RESEARCH

12.19. Research Classifications • System #1: – Basic research – Applied

research – • System #2: – Quantitative research – Qualitative research – •

System #3: – Experimental research – Nonexperimental research

13.20. Research Classifications 1. Application of research study - pure

research and - applied research 2. Objectives in undertaking the research -

descriptive -correlational -explanatory -exploratory 3. Inquiry mode

employed - Structured approach - Unstructured

14.21. 1. Application of research study From the point of view of application,

there are two broad categories of research: Pure & Applied Research. .

Pure/ Basic research: Involves developing and testing theories and

hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or

may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. The

knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the

existing body of research methods.

15.22. Applied research Applied Research is done to solve specific, practical

questions; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of a

 phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive. It is almost

always done on the basis of basic research

16.24. 2. Objectives of the research a-Descriptive b-Correlational c-

17.25. a-Descriptive Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically

a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides

information about , say, living condition of a community, or describes

attitudes towards an issue. Descriptive research refers to research that

provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual,

situation, or group. Descriptive research, also known as statistical

research.

18.26. Descriptive studies are a means of  discovering new meaning, 

describing what exists,  determining the frequency with which something

occurs, and categorizing information. Descriptive research deals with

everything that can be counted and studied, which has an impact of the

lives of the people it deals with. For example, finding the most frequent

disease that affects the children of a town. The reader of the research will

know what to do to prevent that disease thus, more people will live a

healthy life.

19.27. Advantages: • The people individual studied are unaware so they act

naturally or as they usually do in everyday situation; • It is less expensive

 and time consuming than quantitative experiments; • Collects a large

amount of notes for detailed studying; • As it is used to describe and not

make any conclusions it is to start the research with it; Disadvantages •

Descriptive research requires more skills. • Does not identify cause behind

a phenomenon • Response rate is low in this research. • Results of this

research can change over the period of time

20.28. b- Correlational research Correlational research refers to the

systematic investigation or statistical study of relationships among two or

more variables, without necessarily determining cause and effect. For

example, to test the hypothesis “ Listening to music lowers blood pressure

levels” there are 2 ways of conducting research • Experimental – group

samples and make one group listen to music and then compare the Bp

levels • Survey – ask people how they feel ? How often they listen? And

then compare

21.29. Advantages: 1) Can collect much information from many subjects at

one time. 2) Can study a wide range of variables and their interrelations.

3) Study variables that are not easily produced in the laboratory.

Disadvantages: 1. Correlation does not indicate causation( cause and

effect). 2. Problems with self-report method .

22.30. c- Explanatory research Explanatory research attempts to clarify why

and how there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation

 or phenomenon. Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area

where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a

particular research study (feasibility study / pilot study). In practice most

studies are a combination of the first three categories

23.31. 3- Inquiry Mode: a- Structured approach & b- Unstructured approach

a- Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually

classified as -Quantitative research. Here everything that forms the

research processobjectives, design, sample, and the questions that you

plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined It is more appropriate to

determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying

the variation

24.32. b- Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is

usually classified as qualitative research. This approach allows flexibility

in all aspects of the research process. It is more appropriate to explore the

nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. Main

objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or

attitude. In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and

quantitative approaches.

25.34. Common approaches in qualitative research

26.35. 1- Ethnography  Ethnography: is an approach relying on the

collection of data in the natural environment.  Ethnographers are

interested in how the behavior of individuals is influenced or mediated by

culture in which they live.  So, human behavior can only be understood

if studied in the setting in which it occurs. As people can influence and be

influenced by the groups they live in. • The purpose of ethnographic

research is to attempt to understand what is happening naturally in the

setting and to interpret the data gathered to see what implications could be

formed from the data

27.36. 2- Phenomenology Phenomenology: It focuses on individuals'

interpretation of their experience and the ways in which they express

them. The researchers task is to describe phenomena as experienced and

expressed by individuals. Phenomenological research an inductive,

descriptive research approach developed from phenomenological

philosophy; its aim is to describe an experience as it is actually lived by

the person

28.37. 3- Discourse analysis Discourse is a term used to describe the systems

we use in communication with others. These include verbal, nonverbal

and written material. What we say, how we say it, our choice of words,

tone, timing are full of values, meanings and intentions. So, analysis of
 discourse increases our understanding of human behavior through

language and interaction.

29.38. 4-Grounded theory: "Theory arises from the data" GT is an inductive

approach to research whereby hypotheses and theories emerge out or are

grounded in data. GT research is a research approach designed to discover

what problems exist in a given social environment and how the persons

involved handle them; it involves formulation, testing, and reformulation

of propositions until a theory is developed

30.39. GT is a research method that operates almost in a reverse fashion from

traditional research and at first may appear to be in contradiction to the

scientific method. Four stages: 1. Codes-Identifying anchors that allow

the key points of the data to be gathered 2. Concepts-Collections of codes

of similar content that allows the data to be grouped 3. Categories-Broad

groups of similar concepts that are used to generate a theory 4. Theory-A

collection of explanations that explain the subject of the research

(hypotheses) Dr.Ahmed-Refat AG Refat

www.SlideShare.net/AhmedRefat 39

31.40. The above 4 approaches are similar in that they place emphasis on

interpretation rather than objective empirical observations. They are

different in that;  Ethnography focuses on …………………..culture, 

Phenomenology on ……………….consciousness,  Discourse analysis

 on………………. language and  Ground theory’s aim is the

development of theory through induction.

32.41. The Critique of Qualitative Research 1. Qualitative research is too

subjective 2. Difficult to replicate 3. Problems of generalization 4. Lack of

transparency

33.42. Action research Action research is a style of research, rather than a

specific methodology. In action research, the researchers work with the

people and for the people, rather than undertake research on them. The

focus of action research is on generating solutions to problems identified

by the people who are going to use the results of research. Action research

is not synonymous with qualitative research. But it typically draws on

qualitative methods such as interviews and observations.

34.43. Experimental vs. Nonexperimental

35.44. Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled

investigation for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena and

examining probability and causality among selected variables Advantages

• Best establishes cause-and-effect relationships Disadvantages •

Feasibility • Ethical Issues

36.45. Experimental Design The simplest experimental design includes two

variables and two groups of participants. The two variables(IV &DV). •

 The IV is the predictor variable whereas the DV is the outcome variable. •

Researchers manipulate and control the IV to study it's effect on the DV.

