Lawn tennis

Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two
players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt
over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object of the game is to maneuver the ball in such a way that the
opponent is not able to play a valid return. The player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite
player will.
Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society and at all ages. The sport can be played by anyone who can
hold a racket, including wheelchair users. The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th
century as lawn tennis.[1] It had close connections both to various field (lawn) games such as croquet and bowls as well as to
the older racket sport today called real tennis. During most of the 19th century, in fact, the term tennis referred to real tennis,
not lawn tennis.
The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to
keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. A recent addition to professional
tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to
contest the line call of a point, a system known as Hawk-Eye.
Tennis is played by millions of recreational players and is also a popular worldwide spectator sport. The four Grand
Slam tournaments (also referred to as the Majors) are especially popular: the Australian Open played on hard courts,
the French Open played on red clay courts, Wimbledon played on grass courts, and the US Open also played on hard courts.

History
Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm
of the hand.[2] Louis X of France was a keen player of jeu de paume ("game of the palm"), which evolved into real tennis, and
became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing
tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris "around the end of the 13th century".[3] In due
course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe.[3] In June 1316 at Vincennes, Val-de-Marne and following a
particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of
either pneumonia or pleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning.[4] Because of the contemporary accounts of
his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name.[4] Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was
King Charles V of France, who had a court set up at the Louvre Palace.[5]
It was not until the 16th century that rackets came into use and the game began to be called "tennis", from
the French term tenez, which can be translated as "hold!", "receive!" or "take!", an interjection used as a call from the server
to his opponent.[6] It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors where the ball could be
hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game, which is now known as real tennis.[7] During the 18th and
early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England.[8]
The invention of the first lawn mower in 1830, in Britain, is believed to have been a catalyst, for the preparation of modern-
style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for
many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others

Equipment
Rackets
The components of a tennis racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame
that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings.

Balls
Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight, deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The
International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between
56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz).
Manner of play
Court
Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and
36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches.

Lines
All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, with the exception of the baseline which can be up to 4
inches (100 mm) wide, although in practice it is often the same width as the others.

Play of a single point

The players or teams start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server, and the opposing player is
the receiver. For a service to be legal, the ball must travel over the net without touching it into the diagonally opposite service box. If
the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a let or net service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player
can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long
or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a "foot fault" when a player's foot touches the baseline or an
extension of the center mark before the ball is hit. If the second service, after a fault, is also a fault, the server double faults, and the
receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service.
A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of a player hitting
the ball so that it falls in the server's court, before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net. A player or team cannot hit
the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel over the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is
considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal
return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point
Scoring
A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least
four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner
peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as "love", "15", "30", and "40", respectively. If at least three points
have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as "40–40", but rather as
"deuce". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than his opponent, the score of the
game is "advantage" for the player in the lead. During informal games, "advantage" can also be called "ad in" or "van in" when the
serving player is ahead, and "ad out" or "van out" when the receiving player is ahead.
Set
A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets
certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one
player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins
the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) a tie-break is played. A tie-break, played under a separate set of
rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A "love" set means that the loser of
the set won zero games, colloquially termed a 'jam donut' in the US. [55] In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner
of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. "6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5".
Match
A match consists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or five sets system. On the professional
circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all four Grand Slam tournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of the Olympic Games and
best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first
player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match.[56] Only in the final sets of matches at
the French Open, the Olympic Games, and Fed Cup are tie-breaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one
player has a two-game lead, occasionally leading to some remarkably long matches.

Shots
Grip
A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits
the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot.
Serve
A serve (or, more formally, a "service") in tennis is a shot to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and
hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may
be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity. [77] If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over
into the correct diagonal box then it is called a "let" and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a
let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared. [49] If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second
serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box.

Forehand
For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is
made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are various grips for executing the forehand, and their popularity
has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are the continental, the eastern, the semi-western, and the western.

Backhand
For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact
is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally
considered more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand,
using either an eastern or a continental grip.

