Polystyrene

Introduction:

Polystyrene is a versatile plastic used to make a wide variety of consumer products. As a

hard, solid plastic, it is often used in products that require clarity, such as food packaging and
laboratory ware. When combined with various colorants, additives or other plastics,
polystyrene is used to make appliances, electronics, automobile parts, toys, gardening pots
and equipment and more.

Polystyrene also is made into a foam material, called expanded polystyrene (EPS) or extruded
polystyrene (XPS), which is valued for its insulating and cushioning properties. Foam
polystyrene can be more than 95 percent air and is widely used to make home and appliance
insulation, lightweight protective packaging, surfboards, foodservice and food packaging,
automobile parts, roadway and roadbank stabilization systems and more.

Polystyrene is made by stringing together, or polymerizing, styrene, a building-block

chemical used in the manufacture of many products. Styrene also occurs naturally in foods
such as strawberries, cinnamon, coffee and beef.

How is PS made

Polystyrene, like other plastics, starts with the distillation of hydrocarbon fuels into lighter
groups called “fractions” some of which are combined with other catalysts to produce plastics
(in the case of polystyrene through the process of polymerization). You can read about the
process in more depth here. Polystyrene foam is produced using “blowing agents” that
expand and cause the foam to form in a state such that it is principally composed of trapped
air.

Styrene is obtained by reacting ethylene with benzene in the presence of aluminum chloride
to yield ethylbenzene. The benzene group in this compound is then dehydrogenated to yield
phenylethylene, or styrene, a clear liquid hydrocarbon with the chemical structure
CH2=CHC6H5. Styrene is polymerized by using free-radical initiators primarily in bulk and
suspension processes, although solution and emulsion methods are also employed. The
structure of the polymer repeating unit can be represented as:

The presence of the pendant phenyl (C6H5) groups is key to the properties of polystyrene.
Solid polystyrene is transparent, owing to these large, ring-shaped molecular groups, which
prevent the polymer chains from packing into close, crystalline arrangements. In addition, the
phenyl rings restrict rotation of the chains around the carbon-carbon bonds, lending the
polymer its noted rigidity.

The polymerization of styrene has been known since 1839, when German pharmacist Eduard
Simon reported its conversion into a solid later named metastyrol. As late as 1930 little
commercial use had been found for the polymer because of brittleness and crazing (minute
cracking), which were caused by impurities that brought about the cross-linking of the
polymer chains. By 1937 American chemist Robert Dreisbach and others at the Dow
Chemical Company’s physics laboratory had obtained purified styrene monomer through the
dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene and developed a pilot polymerization process. By 1938
polystyrene was being produced commercially. It quickly became one of the most important
modern plastics, owing to the low cost of producing large volumes of styrene monomer, the
ease of shaping the melted polymer in injection-molding operations, and the optical and
physical properties of the material.

Polystyrene foam was formerly made with the aid of chlorofluorocarbon blowing agents—a
class of compounds that has been banned for environmental reasons. Now foamed by pentane
or carbon dioxide gas, polystyrene is made into insulation and packaging materials as well as
food containers such as beverage cups, egg cartons, and disposable plates and trays. Solid
polystyrene products include injection-molded eating utensils, videocassettes and
audiocassettes, and cases for audiocassettes and compact discs. Many fresh foods are
packaged in clear vacuum-formed polystyrene trays, owing to the high gas permeability and
good water-vapour transmission of the material. The clear windows in many postage
envelopes are made of polystyrene film. The plastic recycling code number of polystyrene is
#6. Recycled polystyrene products are commonly melted down and reused in foamed
insulation.
Uses & Benefits

Polystyrene in Appliances

Refrigerators, air conditioners, ovens, microwaves, vacuum cleaners, blenders – these and
other appliances often are made with polystyrene (solid and foam) because it is inert (doesn’t
react with other materials), cost-effective and long-lasting.