The two groups (Control versus Experimental group

37.46. • Before beginning the experiment, the researcher (randomly) assigns

his/her sample to two different groups: the control group and the

experimental (treatment group or clinical group). • The control group

receives no manipulation of the IV (no treatment), whereas the

experimental group receives the manipulation of the IV

38.48. Experimental Design 1. Pre Experimental 2. Quasi Experimental 3.

True Experimental

39.49. A- Pre-experimental designs Pre-experimental designs are so named

because they follow basic experimental steps but fail to include a control

group. In other words, a single group is often studied but no comparison

between an equivalent nontreatment group is made. Examples include the

following: A.1- One Group Pretest Posttest Study A.2-The One-Shot Case

Study

40.50. A.1- The One-Shot Case Study. In this arrangement, subjects are

presented with some type of treatment, such as a semester of college work

experience, and then the outcome measure is applied, such as college

grades. Like all experimental designs, the goal is to determine if the

treatment had any effect on the outcome. Without a comparison group, it

 is impossible to determine if the outcome scores are any higher than they

would have been without the treatment. And, without any pre-test scores,

it is impossible to determine if any change within the group itself has

taken place.

41.51. A.2- One Group Pretest Posttest Study. A benefit of this design over

the previously discussed design is the inclusion of a pretest to determine

baseline scores. To use this design in our study of college performance,

we could compare college grades prior to gaining the work experience to

the grades after completing a semester of work experience. We can now at

least state whether a change in the outcome or dependent variable has

taken place. What we cannot say is if this change would have occurred

even without the application of the treatment or independent variable. It is

possible that mere maturation caused the change in grades and not the

work experience itself.

42.52. B-Quasi-Experimental Design Quasi designs fair better than pre-

experimental studies in that they employ a means to compare groups.

They fall short, however on one very important aspect of the experiment:

randomization. B.1- Pretest Posttest Nonequivalent Group. With this

design, both a control group and an experimental group is compared,

however, the groups are chosen and assigned out of convenience rather

than through randomization. This might be the method of choice for our
study on work experience as it would be difficult to choose students in a

college setting at random and place them in specific groups and classes.

We might ask students to participate in a 53. one-semester work

experience program. We would then measure all of the students’ grades

prior to the start of the program and then again after the program. Those

students who participated would be our treatment group; those who did

not would be our control group. B.2- Time Series Designs. Tim series

designs refer to the pretesting and posttesting of one group of subjects at

different intervals. The purpose might be to determine long term effect of

treatment and therefore the number of pre- and posttests can vary from

one each to many. Sometimes there is an interruption between tests in

order to assess the strength of treatment over an extended time period.

When such a design is employed, the posttest is referred to as follow-up.

B.3- Nonequivalent Before-After Design. This design is used when we

want to compare two groups that are to be different even before the study

begins. In other words, if we want to see how a new treatment affects

people with different psychological disorders, the disorders themselves

would create two or more nonequivalent groups. Once again, the number

of pretests and posttests can vary from one each to many. Whenever

subjects are chosen for groups based on convenience rather than

randomization, the reason for inclusion in the study itself confounds our

results.
43.55. Diagrams of Quasi Experimental Designs

44.57. C- True Experimental Design The true experiment is often thought of

as the only research method that can adequately measure the cause and

effect relationship. C.1- Posttest Equivalent Groups Study.

Randomization and the comparison of both a control and an experimental

group are utilized in this type of study. Each group, chosen and assigned

at random is presented with either the treatment or some type of control.

Posttests are then given to each subject to determine if a difference

between the two groups exists. While this is approaching the best method,

it falls short in its lack of a pretest measure.

45.58. C.2.-Pretest Posttest Equivalent Groups Study. This method is the

most effective in terms of demonstrating cause and effect but it is also the

most difficult to perform. The pretest posttest equivalent groups design

provides for both a control group and a measure of change but also adds a

pretest to assess any differences between the groups prior to the study

taking place

46.59. : Diagrams of True Experimental Designs 60. Final Word Research

Methodology: 1. Quantitative methods 2. Qualitative methods 3. Mixed

methods • The methodological history can be summarized as three waves

 The dominance of quantitative methods as wave ..1  The emergence of

 qualitative methods as wave ….2  The growth of mixed methods as wave

……………..3

47.61. The scientific approach includes the following steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. Identify an area of interest/research question-RQ. Generate a

hypothesis from your RQ. Design a study to test your hypothesis.

Formulate predictions based on your hypothesis. Collect data/information.

Analyze and interpret the data to test predictions. Accept or reject the

hypothesis. Communicate your results . Refine your hypothesis based on

the results. Replicate the study.

48.63. Criteria for a good research topic A good research topic should be

feasible (can be done), interesting, novel, ethical and relevant (has an

implication). These criteria have been collectively called the F.I.N.E.R

64. Feasibility The following are examples of factors to be considered,

depending on the category of research. • It should be possible to recruit

the number of subjects required to provide the answer to the research

question within the timeframe of the planned research. • The research

facility available to the investigators should have the equipment, supplies

and other requirements to undertake the research. • The investigators must

have the required expertise. • The cost of doing the research must be

affordable and the financial resources available

49.65. Interest The research topic must be of interest to the investigators and

to the scientific community. If the investigators are not excited about the

topic, or cannot get colleagues interested in it, the project is probably not

worth doing. Novelty It is essential that the investigator is familiar with

the upto-date literature on the planned topic for the research. The research

must be expected to contribute new information.

50.66. Novel does not necessarily mean that the research has not been done

before. The prefix “re” in the word research implies searching again. Most

good studies are neither original nor simple duplication of other studies.

The progress of science is incremental, with knowledge gradually

building up from different studies. The question should not be about

whether the study has been done before, but whether it will add to the

existing body of knowledge

51.67. Ethics Ethical issues must be addressed at the early stage of selecting

the research topic. Other ethical issues will need to be addressed in

planning the research. Some ethical problems may indicate that the

research should not be considered from the beginning. If the research

topic involves experimentation on human subjects, the following issues

should be considered. • If the topic is about testing a new therapy or

procedure, evidence should already be available to suggest that it can be

superior to currently available alternatives.

52.68. • Adequate data must be available from animal studies and from

studies on a small number of human subjects to confirm safety and to

suggest effectiveness, before subjecting patients to a new drug or

procedure It is unjustifiable to do clinical trials on therapies that are

unlikely to become available to people in the country or community. • The

research should not conflict with the society’s cultural, moral, religious

and legal values

53.69. Relevance This criterion can be called: the “so-what?” test. For the

research to be considered relevant, it must have the potential to advance

scientific knowledge, influence clinical management, influence health

policy, or guide further research

54.70. Further Reading & Cited Sources 1- Research Methods and Writing

Research Proposals ( Pdf file 135 pages, well organized textbook) - By:

Prof. Dr. Samy Tayie

http://www.pathways.cu.edu.eg/subpages/training_courses/Research%20

Methods%208/C31%20Research%20Methods%20and%20Writing%20Re

search%20Proposals.pdf 2- A Practical Guide for Health Researchers (

Pdf file 235 page , Comprehensive text, from WHO)- Mahmoud F.