Table tennis
Table tennis, also known as ping-pong, is a sport in which two or four players hit a lightweight ball back and forth across a
table using small rackets. The game takes place on a hard table divided by a net. Except for the initial serve, the rules are
generally as follows: players must allow a ball played toward them to bounce one time on their side of the table, and must
return it so that it bounces on the opposite side at least once. A point is scored when a player fails to return the ball within the
rules. Play is fast and demands quick reactions. Spinning the ball alters its trajectory and limits an opponent's options, giving
the hitter a great advantage.
Table tennis is governed by the worldwide organization International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF), founded in 1926. ITTF
currently includes 226 member associations.[3] The table tennis official rules are specified in the ITTF handbook.[4] Table
tennis has been an Olympic sport since 1988,[5] with several event categories. From 1988 until 2004, these were men's
singles, women's singles, men's doubles and women's doubles. Since 2008, a team event has been played instead of the
doubles.

History
The sport originated in Victorian England, where it was played among the upper-class as an after-dinner parlour game.[1][2] It
has been suggested that makeshift versions of the game were developed by British military officers in India in around 1860s
or 1870s, who brought it back with them.[6] A row of books stood up along the center of the table as a net, two more books
served as rackets and were used to continuously hit a golf-ball.[7][8]
The name "ping-pong" was in wide use before British manufacturer J. Jaques & Son Ltd trademarked it in 1901. The name
"ping-pong" then came to describe the game played using the rather expensive Jaques's equipment, with other
manufacturers calling it table tennis. A similar situation arose in the United States, where Jaques sold the rights to the "ping-
pong" name to Parker Brothers. Parker Brothers then enforced its trademark for the term in the 1920s making the various
associations change their names to "table tennis" instead of the more common, but trademarked, term.

Equipment
Ball
The international rules specify that the game is played with a sphere having a mass of 2.7 grams (0.095 oz) and a diameter of
40 millimetres (1.57 in).[23] The rules say that the ball shall bounce up 24–26 cm (9.4–10.2 in) when dropped from a height of
30.5 cm (12.0 in) onto a standard steel block thereby having a coefficient of restitution of 0.89 to 0.92. Balls are now made of
a polymer instead of celluloid as of 2015, colored white or orange, with a matte finish.
Table
The table is 2.74 m (9.0 ft) long, 1.525 m (5.0 ft) wide, and 76 cm (2.5 ft) high with any continuous material so long as the table
yields a uniform bounce of about 23 cm (9.1 in) when a standard ball is dropped onto it from a height of 30 cm (11.8 in), or
about 77%.[25][26] The table or playing surface is uniformly dark coloured and matte, divided into two halves by a net at
15.25 cm (6.0 in) in height. The ITTF approves only wooden tables or their derivates. Concrete tables with a steel net or a solid
concrete partition are sometimes available in outside public spaces, such as parks.
Racket/paddle
Players are equipped with a laminated wooden racket covered with rubber on one or two sides depending on the grip of the
player. The ITTF uses the term "racket",[28] though "bat" is common in Britain, and "paddle" in the U.S. and Canada.
The wooden portion of the racket, often referred to as the "blade", commonly features anywhere between one and seven
plies of wood, though cork, glass fiber, carbon fiber, aluminum fiber, and Kevlar are sometimes used. According to the ITTF
regulations, at least 85% of the blade by thickness shall be of natural wood.[29] Common wood types include balsa, limba,
and cypress or "hinoki", which is popular in Japan. The average size of the blade is about 17 centimetres (6.7 in) long and 15
centimetres (5.9 in) wide, although the official restrictions only focus on the flatness and rigidity of the blade itself, these
dimensions are optimal for most play styles.