Polystyrene in Automotive

Polystyrene (solid and foam) is used to make many car parts, including knobs, instrument
panels, trim, energy absorbing door panels and sound dampening foam. Foam polystyrene
also is widely used in child protective seats.

Polystyrene in Electronics

Polystyrene is used for the housing and other parts for televisions, computers and all types of
IT equipment, where the combination of form, function and aesthetics are essential.

Polystyrene in Foodservice
Polystyrene foodservice packaging typically insulates better, keeps food fresher longer and

costs less than alternatives.

Polystyrene in Insulation

Lightweight polystyrene foam provides excellent thermal insulation in numerous

applications, such as building walls and roofing, refrigerators and freezers, and industrial
cold storage facilities. Polystyrene insulation is inert, durable and resistant to water damage.
Polystyrene in Medical

Due to its clarity and ease of sterilization, polystyrene is used for a wide range of medical
applications, including tissue culture trays, test tubes, petri dishes, diagnostic components,
housings for test kits and medical devices.

Polystyrene in Packaging
Polystyrene (solid and foam) is widely used to protect consumer products. CD and DVD
cases, foam packaging peanuts for shipping, food packaging, meat/poultry trays and egg
cartons typically are made with polystyrene to protect against damage or spoilage.

Safety Information

In the United States, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) strictly regulates all food
packaging materials, including polystyrene. All food packaging – glass, aluminum, paper and
plastics (such as polystyrene) – contains substances that can “migrate” in very tiny amounts
to foods or beverages. That’s one of the reasons why FDA regulates food packaging in the
first place – to be confident that the amount of substances that might actually migrate is safe.

For every material used in food contact, there must be sufficient scientific information to
demonstrate that its use is safe. FDA’s safety evaluations focus on three factors:

Material(s) used in the packaging,

Cumulative exposure to substances that may migrate into foods and beverages, and

Safe levels of that exposure.

Tiny amounts of styrene may remain in polystyrene following manufacture, so FDA has
evaluated both the safety of the food contact material itself (polystyrene) and the safety of the
substance that may migrate (styrene). The result of these evaluations: FDA for decades has
determined that polystyrene is safe for use in contact with food.

The U.S. National Toxicology Program Director Dr. Linda Birnbaum, Ph.D., was quoted
widely in Associated Press reports in June 2011: “Let me put your mind at ease right away
about Styrofoam … [the levels of styrene from polystyrene containers] are hundreds if not
thousands of times lower than have occurred in the occupational setting…In finished
products, certainly styrene is not an issue.”

In 2013, the Plastics Foodservice Packaging Group provided updated styrene migration data
to FDA. The data show that current exposures to styrene from the use of polystyrene food
contact products remain extremely low, with the estimated daily intake calculated at 6.6
micrograms per person per day. This is more than 10,000 times below the safety limit set by
FDA (FDA’s acceptable daily intake value of styrene is calculated to be 90,000 micrograms
per person per day).

Polystyrene Safety in Food Packaging

FDA has for decades stated that polystyrene is safe for use in contact with food. The
European Commission/European Food Safety Authority and other regulatory agencies have
reached similar conclusions.

Polystyrene foodservice packaging can help reduce food-borne illness in homes, hospitals,
schools, nursing homes, cafeterias and restaurants.

Polystyrene foodservice packaging is preferred by the foodservice industry because it works

better than alternatives. Hot foods stay hot, cold foods stay cold, and fresh foods stay fresh.
From organic salads to spicy chili, polystyrene packaging offers more convenience and
dining enjoyment for people on the go.

Polystyrene foodservice packaging generally is more economical – wholesale costs can be up

to five times less than paper-based or reusable counterparts (reusable containers

require extra equipment, labor, water, electricity, detergent, etc.).