Fathalla . http://applications.emro.who.int/dsaf/dsa237.pdf 3-

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

http://www.ihmctan.edu/PDF/notes/Research_Methodology.pdf 4-
 Research Methods Knowledge Base: The Research Methods Knowledge

Base is a comprehensive web-based textbook that addresses all of the

topics in a typical introductory undergraduate or graduate course in social

research methods. It covers the entire research process

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/contents.php 5- Organizing

Your Social Sciences Research Paper ( Web site from University of

Southern California USA) The purpose of this guide is to provide advice

on how to develop and organize a research paper in the social sciences

http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=8180

Citing non-print or sources from the Internet

With more and more scholarly work being posted on the Internet, you may have

to cite research you have completed in virtual environments. While many

sources on the Internet should not be used for scholarly work (reference the

OWL's Evaluating Sources of Informationresource), some Web sources are

perfectly acceptable for research. When creating in-text citations for electronic,

film, or Internet sources, remember that your citation must reference the source

in your Works Cited.

Sometimes writers are confused with how to craft parenthetical citations for

electronic sources because of the absence of page numbers, but often, these sorts
of entries do not require any sort of parenthetical citation at all. For electronic

and Internet sources, follow the following guidelines:

 Include in the text the first item that appears in the Work Cited entry that

corresponds to the citation (e.g. author name, article name, website name,

film name).

 You do not need to give paragraph numbers or page numbers based on

your Web browser’s print preview function.

 Unless you must list the Web site name in the signal phrase in order to get

the reader to the appropriate entry, do not include URLs in-text. Only

provide partial URLs such as when the name of the site includes, for

example, a domain name, like CNN.com or Forbes.com as opposed to

writing out http://www.cnn.com or http://www.forbes.com.

Miscellaneous non-print sources

Werner Herzog's Fitzcarraldo stars Herzog's long-time film partner,

Klaus Kinski. During the shooting of Fitzcarraldo, Herzog and Kinski

were often at odds, but their explosive relationship fostered a memorable

and influential film.

During the presentation, Jane Yates stated that invention and pre-writing

are areas of rhetoric that need more attention.

In the two examples above “Herzog” from the first entry and “Yates”

from the second lead the reader to the first item each citation’s respective

entry on the Works Cited page:

Herzog, Werner, dir. Fitzcarraldo. Perf. Klaus Kinski. Filmverlag der

Autoren, 1982.

Yates, Jane. "Invention in Rhetoric and Composition." Gaps Addressed:

Future Work in Rhetoric and Composition, CCCC, Palmer House Hilton,

2002.

Electronic sources

One online film critic stated that Fitzcarraldo "has become notorious for

its near-failure and many obstacles" (Taylor, “Fitzcarraldo”).

The Purdue OWL is accessed by millions of users every year. Its "MLA

Formatting and Style Guide" is one of the most popular resources (Russell

et al.).

In the first example, the writer has chosen not to include the author name

in-text; however, two entries from the same author appear in the Works

Cited. Thus, the writer includes both the author’s last name and the article

title in the parenthetical citation in order to lead the reader to the

appropriate entry on the Works Cited page (see below). In the second

example, “Russell et al.” in the parenthetical citation gives the reader an

author name followed by the abbreviation “et al.,” meaning, “and others,”

for the article “MLA Formatting and Style Guide.” Both corresponding

Works Cited entries are as follows:

Taylor, Rumsey. "Fitzcarraldo." Slant, 13 Jun. 2003,

www.slantmagazine.com/film/review/fitzcarraldo/.

Russell, Tony, et al. "MLA Formatting and Style Guide." The Purdue

OWL, 2 Aug. 2016, owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/.

MLA Works Cited: Electronic Sources (Web Publications)

Summary:

MLA (Modern Language Association) style is most commonly used to

write papers and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities. This

resource, updated to reflect the MLA Handbook (8th ed.), offers examples

for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations,

endnotes/footnotes, and the Works Cited page.

Contributors:Tony Russell, Allen Brizee, Elizabeth Angeli, Russell

Keck, Joshua M. Paiz, Michelle Campbell, Rodrigo Rodríguez-Fuentes,

Daniel P. Kenzie, Susan Wegener, Maryam Ghafoor, Purdue OWL Staff

Last Edited: 2017-10-12 08:26:00

It is always a good idea to maintain personal copies of electronic

information, when possible. It is good practice to print or save web pages

or, better, use a program like Adobe Acrobat to keep your own copies for

future reference. Most web browsers will include URL/electronic address

information when you print, which makes later reference easy. Also, you

might use the Bookmark function in your web browser in order to return

to documents more easily.

MLA uses the phrase, “Accessed” to denote which date you accessed the

web page when available or necessary. It is not required to do so but

especially encouraged when there is no copyright date listed on a website.

Important Note on the Use of URLs in MLA

Include a URL or web address to help readers locate your sources.

Because web addresses are not static (i.e., they change often) and because

documents sometimes appear in multiple places on the web (e.g., on

multiple databases), MLA encourages the use of citing containers such as

Youtube, JSTOR, Spotify, or Netflix in order to easily access and verify

sources. However, MLA only requires the www. address, so eliminate all

https:// when citing URLs.

Many scholarly journal articles found in databases include a DOI (digital

object identifier). If a DOI is available, cite the DOI number instead of the

URL.
 Online newspapers and magazines sometimes include a “permalink,”

which is a shortened, stable version of a URL. Look for a “share” or “cite

this” button to see if a source includes a permalink. If you can find a

permalink, use that instead of a URL.

Abbreviations Commonly Used with Electronic Sources

If page numbers are not available, use par. or pars. to denote paragraph

numbers. Use these in place of the p. or pp. abbreviation.

Basic Style for Citations of Electronic Sources (Including Online

Databases)

Here are some common features you should try to find before citing

electronic sources in MLA style. Not every Web page will provide all of

the following information. However, collect as much of the following

information as possible both for your citations and for your research

notes:

 Author and/or editor names (if available)

 Article name in quotation marks.

 Title of the website, project, or book in italics.

 Any version numbers available, including editions (ed.), revisions, posting

dates, volumes (vol.), or issue numbers (no.).

 Publisher information, including the publisher name and publishing date.

 Take note of any page numbers (p. or pp.) or paragraph numbers (par. or

pars.).

 URL (without the https://) DOI or permalink.

 Date you accessed the material (Date Accessed)—While not required, it is

highly recommended, especially when dealing with pages that change

frequently or do not have a visible copyright date.

 Remember to cite containers after your regular citation. Examples of

containers are collections of short stories or poems, a television series, or

even a website. A container is anything that is a part of a larger body of

works.