Gameplay
Starting a game
According to ITTF rule 2.13.1, the first service is decided by lot,[32] normally a coin toss.[33] It is also common for one player (or
the umpire/scorer) to hide the ball in one or the other hand, usually hidden under the table, allowing the other player to guess
which hand the ball is in. The correct or incorrect guess gives the "winner" the option to choose to serve, receive, or to choose
which side of the table to use. (A common but non-sanctioned method is for the players to play the ball back and forth three
times and then play out the point. This is commonly referred to as "serve to play", "rally to serve", "play for serve", or "volley
for serve".)
Service and return
In game play, the player serving the ball commences a play. [34] The server first stands with the ball held on the open palm of the hand
not carrying the paddle, called the freehand, and tosses the ball directly upward without spin, at least 16 cm (6.3 in) high.[35]

If the service is "good", then the receiver must make a "good" return by hitting the ball back before it bounces a second time on
receiver's side of the table so that the ball passes the net and touches the opponent's court, either directly or after touching the net
assembly.[36] Thereafter, the server and receiver must alternately make a return until the rally is over. Returning the serve is one of the
most difficult parts of the game, as the server's first move is often the least predictable and thus most advantageous shot due to the
numerous spin and speed choices at his or her disposal.
Let
A Let is a rally of which the result is not scored, and is called in the following circumstances:

 The ball touches the net in service (service), provided the service is otherwise correct or the ball is obstructed by the player on the
receiving side. Obstruction means a player touches the ball when it is above or traveling towards the playing surface, not having
touched the player's court since last being struck by the player.
 When the player on the receiving side is not ready and the service is delivered.
 Player's failure to make a service or a return or to comply with the Laws is due to a disturbance outside the control of the player.
 Play is interrupted by the umpire or assistant umpire.
A let is also called foul service, if the ball hits the server's side of the table, if the ball does not pass further than the edge and if the ball
hits the table edge and hits the net.

Scoring
A point is scored by the player for any of several results of the rally: [38]

 The opponent fails to make a correct service or return.

 After making a service or a return, the ball touches anything other than the net assembly before being struck by the opponent.
 The ball passes over the player's court or beyond their end line without touching their court, after being struck by the
opponent.
 The opponent obstructs the ball.
 The opponent strikes the ball twice successively. Note that the hand that is holding the racket counts as part of the racket and
that making a good return off one's hand or fingers is allowed. It is not a fault if the ball accidentally hits one's hand or fingers
and then subsequently hits the racket.
 The opponent strikes the ball with a side of the racket blade whose surface is not covered with rubber.
 The opponent moves the playing surface or touches the net assembly.
 The opponent's free hand touches the playing surface.
 As a receiver under the expedite system, completing 13 returns in a rally. [39]
 The opponent that has been warned by the umpire commits a second offense in the same individual match or team match. If
the third offence happens, 2 points will be given to the player. [40] If the individual match or the team match has not ended, any
unused penalty points can be transferred to the next game of that match. [33]
A game shall be won by the player first scoring 11 points unless both players score 10 points, when the game shall be won by the
first player subsequently gaining a lead of 2 points. A match shall consist of the best of any odd number of games. [41] In competition
play, matches are typically best of five or seven games.

Alternation of services and ends

Service alternates between opponents every two points (regardless of winner of the rally) until the end of the game, unless both
players score ten points or the expedite system is operated, when the sequences of serving and receiving stay the same but each
player serves for only one point in turn (Deuce).[42] The player serving first in a game receives first in the next game of the match.
After each game, players switch sides of the table. In the last possible game of a match, for example the seventh game in a best of
seven matches, players change ends when the first player scores five points, regardless of whose turn it is to serve. If the sequence
of serving and receiving is out of turn or the ends are not changed, points scored in the wrong situation are still calculated and the
game shall be resumed with the order at the score that has been reached.
Doubles game
In addition to games between individual players, pairs may also play table tennis. Singles and doubles are both played in
international competition, including the Olympic Games since 1988 and the Commonwealth Games since 2002.[43] In 2005,
the ITTF announced that doubles table tennis only was featured as a part of team events in the 2008 Olympics .
In doubles, all the rules of single play are applied except for the following.

