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EXERCISING MUSCLE
Lecture by: M.K. Sastry
Learning Objectives
1. Resting state
2. Depolarization
4. Repolarization
Myelinated fibers
Saltatory conduction—action potential travels quickly
from one node of Ranvier to the next.
Action potential is faster in myelinated fibers than in
unmyelinated fibers.
Diameter of the neuron
Larger-diameter neurons conduct nerve impulses faster
due to less resistance to the current flow.
The Nerve Impulse
Key Points
A neuron’s RMP of –70 mV results from a separation of Na+
and K+ ions and is actively maintained by the sodium-
potassium pump
• Changes in membrane potential occur when ion gates in the
membrane open, permitting ions to move from one side to
the other
• Depolarization (membrane potential becomes less
negative)
• Hyperpolarization (membrane potential becomes more
negative)
• If the membrane potential depolarizes by 15 mV to 20 mV,
the threshold is reached, resulting in an action potential.
The Nerve Impulse (continued)
Key Points
• In myelinated neurons, the impulse travels through the
axon by jumping between nodes of Ranvier in a process
called saltatory conduction
• Period of repolarization
• The muscle fiber is unable to respond to any further
stimulation
• The refractory period limits a motor unit’s firing
frequency
Neurotransmitters
Categories of Neurotransmitters
Small molecule, rapid-acting
Neuropeptide, slow-acting
Common Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter for
the motor neurons that innervate skeletal
muscle and most parasympathetic nerve endings
Norepinephrine is the neurotransmitter for most
sympathetic neurons
Synapses
Key Points
• Neurons communicate with one another by releasing
neurotransmitters across synapses.
• Synapses involve a presynaptic axon terminal,
neurotransmitters, a postsynaptic receptor, and the
synaptic cleft.
• Once sufficient amounts of neurotransmitter bind to the
receptors, depolarization (excitation) or hyperpolarization
occurs, depending on the specific neurotransmitter
inhibition the site to which it binds.
• Neurotransmitters are destroyed by enzymes, removed by
reuptake into the presynaptic terminal, or diffused away
from the synapse.
Neuromuscular Junctions
Key Points
• Neurons communicate with muscle cells at neuromuscular
junctions
• A neuromuscular junction involves presynaptic axon
terminals, the synaptic cleft, and motor end-plate
receptors on the plasmalemma (plasma membrane)
• The neurotransmitters most important in regulating
exercise are acetylcholine and norepinephrine
The Postsynaptic Response
The effects of the two systems are often antagonistic, but the
systems always function together
Sympathetic Nervous System
Fight-or-flight response prepares the body to face crisis
and sustains its function during that crisis
Effects of the SNS
• Increases heart rate and strength of heart contraction
• Increases blood supply to the heart and active muscles
• Increases vasoconstriction to inactive vascular beds
• Increases metabolic rate
• Increases glucose release from the liver
• Increases blood pressure
• Causes bronchodilation to improve gas exchange
• Improves mental activity and quickness of response
• Other functions not directly needed are slowed
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Housekeeping: digestion, urination, glandular secretion,
and energy conservation
Actions oppose those of the sympathetic system:
• Decreases heart rate
• Constricts coronary vessels
• Bronchoconstriction in the lungs
Peripheral Nervous System
Key Points
• The peripheral nervous system contains 43 pairs of
nerves: 12 cranial and 31 spinal
– Sensory
– Motor (includes autonomic)
• The sensory division carries information from the
sensory receptors to the CNS
• The motor division carries motor impulses from the CNS
to the muscles, organs, and other tissues
• The autonomic nervous system includes
– Sympathetic (fight or flight)
– Parasympathetic (housekeeping)
Sensory Motor Integration
1. A sensory stimulus is received by sensory receptors
2. The sensory action potential is transmitted along sensory
neurons to the CNS
3. The CNS interprets the incoming sensory information and
determines the most appropriate reflex response
4. The action potentials for the response are transmitted from
the CNS along a-motor neurons
5. The motor action potential is transmitted to a muscle, and
the response occurs
Integration Centers
(a) A muscle belly, (b) a muscle spindle, and (c) a Golgi tendon organ
Higher Brain Centers
Primary motor cortex: controls fine and discrete muscle
movement ( fig 3.6 frontal lobe)
– Premotor cortex: controls learned motor skills of a
repetitious pattern
Basal ganglia: important in initiating movement of a
sustained and repetitive nature (walking and running)
Cerebellum: integration system that controls rapid and
complex muscular activity and facilitates movement
patterns by smoothing out the movement
– Receives visual and equilibrium input
Sensory-Motor Integration
Key Points
• Sensory-motor integration is the process by which the
PNS relays sensory input to the CNS; the CNS
interprets this information and then sends out an
appropriate motor signal to elicit the desired motor
response
• Sensory input can terminate at various levels of the
CNS (Spinal cord, Lower regions of the brain, Motor
areas of the cerebral cortex)
• Reflexes are the simplest form of motor control (not
conscious responses)
Sensory-Motor Integration (continued)
Key Points
• Muscle spindles trigger reflexive muscle action when the
muscle spindle is stretched
• Golgi tendon organs trigger a reflex that inhibits
contraction if the tendon fibers are stretched from high
muscle tension
• The primary motor cortex, located in the frontal lobe, is
the center of conscious motor control
• The basal ganglia help initiate some movement and help
control posture and muscle tone
• The cerebellum is an integration center that is involved
in all rapid and complex movement processes
Control of Small vs. Large
Motor Responses
Muscles controlling fine movements, such as those
controlling the eyes, have a small number of muscle
fibers per motor neuron (about 1 neuron for every 15
muscle fibers) finger 1 neuron for 4 muscle fibers.