Use the following format:

Author. Title. Title of container (self contained if book), Other

contributors (translators or editors), Version (edition), Number (vol.

and/or no.), Publisher, Publication Date, Location (pages, paragraphs

and/or URL, DOI or permalink). 2nd container’s title, Other contributors,

Version, Number, Publisher, Publication date, Location, Date of Access

(if applicable).

Citing an Entire Web Site

It is a good idea to list your date of access because web postings are often

updated, and information available on one date may no longer be

available later. When using the URL, be sure to include the complete

address for the site except for the https://.

Editor, author, or compiler name (if available). Name of Site. Version

number, Name of institution/organization affiliated with the site (sponsor

or publisher), date of resource creation (if available), URL, DOI or

permalink. Date of access (if applicable).

The Purdue OWL Family of Sites. The Writing Lab and OWL at Purdue

and Purdue U, 2008, owl.english.purdue.edu/owl. Accessed 23 Apr. 2008.

Felluga, Dino. Guide to Literary and Critical Theory. Purdue U, 28 Nov.

2003, www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/. Accessed 10 May 2006.

Course or Department Websites

Give the instructor name. Then list the title of the course (or the school

catalog designation for the course) in italics. Give appropriate department

and school names as well, following the course title.

Felluga, Dino. Survey of the Literature of England. Purdue U, Aug. 2006,

web.ics.purdue.edu/~felluga/241/241/Home.html. Accessed 31 May 2007.

English Department. Purdue U, 20 Apr. 2009,

www.cla.purdue.edu/english/.
A Page on a Web Site

For an individual page on a Web site, list the author or alias if known,

followed by the information covered above for entire Web sites. If the

publisher is the same as the website name, only list it once.

"Athlete's Foot - Topic Overview." WebMD, 25 Sept. 2014,

www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/tc/athletes-foot-topic-

overview.

Lundman, Susan. "How to Make Vegetarian Chili." eHow,

www.ehow.com/how_10727_make-vegetarian-chili.html. Accessed 6

July 2015.

An Image (Including a Painting, Sculpture, or Photograph)

Provide the artist's name, the work of art italicized, the date of creation,

the institution and city where the work is housed. Follow this initial entry

with the name of the Website in italics, and the date of access.

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV. 1800. Museo Nacional del

Prado, Madrid. Museo Nacional del Prado,

www.museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/the-family-of-carlos-

iv/f47898fc-aa1c-48f6-a779-71759e417e74. Accessed 22 May 2006.

Klee, Paul. Twittering Machine. 1922. Museum of Modern Art, New

York. The Artchive,

www.artchive.com/artchive/K/klee/twittering_machine.jpg.html.

Accessed May 2006.

If the work is cited on the web only, then provide the name of the artist,

the title of the work, and then follow the citation format for a website. If

the work is posted via a username, use that username for the author.

Adams, Clifton R. “People relax beside a swimming pool at a country

estate near Phoenix, Arizona, 1928.” Found, National Geographic

Creative, 2 June 2016, natgeofound.tumblr.com/.

An Article in a Web Magazine

Provide the author name, article name in quotation marks, title of the web

magazine in italics, publisher name, publication date, URL, and the date

of access.

Bernstein, Mark. "10 Tips on Writing the Living Web." A List Apart: For

People Who Make Websites, 16 Aug. 2002,

alistapart.com/article/writeliving. Accessed 4 May 2009.

An Article in an Online Scholarly Journal

For all online scholarly journals, provide the author(s) name(s), the name

of the article in quotation marks, the title of the publication in italics, all

volume and issue numbers, and the year of publication. Include a URL,

DOI, or permalink to help readers locate the source.

Article in an Online-only Scholarly Journal

MLA requires a page range for articles that appear in Scholarly Journals.

If the journal you are citing appears exclusively in an online format (i.e.

there is no corresponding print publication) that does not make use of

page numbers, indicate the URL or other location information.

Dolby, Nadine. “Research in Youth Culture and Policy: Current

Conditions and Future Directions.” Social Work and Society: The

International Online-Only Journal, vol. 6, no. 2, 2008,

www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/60/362. Accessed 20 May 2009.

Article in an Online Scholarly Journal That Also Appears in Print

Cite articles in online scholarly journals that also appear in print as you

would a scholarly journal in print, including the page range of the article.

Provide the URL and the date of access.

Wheelis, Mark. "Investigating Disease Outbreaks Under a Protocol to the

Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention." Emerging Infectious

Diseases, vol. 6, no. 6, 2000, pp. 595-600,

wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/6/6/00-0607_article. Accessed 8 Feb. 2009.

An Article from an Online Database (or Other Electronic

Subscription Service)
Cite online databases (e.g. LexisNexis, ProQuest, JSTOR, ScienceDirect)

and other subscription services as containers. Thus, provide the title of the

database italicized before the DOI or URL. If a DOI is not provided, use

the URL instead. Provide the date of access if you wish.

Alonso, Alvaro, and Julio A. Camargo. "Toxicity of Nitrite to Three

Species of Freshwater Invertebrates." Environmental Toxicology, vol. 21,

no. 1, 3 Feb. 2006, pp. 90-94. Wiley Online Library,

doi:10.1002/tox.20155.

Langhamer, Claire. “Love and Courtship in Mid-Twentieth-Century

England.” Historical Journal, vol. 50, no. 1, 2007, pp. 173-96. ProQuest,

doi:10.1017/S0018246X06005966. Accessed 27 May 2009.

E-mail (including E-mail Interviews)

Give the author of the message, followed by the subject line in quotation

marks. State to whom to message was sent with the phrase, “Received by”

and the recipient’s name. Include the date the message was sent. Use

standard capitalization.

Kunka, Andrew. "Re: Modernist Literature." Received by John Watts, 15

Nov. 2000.

Neyhart, David. "Re: Online Tutoring." Received by Joe Barbato, 1 Dec.

2016.
A Listserv, Discussion Group, or Blog Posting

Cite web postings as you would a standard web entry. Provide the author

of the work, the title of the posting in quotation marks, the web site name

in italics, the publisher, and the posting date. Follow with the date of

access. Include screen names as author names when author name is not

known. If both names are known, place the author’s name in brackets.

Editor, screen name, author, or compiler name (if available). “Posting

Title.” Name of Site, Version number (if available), Name of

institution/organization affiliated with the site (sponsor or publisher),

URL. Date of access.

Salmar1515 [Sal Hernandez]. “Re: Best Strategy: Fenced Pastures vs.

Max Number of Rooms?” BoardGameGeek, 29 Sept. 2008,

boardgamegeek.com/thread/343929/best-strategy-fenced-pastures-vs-

max-number-rooms. Accessed 5 Apr. 2009.

A Tweet

Begin with the user's Twitter handle in place of the author’s name. Next,

place the tweet in its entirety in quotations, inserting a period after the

tweet within the quotations. Include the date and time of posting, using

the reader's time zone; separate the date and time with a comma and end

with a period. Include the date accessed if you deem necessary.