Service
A line painted along the long axis of the table to create doubles courts bisects the table. This line's only purpose is to
facilitate the doubles service rule, which is that service must originate from the right hand "box" in such a way that the first
bounce of the serve bounces once in said right hand box and then must bounce at least once in the opponent side's right
hand box (far left box for server), or the receiving pair score a point.[35]
Order of play, serving and receiving

1. Players must hit the ball in turn. For example, if A is paired with B, X is paired with Y, A is the server and X is the
receiver. The order of play shall be A→X→B→Y. The rally proceeds this way until one side fails to make a legal
return and the other side scores.[44]
2. At each change of service, the previous receiver shall become the server and the partner of the previous server
shall become the receiver. For example, if the previous order of play is A→X→B→Y, the order becomes
X→B→Y→A after the change of service.[42]
3. In the second or the latter games of a match, the game begins in reverse order of play. For example, if the order
of play is A→X→B→Y at beginning of the first game, the order begins with X→A→Y→B or Y→B→X→A in the
second game depending on either X or Y being chosen as the first server of the game. That means the first
receiver of the game is the player who served to the first server of the game in the preceding game. In each
game of a doubles match, the pair having the right to serve first shall choose which of them will do so. The
receiving pair, however, can only choose in the first game of the match.
4. When a pair reaches 5 points in the final game, the pairs must switch ends of the table and change the receiver
to reverse the order of play. For example, when the last order of play before a pair score 5 points in the final
game is A→X→B→Y, the order after change shall be A→Y→B→X if A still has the second serve. Otherwise, X
is the next server and the order becomes X→A→Y→B.
Grips
Though table tennis players grip their rackets in various ways, their grips can be classified into two major families of
styles, penhold and shakehand.[45] The rules of table tennis do not prescribe the manner in which one must grip the racket,
and numerous grips are employed.

Penhold
The penhold grip is so-named because one grips the racket similarly to the way one holds a writing instrument.[46] The style of play
among penhold players can vary greatly from player to player. The most popular style, usually referred to as the Chinese penhold style,
involves curling the middle, ring, and fourth finger on the back of the blade with the three fingers always touching one another.

Shakehand
The shakehand grip is so-named because the racket is grasped as if one is performing a handshake. [47] Though it is sometimes referred
to as the "tennis" or "Western" grip, it bears no relation to the Western tennis grip, which was popularized on the West Coast of the
United States in which the racket is rotated 90°, and played with the wrist turned so that on impact the knuckles face the target. In table
tennis, "Western" refers to Western nations, for this is the grip that players native to Europe and the Americas have almost exclusively
employed.

Types of strokes
Offensive strokes
Hit

Also known as speed drive, a direct hit on the ball propelling it forward back to the opponent. This stroke differs from speed drives in
other racket sports like tennis because the racket is primarily perpendicular to the direction of the stroke and most of the energy applied
to the ball results in speed rather than spin, creating a shot that does not arc much, but is fast enough that it can be difficult to return. A
speed drive is used mostly for keeping the ball in play, applying pressure on the opponent, and potentially opening up an opportunity for
a more powerful attack.
Loop

Perfected during the 1960s,[1][53] the loop is essentially the reverse of the chop. The racket is parallel to the direction of the stroke
("closed") and the racket thus grazes the ball, resulting in a large amount of topspin. A good loop drive will arc quite a bit, and once
striking the opponent's side of the table will jump forward, much like a kick serve in tennis. Most professional players nowadays, such
as Ding Ning, Timo Boll and Zhang Jike, primarily use loop for offense.
Counter-hit

The counter-hit is usually a counterattack against drives, normally high loop drives. The racket is held closed and near to the ball, which
is hit with a short movement "off the bounce" (immediately after hitting the table) so that the ball travels faster to the other side. Kenta
Matsudaira is known for primarily using counter-hit for offense.
Flip

When a player tries to attack a ball that has not bounced beyond the edge of the table, the player does not have the room to
wind up in a backswing. The ball may still be attacked, however, and the resulting shot is called a flip because the backswing is
compressed into a quick wrist action. A flip is not a single stroke and can resemble either a loop drive or a loop in its
characteristics. What identifies the stroke is that the backswing is compressed into a short wrist flick.
Smash

A player will typically execute a smash when the opponent has returned a ball that bounces too high or too close to the net. It
is nearly always done with a forehand stroke. Smashing use rapid acceleration to impart as much speed on the ball as possible
so that the opponent cannot react in time. The racket is generally perpendicular to the direction of the stroke. Because the
speed is the main aim of this shot, the spin on the ball is often minimal, although it can be applied as well. An offensive table
tennis player will think of a rally as a build-up to a winning smash. Smash is used more often with penhold grip.