Commonly used cups, plates and sandwich containers made of foam polystyrene use
significantly less energy and water than comparable paper-based or corn-based alternatives,
primarily due to foam

Characteristics of Polystyrene

Now that we know what it is used for, let’s examine some of the key properties of
Polystyrene. Polystyrene is typically (but not always) a homopolymer meaning that it is
composed only of the monomer styrene in combination with itself. Depending on the type of
PS it could be classified as a “thermoplastic” or a “thermoset” material. The name has to do
with the way the plastic responds to heat. Thermoplastic materials become fully liquid at their
melting point (210-249 degrees Celsius in the case of Polystyrene), but they begin to flow at
their glass transition point (100 degress Celsius for PS). A major useful attribute
about thermoplastics is that they can be heated to their melting point, cooled, and reheated
again without significant degradation. Instead of burning, thermoplastics liquefy, which
allows them to be easily injection molded and then subsequently recycled. Thermoset
plastics, by contrast, will not reliquify once they are “set” in solid form.

By contrast, thermoset plastics can only be heated once (typically during the injection
molding process). The first heating causes thermoset materials to set (similar to a 2-part
epoxy) resulting in a chemical change that cannot be reversed. If you tried to heat a thermoset
plastic to a high temperature a second time it would simply burn. This characteristic makes
thermoset materials poor candidates for recycling.

Why is Polystyrene used so often

Polystyrene is most uniquely useful for its application as a foam. It is the runaway leader in
the packaging industry but it also has a wide range of uses as a traditional plastic. At Creative
Mechanisms, we have used Polystyrene in a number of applications across a range of
industries. For many years Polystyrene, or as it is often referred to as just Styrene, was used
as the go-to prototyping material - basically for the same reasons we now use ABS. It's
inexpensive, readily available, white in color, and it glues, sands, cuts, and paints well. The
“S” in ABS is Styrene. A lot of older engineers and designers who have been in the industry
for a while will ask for a Styrene model when they’re looking for a quick-down-and-dirty
prototype. We still have a lot of sheets of Styrene in the shop at Creative Mechanisms. We
will use them to make quick test models, paint samples, vacuum formed or thermoformed
prototypes, or large models that can be created with flat sheets.

We have also seen PS used as a sort-of living hinge material (typically polypropylene fits
best into living hinge applications). There are clear disposable PS containers (e.g. a hot dog
container from WaWa or your neighborhood convenience store for those living outside the
Northeast) that function like a clamshell with a hinge in the middle. The hinge in this case is
a little different than your traditional PP living hinge. Typically the PS hinge is more of a
series of bends that allow the clamshell to flex and open up. Whether it is technically a living
hinge or not, it still works very well and can be easily thermoformed.

Different Types of Polystyrene

Three major types of polystyrene include polystyrene foam, regular polystyrene plastic, and
polystyrene film. Amongst the different types of foam are expanded polystyrene (EPS) and
extruded polystyrene (XPS). EPS includes the most well-known and common types of
polystyrene to include styrofoam and packing peanuts. XPS is a higher density foam typically
used in applications like architectural building models. Some types of polystyrene plastic are
copolymers. Oftentimes homopolymer PS is fairly brittle and can be made more impact
resistant if combined with other materials (known in this form as the copolymer High Impact
Polystyrene, or HIPS). Polystyrene film can also be vacuum formed and used in packaging
applications. Films can be stretched into oriented polystyrene (OPS) that is cheaper to
produce (albeit more brittle) than alternatives like PP.
Forms of Polystyrene