@tombrokaw. "SC demonstrated why all the debates are the engines of

this campaign." Twitter, 22 Jan. 2012, 3:06 a.m.,

twitter.com/tombrokaw/status/160996868971704320.

@PurdueWLab. "Spring break is around the corner, and all our locations

will be open next week." Twitter, 5 Mar. 2012, 12:58 p.m.,

twitter.com/PurdueWLab/status/176728308736737282.

A YouTube Video

Video and audio sources need to be documented using the same basic

guidelines for citing print sources in MLA style. Include as much

descriptive information as necessary to help readers understand the type

and nature of the source you are citing. If the author’s name is the same as

the uploader, only cite the author once. If the author is different from the

uploaded, cite the author’s name before the title.

“8 Hot Dog Gadgets put to the Test.” YouTube, uploaded by Crazy

Russian Hacker, 6 June 2016,

www.youtube.com/watch?v=WBlpjSEtELs.

McGonigal, Jane. “Gaming and Productivity.” YouTube, uploaded by Big

Think, 3 July 2012, www.youtube.com/watch?v=mkdzy9bWW3E.

A Comment on a Website or Article

List the username as the author. Use the phrase, Comment on, before the

title. Use quotation marks around the article title. Name the publisher,

date, time (listed on near the comment), and the URL.

Not Omniscent Enough. Comment on "Flight Attendant Tells Passenger

to ‘Shut Up’ After Argument After Pasta." ABC News, 9 Jun 2016, 4:00

p.m., abcnews.go.com/US/flight-attendant-tells-passenger-shut-argument-

pasta/story?id=39704050.

Reference List: Electronic Sources (Web Publications)

Summary:

APA (American Psychological Association) style is most commonly used

to cite sources within the social sciences. This resource, revised according

to the 6th edition, second printing of the APA manual, offers examples for

the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations,

endnotes/footnotes, and the reference page. For more information, please

consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological

Association, (6th ed., 2nd printing).

Contributors:Joshua M. Paiz, Elizabeth Angeli, Jodi Wagner, Elena

Lawrick, Kristen Moore, Michael Anderson, Lars Soderlund, Allen

Brizee, Russell Keck

Last Edited: 2017-11-15 10:40:43

Please note: There are no spaces used with brackets in APA. When

possible, include the year, month, and date in references. If the month and

date are not available, use the year of publication. Please note, too, that

the OWL still includes information about print sources and databases for

those still working with these sources.

Article From an Online Periodical

Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include all

information the online host makes available, including an issue number in

parentheses.

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title

of Online Periodical, volume number(issue number if available).

Retrieved from

http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/

Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For

People Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved from

http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving

Online Scholarly Journal Article: Citing DOIs

Please note: In August of 2011 the formatting recommendations for DOIs

changed. DOIs are now rendered as an alpha-numeric string which acts as

an active link. According to The APA Style Guide to Electronic

References, 6th edition, you should use the DOI format which the article

appears with. So, if it is using the older numeric string, use that as the

DOI. If, however, it is presented as the newer alpha-numeric string, use

that as the DOI. The Purdue OWL maintains examples of citations using

both DOI styles.

Because online materials can potentially change URLs, APA recommends

providing a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), when it is available, as

opposed to the URL. DOIs are an attempt to provide stable, long-lasting

links for online articles. They are unique to their documents and consist of

a long alphanumeric code. Many-but not all-publishers will provide an

article's DOI on the first page of the document.

Note that some online bibliographies provide an article's DOI but may

"hide" the code under a button which may read "Article" or may be an

abbreviation of a vendor's name like "CrossRef" or "PubMed." This

button will usually lead the user to the full article which will include the

DOI. Find DOI's from print publications or ones that go to dead links with

CrossRef.org's "DOI Resolver," which is displayed in a central location

on their home page.

Article From an Online Periodical with DOI Assigned

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title

of Journal, volume number, page range. doi:0000000/000000000000 or

http://doi.org/10.0000/0000

Brownlie, D. (2007). Toward effective poster presentations: An annotated

bibliography. European Journal of Marketing, 41, 1245-1283.

doi:10.1108/03090560710821161

Wooldridge, M.B., & Shapka, J. (2012). Playing with technology:

Mother-toddler interaction scores lower during play with electronic

toys. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 33(5), 211-218.

http://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2012.05.005

Article From an Online Periodical with no DOI Assigned

Online scholarly journal articles without a DOI require the URL of the

journal home page. Remember that one goal of citations is to provide your

readers with enough information to find the article; providing the journal

home page aids readers in this process.

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title

of Journal, volume number. Retrieved from

http://www.journalhomepage.com/full/url/
Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human

rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8. Retrieved from

http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html

Article from a Database

Please note: APA states that including database information in citations is

not necessary because databases change over time (p. 192). However, the

OWL still includes information about databases for those users who need

database information.

When referencing a print article obtained from an online database (such as

a database in the library), provide appropriate print citation information

(formatted just like a "normal" print citation would be for that type of

work). By providing this information, you allow people to retrieve the

print version if they do not have access to the database from which you

retrieved the article. You can also include the item number or accession

number or database URL at the end, but the APA manual says that this is

not required.

If you are citing a database article that is available in other places, such as

a journal or magazine, include the homepage's URL. You may have to do

a web search of the article's title, author, etc. to find the URL.

For articles that are easily located, do not provide database information. If
the article is difficult to locate, then you can provide database

information. Only use retrieval dates if the source could change, such as

Wikis. For more about citing articles retrieved from electronic databases,

see pages 187-192 of the Publication Manual.

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title

of Journal, volume number, page range. Retrieved from

http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/

Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment

of peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating, 8(3), 120-125. Retrieved from

http://www.fakeexamplehomepage.com/full/url/

Abstract

If you only cite an abstract but the full text of the article is also available,

cite the online abstract as any other online citations, adding "[Abstract]"

after the article or source name. However, if the full text is not available,

you may use an abstract that is available through an abstracts database as

a secondary source.

Paterson, P. (2008). How well do young offenders with Asperger

Syndrome cope in custody?: Two prison case studies [Abstract]. British

Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(1), 54-58.

Hendricks, J., Applebaum, R., & Kunkel, S. (2010). A world apart?

Bridging the gap between theory and applied social

gerontology. Gerontologist, 50(3), 284-293. Abstract retrieved from

Abstracts in Social Gerontology database. (Accession No. 50360869)

Newspaper Article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper.