Defensive strokes
Push

The push (or "slice" in Asia) is usually used for keeping the point alive and creating offensive opportunities. A push resembles
a tennis slice: the racket cuts underneath the ball, imparting backspin and causing the ball to float slowly to the other side of
the table. A push can be difficult to attack because the backspin on the ball causes it to drop toward the table upon striking
the opponent's racket. In order to attack a push, a player must usually loop (if the push is long) or flip (if the push is short) the
ball back over the net. Often, the best option for beginners is to simply push the ball back again, resulting in pushing rallies.
Against good players, it may be the worst option because the opponent will counter with a loop, putting the first player in a
defensive position. Pushing can have advantages in some circumstances, such as when the opponent makes easy mistakes.
Chop

A chop is the defensive, backspin counterpart to the offensive loop drive.[54] A chop is essentially a bigger, heavier push,
taken well back from the table. The racket face points primarily horizontally, perhaps a little bit upward, and the direction of
the stroke is straight down. The object of a defensive chop is to match the topspin of the opponent's shot with backspin. A
good chop will float nearly horizontally back to the table, in some cases having so much backspin that the ball actually rises.
Such a chop can be extremely difficult to return due to its enormous amount of backspin. Some defensive players can also
impart no-spin or sidespin variations of the chop. Some famous choppers include Joo Sae-hyuk and Wu Yang.
Block

A block is executed by simply placing the racket in front of the ball right after the ball bounces; thus, the ball rebounds back
toward the opponent with nearly as much energy as it came in with. This requires precision, since the ball's spin, speed, and
location all influence the correct angle of a block. It is very possible for an opponent to execute a perfect loop, drive, or
smash, only to have the blocked shot come back just as fast. Due to the power involved in offensive strokes, often an
opponent simply cannot recover quickly enough to return the blocked shot, especially if the block is aimed at an unexpected
side of the table. Blocks almost always produce the same spin as was received, many times topspin.
Lob

The defensive lob propels the ball about five metres in height, only to land on the opponent's side of the table with great
amounts of spin.[55] The stroke itself consists of lifting the ball to an enormous height before it falls back to the opponent's
side of the table. A lob can have nearly any kind of spin. Though the opponent may smash the ball hard and fast, a good
defensive lob could be more difficult to return due to the unpredictability and heavy amounts of the spin on the ball.[55] Thus,
though backed off the table by tens of feet and running to reach the ball, a good defensive player can still win the point using
good lobs. Lob is used less frequently by professional players. A notable exception is Michael Maze.

Effects of spin
Backspin
Backspin is where the bottom half of the ball is rotating away from the player, and is imparted by striking the base of the ball
with a downward movement.[56] At the professional level, backspin is usually used defensively in order to keep the ball
low.[57] Backspin is commonly employed in service because it is harder to produce an offensive return, though at the
professional level most people serve sidespin with either backspin or topspin.
Topspin

The topspin stroke has a smaller influence on the first part of the ball-curve. Like the backspin stroke, however, the axis of
spin remains roughly perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball thus allowing for the Magnus effect to dictate the subsequent
curvature.
Sidespin
This type of spin is predominantly employed during service, wherein the contact angle of the racket can be more easily
varied. Unlike the two aforementioned techniques, sidespin causes the ball to spin on an axis which is vertical, rather than
horizontal. The axis of rotation is still roughly perpendicular to the trajectory of the ball. In this circumstance, the Magnus
effect will still dictate the curvature of the ball to some degree
Corkspin
Players employ this type of spin almost exclusively when serving, but at the professional level, it is also used from time to
time in the lob. Unlike any of the techniques mentioned above, corkspin (or "drill-spin") has the axis of spin relatively parallel
to the ball's trajectory, so that the Magnus effect has little or no effect on the trajectory of a cork-spun ball: upon bouncing,
the ball will dart right or left (according to the direction of the spin), severely complicating the return. In theory this type of
spin produces the most obnoxious effects, but it is less strategically practical than sidespin or backspin, because of the
limitations that it imposes upon the opponent during their return.