Additionally there are 3 different forms of polystyrene such as expanded polystyrene foam,
extruded polystyrene, and extruded polystyrene foam. Every one of these forms of
polystyrene have their own variety of applications. Also polystyrene can be used in polymer-
bonded explosives. Density of expanded polystyrene is an important factor because it can
range from 25 kg/m3 – 200 kg/m3 and depends on how much gas has been used to create the
foam. There are actually some popular products that are used from expanded polystyrene
like surfboards, and the ever so famous Styrofoam cups, which happen to be used all over the
world. Styrofoam cups are most commonly used for fast food companies, usually located in
the United States, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. An interesting fact about polystyrene
Styrofoam cups is that you are able to put them through the dishwasher without getting
deformed but only if it is set at 70° C because of the fact that is has a glass transformation
temperature at 95° C. Expanded polystyrene cuts very easy with a hot wire foam cutter. The
hot foam cutter is simple and made by a heated taut length of wire. Usually it is used from
nichrome since nichrome is very resistant to such high temperatures, which is suitable for
electrical conductivity. The way hot wire foam cutter works is by heating the wire to a certain
temperature so that it melts the foam that is next to it right away. Therefore the foam will
melt before it even has a chance to touch the wire causing smooth cuts from the hot foam
wire cutter.

The polystyrene that is cut and shaped with foam cutters is used for a number of different
things such as; architecture models, amusement parks, actual signage, movie sets, airplane
construction, and so many other things. These specific cutters can range from a few dollars
to tens of thousands of dollars for much bigger CNC machines that are used for larger
projects. A traditional cutter can also be used to cut polystyrene, but for that to be possible
and not ruin the blade I the process you need to dip the blade in water and cut at a 30° angle.
It’s best if you repeat this process multiple times in a row. If you want good results. There
are also different types of unique polystyrene cutters that look more like cylinder rasps.
Extruded Polystyrene

Extruded polystyrene is completely different from expanded polystyrene, which is known as

styrofoam. As for extruded polystyrene it is typically pretty flexible due to being filled with
trapped air, also its low density and low thermal conductivity. However some things
extruded polystyrene is used for are packing peanuts and packing material for cushioning
fragile items in boxes. Another important fact about extruded polystyrene is that it can be
used for its conduction material. Considering its insulating properties make it important
construction material. Extruded polystyrenes insulation helps its building structures such as
ornamental structures. In addition to extruded polystyrenes other uses is lightweight fill for
embankments in the civil engineering industry.

Even though extruded polystyrene is in the crafts models building, to be specific the
architectural models. Generally being foamed between two sheets of paper this will tend to
make a positive substitute for cardboard, which has been given the name foamcore.

Disposal and Recycling

The Society of Plastics created a symbol known as the resin identification code for
polystyrene because they wanted an easy way to label an item to be able to tell if it is
recyclable or not.

Incineration

Evidently the effects of polystyrene that has been incinerated at high temperatures can cause
chemicals such as water carbon monoxide, some volatile compounds and carbon soothe to be
generated. For example one ton of foam cups will produce 0.2 ounces of ash, however you
will produce about 200 pounds of ash per ton if you used paper cups.

If there is barley any oxygen or very low temperatures when burning polystyrene it will
produce polycyclic aromatic compounds, carbon black and carbon monoxide, plus styrene
monomers.
Burial

Polystyrene products such as foam cups and other products are suggested to be buried in
landfills because it’s concrete and brick like stability. There also is no need for plastic film to
be used to protect the air as well as the underground water.

Recycling

Typically as of right now a good percentage of polystyrene products are not being recycled
basically because of the fact that there are not enough quality recycling facilities. When
recycling polystyrene it can be used to create park benches, flower pots, and toys. Although
the initial process of “recycling” polystyrene may not be officially complete and is known to
produce more polystyrene instead. With that being said polystyrene cups and other products
used for packaging as an alternative option they are usually recycled into fillers in other
plastics, or items that can’t be recycled are bound to be thrown in the trash.

Environmental Concerns and Bans

Polystyrene is very light weighted especially if it is foamed and has low scrap value therefore
it is actually hard to recycle. Curbside collection recycling programs do not accept
polystyrene to be recycled since pure polystyrene is very resistant to bio-degradation and
photolysis. If wild animals ingest any form of plastic it may be very harmful to them. Plastic
is now officially considered to be a component of marine debris said by the California
Coastal Commission.