Retrieved from

http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/

Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry handbook linked to drug

industry. The New York Times. Retrieved

from http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/05/06/psychiatry-handbook-

linked-to-drug-industry/?_r=0

Electronic Books

Electronic books may include books found on personal websites,

databases, or even in audio form. Use the following format if the book

you are using is only provided in a digital format or is difficult to find in

print. If the work is not directly available online or must be purchased, use

"Available from," rather than "Retrieved from," and point readers to

where they can find it. For books available in print form and electronic

form, include the publish date in parentheses after the author's name. For
references to e-book editions, be sure to include the type and version of e-

book you are referencing (e.g., "[Kindle DX version]"). If DOIs are

available, provide them at the end of the reference.

De Huff, E. W. (n.d.). Taytay’s tales: Traditional Pueblo Indian tales.

Retrieved from

http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/dehuff/taytay/taytay.html

Davis, J. (n.d.). Familiar birdsongs of the Northwest. Available from

http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio? inkey=1-9780931686108-0

Kindle Books

To cite Kindle (or other e-book formats) you must include the following

information: The author, date of publication, title, e-book version, and

either the Digital Object Identifer (DOI) number, or the place where you

downloaded the book. Please note that the DOI/place of download is used

in-place of publisher information.

Here’s an example:
Stoker, B. (1897). Dracula [Kindle DX version]. Retrieved from

Amazon.com

Chapter/Section of a Web Document or Online Book Chapter

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article.

In Title of book or larger document (chapter or section number).

Retrieved from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/

Engelshcall, R. S. (1997). Module mod_rewrite: URL Rewriting Engine.

In Apache HTTP Server version 1.3 documentation (Apache modules).

Retrieved from http://httpd.apache.org/docs/1.3/mod/mod_rewrite.html

Peckinpaugh, J. (2003). Change in the Nineties. In J. S. Bough and G. B.

DuBois (Eds.), A century of growth in America. Retrieved from GoldStar

database.

NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and provide a URL that links

directly to the chapter section, not the home page of the Web site.

Online Book Reviews

Cite the information as you normally would for the work you are quoting.

(The first example below is from a newspaper article; the second is from a

scholarly journal.) In brackets, write "Review of the book" and give the

title of the reviewed work. Provide the web address after the words

"Retrieved from," if the review is freely available to anyone. If the review

comes from a subscription service or database, write "Available from"

and provide the information where the review can be purchased.

Zacharek, S. (2008, April 27). Natural women [Review of the book Girls

like us]. The New York Times. Retrieved from

http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/27/books/review/Zachareck

-t.html?pagewanted=2

Castle, G. (2007). New millennial Joyce [Review of the books Twenty-

first Joyce, Joyce's critics: Transitions in reading and culture, and Joyce's

messianism: Dante, negative existence, and the messianic self]. Modern

Fiction Studies, 50(1), 163-173. Available from Project MUSE Web site:

http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/modern_fiction_studies/toc/mfs52.1.html

Dissertation/Thesis from a Database

Biswas, S. (2008). Dopamine D3 receptor: A neuroprotective treatment

target in Parkinson's disease. Retrieved from ProQuest Digital

Dissertations. (AAT 3295214)

Online Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

Often encyclopedias and dictionaries do not provide bylines (authors'

names). When no byline is present, move the entry name to the front of

the citation. Provide publication dates if present or specify (n.d.) if no date

is present in the entry.

Feminism. (n.d.). In Encyclopædia Britannica online. Retrieved from

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/724633/feminism

Online Bibliographies and Annotated Bibliographies

Jürgens, R. (2005). HIV/AIDS and HCV in Prisons: A Select Annotated

Bibliography. Retrieved from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-

asc/alt_formats/hpb-dgps/pdf/intactiv/hiv-vih-aids-sida-prison-

carceral_e.pdf

Data Sets

Point readers to raw data by providing a Web address (use "Retrieved

from") or a general place that houses data sets on the site (use "Available

from").

United States Department of Housing and Urban Development.

(2008). Indiana income limits[Data file]. Retrieved from

http://www.huduser.org/Datasets/IL/IL08/in_fy2008.pdf

Graphic Data (e.g. Interactive Maps and Other Graphic

Representations of Data)

Give the name of the researching organization followed by the date. In

brackets, provide a brief explanation of what type of data is there and in

what form it appears. Finally, provide the project name and retrieval

information.
Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment. (2007). [Graph illustration the

SORCE Spectral Plot May 8, 2008]. Solar Spectral Data Access from the

SIM, SOLSTICE, and XPS Instruments. Retrieved from

http://lasp.colorado.edu/cgi-bin/ion-p?page=input_data_for_ spectra.ion

Qualitative Data and Online Interviews

If an interview is not retrievable in audio or print form, cite the interview

only in the text (not in the reference list) and provide the month, day, and

year in the text. If an audio file or transcript is available online, use the

following model, specifying the medium in brackets (e.g. [Interview

transcript, Interview audio file]):

Butler, C. (Interviewer) & Stevenson, R. (Interviewee). (1999). Oral

History 2 [Interview transcript]. Retrieved from Johnson Space Center

Oral Histories Project Web site: http://

www11.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/oral_histories.htm

Online Lecture Notes and Presentation Slides

When citing online lecture notes, be sure to provide the file format in

brackets after the lecture title (e.g. PowerPoint slides, Word document).

Hallam, A. Duality in consumer theory [PDF document]. Retrieved from

Lecture Notes Online Web site:

http://www.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ501/Hallam/

index.html

Roberts, K. F. (1998). Federal regulations of chemicals in the

environment [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from

http://siri.uvm.edu/ppt/40hrenv/index.html

Nonperiodical Web Document or Report

List as much of the following information as possible (you sometimes

have to hunt around to find the information; don't be lazy. If there is a

page like http://www.somesite.com/somepage.htm, and somepage.htm

doesn't have the information you're looking for, move up the URL to

http://www.somesite.com/):

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of document.

Retrieved from http://Web address

Angeli, E., Wagner, J., Lawrick, E., Moore, K., Anderson, M., Soderland,

L., & Brizee, A. (2010, May 5). General format. Retrieved from

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

NOTE: When an Internet document is more than one Web page, provide

a URL that links to the home page or entry page for the document. Also,

if there isn't a date available for the document use (n.d.) for no date.
To cite a YouTube video, the APA recommends following the above

format.

Computer Software/Downloaded Software

Do not cite standard office software (e.g. Word, Excel) or programming

languages. Provide references only for specialized software.

Ludwig, T. (2002). PsychInquiry [computer software]. New York: Worth.

Software that is downloaded from a Web site should provide the

software’s version and year when available.

Hayes, B., Tesar, B., & Zuraw, K. (2003). OTSoft: Optimality Theory

Software (Version 2.1) [Software]. Available from

http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/hayes/otsoft/

E-mail

E-mails are not included in the list of references, though you

parenthetically cite them in your main text: (E. Robbins, personal

communication, January 4, 2001).

Online Forum or Discussion Board Posting

Include the title of the message, and the URL of the newsgroup or

discussion board. Please note that titles for items in online communities

(e.g. blogs, newsgroups, forums) are not italicized. If the author's name is
not available, provide the screen name. Place identifiers like post or

message numbers, if available, in brackets. If available, provide the URL

where the message is archived (e.g. "Message posted to..., archived at...").

Frook, B. D. (1999, July 23). New inventions in the cyberworld of

toylandia [Msg 25]. Message posted to

http://groups.earthlink.com/forum/messages/00025.html

Blog (Weblog) and Video Blog Post

Include the title of the message and the URL. Please note that titles for

items in online communities (e.g. blogs, newsgroups, forums) are not

italicized. If the author’s name is not available, provide the screen name.

J Dean. (2008, May 7). When the self emerges: Is that me in the mirror?

[Web log comment]. Retrieved from

http://www.spring.org.uk/the1sttransport

Psychology Video Blog #3 [Video file]. Retrieved from

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqM90eQi5-M

Wikis
Please note that the APA Style Guide to Electronic References warns

writers that wikis (like Wikipedia, for example) are collaborative projects

that cannot guarantee the verifiability or expertise of their entries.

OLPC Peru/Arahuay. (n.d.). Retrieved April 29, 2011 from the OLPC

Wiki: http://wiki.laptop. org/go/OLPC_Peru/Arahuay

Audio Podcast

For all podcasts, provide as much information as possible; not all of the

following information will be available. Possible addition identifiers may

include Producer, Director, etc.

Bell, T., & Phillips, T. (2008, May 6). A solar flare. Science @ NASA

Podcast. Podcast retrieved from http://science.nasa.gov/podcast.htm

Video Podcasts

For all podcasts, provide as much information as possible; not all of the

following information will be available. Possible addition identifiers may

include Producer, Director, etc.

Scott, D. (Producer). (2007, January 5). The community college

classroom [Episode 7]. Adventures in Education. Podcast retrieved from

http://www.adveeducation.com

APA Quick Citation Guide

 This guide contains examples of common citation formats in APA

(American Psychological Association) Style

 Overview

 In-text Citation

 Citing Web Pages and Social Media

 Citing Articles

 Citing Books

 Citing Business Reports

 Other Formats

 APA Style Quiz

Using In-text Citation

Include an in-text citation when you refer to, summarize, paraphrase, or

quote from another source. For every in-text citation in your paper, there

must be a corresponding entry in your reference list.

APA in-text citation style uses the author's last name and the year of

publication, for example: (Field, 2005). For direct quotations, include the

page number as well, for example: (Field, 2005, p. 14). For sources such

as websites and e-books that have no page numbers, use a paragraph

number. More information on citing sources without pagination is given

on the APA Style web page.

Example paragraph with in-text citation

A few researchers in the linguistics field have developed training

programs designed to improve native speakers' ability to understand

accented speech (Derwing, Rossiter, & Munro, 2002; Thomas, 2004).

Their training techniques are based on the research described above

indicating that comprehension improves with exposure to non-native

speech. Derwing et al. (2002) conducted their training with students

preparing to be social workers, but note that other professionals who work

with non-native speakers could benefit from a similar program.

References

Derwing, T. M., Rossiter, M. J., & Munro, M. J. (2002). Teaching native

speakers to listen to foreign-accented speech. Journal of Multilingual and

Multicultural Development, 23(4), 245-259.

Thomas, H. K. (2004). Training strategies for improving listeners'

comprehension of foreign-accented speech (Doctoral dissertation).

University of Colorado, Boulder.

Citing Web Pages In Text

Cite web pages in text as you would any other source, using the author

and date if known. If the author is not known, use the title and the date

as the in-text citation (for long titles just use the first few words). Your in-

text citation should lead your reader to the corresponding entry in the

reference list. For sources with no date use n.d. (for no date) in place of

the year: (Smith, n.d.). Below are examples of using in-text citation with

web pages.

Web page with author:

In-text citation

Role-play can help children learn techniques for coping with bullying

(Kraiser, 2011).

Reference entry

Kraizer, S. (2011). Preventing bullying. Retrieved from

http://safechild.org/categoryparents/preventing-bullying/

Web page with no author:

In-text citation
The term Nittany Lion was coined by Penn State football player Joe

Mason in 1904 (All things Nittany, 2006).

Reference entry

All things Nittany. (2006). Retrieved from

http://www.psu.edu/ur/about/nittanymascot.html

Web page with no date:

In-text citation

Establishing regular routines, such as exercise, can help survivors of

disasters recover from trauma (American Psychological Association

[APA], n.d.).

Reference entry

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Recovering emotionally from

disaster. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/recovering-

disasters.aspx

General Guidelines

In-text references should immediately follow the title, word, or phrase to

which they are directly relevant, rather than appearing at the end of long
clauses or sentences. In-text references should always precede

punctuation marks. Below are examples of using in-text citation.

Author's name in parentheses:

One study found that the most important element in comprehending non-

native speech is familiarity with the topic (Gass & Varonis, 1984).

Author's name part of narrative:

Gass and Varonis (1984) found that the most important element in

comprehending non-native speech is familiarity with the topic.

Group as author:

First citation: (American Psychological Association [APA], 2015)

Subsequent citation: (APA, 2015)

Multiple works: (separate each work with semi-colons)

Research shows that listening to a particular accent improves

comprehension of accented speech in general (Gass & Varonis, 1984;

Krech Thomas, 2004).

Direct quote: (include page number)

One study found that “the listener's familiarity with the topic of discourse

greatly facilitates the interpretation of the entire message” (Gass &

Varonis, 1984, p. 85).

Gass and Varonis (1984) found that “the listener’s familiarity with the

topic of discourse greatly facilitates the interpretation of the entire

message” (p. 85).

Note: For direct quotations of more than 40 words, display the quote as

an indented block of text without quotation marks and include the

authors’ names, year, and page number in parentheses at the end of the

quote. For example:

This suggests that familiarity with nonnative speech in general, although

it is clearly not as important a variable as topic familiarity, may indeed

have some effect. That is, prior experience with nonnative speech, such as

that gained by listening to the reading, facilitates comprehension. (Gass &

Varonis, 1984, p. 77)

Works by Multiple Authors

APA style has specific rules for citing works by multiple authors. Use the

following guidelines to determine how to correctly cite works by multiple

authors in text.

Note: When using multiple authors' names as part of your narrative,

rather than in parentheses, always spell out the word and. For multiple

authors' names within a parenthetic citation, use &.

One author: (Field, 2005)

Two authors: (Gass & Varonis, 1984)

Three to five authors:

First citation: (Tremblay, Richer, Lachance, & Cote, 2010)

Subsequent citations: (Tremblay et al., 2010)

Six or more authors: (Norris-Shortle et al., 2006)

MLA 7 Basics: Parenthetical Citations

Don't want to cite by hand?

Search and cite automatically with EasyBib!

1. Choose Source Type

Website

Book

Journal

Newspaper

Cite This
Why we use parenthetical / in-text citations

Researchers place brief parenthetical descriptions to acknowledge which

parts of their paper reference particular sources. Generally, you want to

provide the last name of the author and the specific page numbers of the

source. If such information is already given in the body of the sentence,

then exclude it from the parenthetical citation.

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Place the parenthetical citation where there is a pause in the sentence –

normally before the end of a sentence or a comma. The in-text citation

will differ depending on how much information you provide within the

sentence.

Example with author’s name in text:

Johnson argues this point (12-13).

or

This point had already been argued (Johnson 12-13).

Citing sources with more than one author

If you use sources with the same author surnames, then include a first

name initial. If the two sources have authors with the same initials, then

include their full names:[su_spacer]

Example:

(J. Johnson 12-13).

or

(John Johnson 12-13).

If there are two or three authors of the source, include their last names in

the order they appear on the source:

Example:

(Smith, Wollensky, and Johnson 45).

If there are more than three authors, you can cite all the authors with their

last name, or you can cite the first author followed by “et al.” Follow what

is shown the works cited list.

Example:

(Smith et al. 45).

Citing sources without an author

Some sources do not have authors or contributors – for instance, when

you cite some websites. Instead, refer to the name of the source in your

parenthetical citation in place of the author. Shorten / abbreviate the name

of the source but ensure that your reader can easily identify it in your

works cited (abbreviate the title starting with the same word in which it is

alphabetized). Punctuate with quotations or italicize as you would in its

works cited form (a book is italicized; an article is in quotes).

Examples:

Double agents are still widely in use (Spies 12-15, 17).

With prices of energy at new highs, bikes have been increasingly used

(“Alternative Transportation” 89).

Citing part of a work

When citing a specific part of a work, provide the relevant page or section

identifier. This can include specific pages, sections, paragraphs or

volumes. When the identifier is preceded by an abbreviation or word,

place a comma between the identifier and the source reference.

Part of a multivolume work

Example:

It is arguably the most innovative period in history (Webster, vol 4).

Chapter within a book (if no specific numbers can be referenced)

Example:

The electoral college undermines democracy (Sanders, “Government

Injustices”).

Article in a periodical

Example:

Allen claims there is an inverse correlation between higher taxes and

patriotic feelings worldwide (B2).

When citing a specific page(s) of a multivolume work, precede the page

number by the volume number and a colon. Do not separate by a comma.

It was arguably the most innovative period in history (Webster 4:12-15).

Use “par.” or “pars.” when referring to specific paragraphs.

The marketing dollars of big studio films has overshadowed good indie

movies (Anderson, pars. 12-34).

Citing group or corporate authors

In your parenthetical citation, cite a corporate author like you would a

normal author. Preferably, incorporate the corporate author in your text

instead of the parenthetical citation.

Example:

Facial transplants pose significant risk to the autoimmune system

(American Medical Association 12-43).

As noted by the American Medical Association, facial transplants pose

significant risk to the autoimmune system (12-43).

Citing an entire source

When citing an entire work, there are no specific page numbers to refer to.

Therefore it is preferable to refer to the source within the text itself with

either the author or the title of the source.

Example:

Hartford suggests the Internet provides more distractions than it does

information.
Citing multiple works by the same author

If you reference more than one source by the same author, distinguish the

parenthetical citations by including the name of the source. Use a comma

to separate the author from the source.

Example:

Wars can be economic catalysts (Friedman, World 77-80).

Industrialized nations are better equipped to rebound from recessions

(Friedman, “High Tides” 56).

Citing indirect sources

When an original source is unavailable, then cite the secondhand source –

for instance, a lecture in a conference proceedings. When quoting or

paraphrasing a quote, write “qtd. in” before the author and pages.

Example:

John Murray calls Tim Smith “interesting but egotistical” (qtd. in Jesrani

34).
Citing literary / classic and religious works

For works such as novels, plays and other classic works, it’s helpful to

provide further identifying information along with the page information.

Do this by adding a semicolon and then the identifying information

following the page number.

Example:

(Tolstoy 5; pt. 2, ch. 3).

When citing classic poems and plays, replace page numbers with division

numbers (part, book, scene, act). The below refers to book 10 line 5. Bear

in mind the divisions and the way they are written can vary by source.

Example:

Fear plays a role in Homer’s Odyssey (10.5).

The title of books in the Bible and other famous literary works should be

abbreviated.

(New Jerusalem Bible, Gen. 2.6-9).

Placing parenthetical citations in direct quotations

When directly quoting a source, place the parenthetical citation after the

quote.

Example:

Sanders explains that economic woes are due to “the mortgage crisis and

poor risk assessment” (20).

Place the parenthetical citation at the end of an indented quotation. There

should be no period after the parenthetical citation. The last sentence of

the indented quote should look like:

Example:

It’s unclear whether multilateral tariffs are disruptive to bilateral talks.

(Evert 30-31)

Citing online sources

Generally, follow the same principals of parenthetical citations to cite

online sources. Refer to the author, and if possible, a permanent identifier

that would be the same for any reader.

Examples:

The economy will rebound with the new monetary policies (Smith).
Solar power will become the primary source of energy (Williams 2).

Citing online sources with no author

If there is no author, use the title that begins the citation, either the article

or website title. Be sure it also takes the same formatting, i.e. articles are

in quotes and website titles are italicized. Shorten / abbreviate the name of

the source but ensure that your reader can easily identify it in your works

cited (abbreviate the title starting with the same word in which it is

alphabetized).

Examples:

Elephants are thought to be one of the smartest mammals (“Smart

Elephants”).

Nineteen men and women were convicted (Salem Witchcraft Trials).

Note: Ideally, when citing online sources, try to reference the source

within your sentence, with either the author or the title to avoid writing a

parenthetical citation.

Where to put the parenthetical citations:

 Place parenthetical citations at the end of the sentence you are

paraphrasing and quoting. For example: The destruction of the argentine

is due to many socioeconomic factors (Taylor 33).

 Even when quoting, place the parenthetical citations after the quotations.

Example:

“Mamma always said stupid is as stupid does” (Gump 89).

Long quotes:

When quoting four lines or more, indent every line you are quoting by one

inch (or 10 spaces) and do not use quotes.

Example:

The use of nuclear weapons in today’s society is strikingly alarming.

Though the United States is the only country to employ it in the past, they

are at the same time the country that condemns its use the most. While

this may seem hypocritical, is it the most proper action for the United

States to make as the global leader. (Taparia 9)