Coordinates: 35°N 18°E

Mediterranean Sea
The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic
Mediterranean Sea
Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost
completely enclosed by land: on the north by Southern
Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa and on the
east by the Levant. Although the sea is sometimes considered
a part of the Atlantic Ocean, it is usually referred to as a
separate body of water. Geological evidence indicates that
around 5.9 million years ago, the Mediterranean was cut off
from the Atlantic and was partly or completely desiccated
over a period of some 600,000 years (the Messinian salinity Map of the Mediterranean Sea
crisis) before being refilled by the Zanclean flood about Coordinates 35°N 18°E
5.3 million years ago. Type Sea

It covers an area of about 2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi),[2] Primary inflows Atlantic Ocean, Sea
representing 0.7% of the global ocean surface, but its of Marmara, Nile,
connection to the Atlantic via the Strait of Gibraltar—the Ebro, Rhône, Chelif,
narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Po
Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain in Europe from Basin countries about 61
Morocco in Africa—is only 14 km (9 mi) wide. In Abkhazia
oceanography, it is sometimes called the Eurafrican (independence disputed,
Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to claimed by Georgia) ·
distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere.[3][4] Albania · Algeria ·
Armenia · Andorra ·
The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m
Austria · Belarus ·
(4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m
Bosnia and
(17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. It lies
Herzegovina ·
between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36°
Bulgaria · Burundi ·
E. Its west–east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf
Chad · Democratic
of Iskenderun, on the southeastern coast of Turkey, is about
Republic of the Congo
4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi).
· Croatia · Cyprus ·
The sea was an important route for merchants and travellers Czech Republic ·
of ancient times, facilitating trade and cultural exchange Egypt · Eritrea ·
between peoples of the region. The history of the Ethiopia · France ·
Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins Georgia · Gibraltar
and development of many modern societies. (UK) · Greece ·
Hungary · Israel · Italy
The countries surrounding the Mediterranean in clockwise · Kenya · Kosovo
order are Spain, France, Monaco, Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, (independence disputed,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania, Greece, claimed by Serbia) ·
Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Lebanon · Libya ·
Algeria, and Morocco; Malta and Cyprus are island countries Liechtenstein · Malta ·
Moldova · Monaco ·
in the sea. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Montenegro ·
Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri and Dhekelia Morocco · Niger ·
have coastlines on the sea. Northern Cyprus
(independence disputed,
claimed by Cyprus) ·
North Macedonia ·
Contents State of Palestine (a
Names and etymology de jure sovereign state) ·

History Romania · Russia ·

Ancient civilizations Rwanda · San Marino
Middle Ages and empires · Serbia · Slovakia ·
21st century and migrations Slovenia · South
Ossetia (independence
Geography
disputed, claimed by
Extent
Georgia) · South Sudan
Coastal countries
· Spain · Sudan ·
Coastal cities
Switzerland · Syria ·
Subdivisions
Tanzania ·
Other seas
Transnistria
Other features
(independence disputed,
Ten largest islands by area claimed by Moldova) ·
Climate
Tunisia · Turkey ·
Sea temperature
Uganda · Ukraine ·
Oceanography Vatican City
General circulation
Other events affecting water circulation Surface area 2,500,000 km2
(970,000 sq mi)
Climate change
Average depth 1,500 m (4,900 ft)
Biogeochemistry
Max. depth 5,267 m (17,280 ft)
Geology
Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis Water volume 3,750,000 km3
Messinian salinity crisis (900,000 cu mi)
Desiccation and exchanges of flora and Residence time 80–100 years[1]
fauna
Islands 3300+
Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"
Settlements Alexandria, Algiers,
Paleoclimate
Athens, Barcelona,
Biodiversity Beirut, Carthage,
Environmental issues Dubrovnik, Istanbul,
Natural hazards İzmir, Rome, Split,
Invasive species Tangier, Tel Aviv,
Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species Tripoli, Tunis (full list)
Sea-level rise
Pollution
Shipping
Tourism
Overfishing
 Gallery
See also
References
External links

Names and etymology

The Ancient Egyptians called the
Mediterranean Wadj-wr/Wadj-
Wadj-Ur, or Wadj-Wer, Wer/Wadj-Ur.
ancient Egyptian name
of the Mediterranean The Ancient Greeks called the
Sea
Mediterranean simply ἡ θάλασσα (hē
thálassa; "the Sea") or sometimes ἡ
μεγάλη θάλασσα (hē megálē thálassa;
"the Great Sea"), ἡ ἡμέτερα θάλασσα (hē hēmétera thálassa;
"Our Sea"), or ἡ θάλασσα ἡ καθ'ἡμᾶς (hē thálassa hē
kath’hēmâs; "the sea around us").
With its highly indented coastline and
The Romans called it Mare Magnum ("Great Sea") or Mare
large number of islands, Greece has
Internum ("Internal Sea") and, starting with the Roman Empire, the longest Mediterranean coastline.
Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). The term Mare Mediterrāneum
appears later: Solinus apparently used it in the 3rd century, but
the earliest extant witness to it is in the 6th century, in Isidore of Seville.[5][6] It means 'in the middle of
land, inland' in Latin, a compound of medius ("middle"), terra ("land, earth"), and -āneus ("having the
nature of").

The Latin word is a calque of Greek μεσόγειος (mesógeios; "inland"), from μέσος (mésos, "in the
middle") and γήινος (gḗinos, "of the earth"), from γῆ (gê, "land, earth"). The original meaning may have
been 'the sea in the middle of the earth', rather than 'the sea enclosed by land'.[7][8]

Ancient Iranians called it the "Roman Sea", in Classic Persian texts was called Daryāy-e Rōm (‫درﯾﺎی‬
‫ )روم‬which may be from Middle Persian form, Zrēh ī Hrōm (𐭬𐭥𐭫𐭤 𐭩 𐭤𐭩𐭫𐭦).[9]

The Carthaginians called it the "Syrian Sea". In ancient Syrian texts, Phoenician epics and in the Hebrew
Bible, it was primarily known as the "Great Sea", HaYam HaGadol, (Numbers; Book of Joshua; Ezekiel)
or simply as "The Sea" (1 Kings). However, it has also been called the "Hinder Sea" because of its
location on the west coast of Greater Syria or the Holy Land (and therefore behind a person facing the
east), which is sometimes translated as "Western Sea". Another name was the "Sea of the Philistines",
(Book of Exodus), from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites. In Modern
Hebrew, it is called HaYam HaTikhon 'the Middle Sea'.[10] In Classic Persian texts was called Daryāy-e
Šām (‫" )درﯾﺎی ﺷﺎم‬The Western Sea" or "Syrian Sea".[11]

In Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr [al-Abyaḍ] al-Mutawassiṭ (‫' )اﻟﺒﺤﺮ ]اﻷﺑﻴﺾ[ اﻟﻤﺘﻮﺳﻂ‬the
[White] Middle Sea'. In Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was Baḥr al-Rūm(ī) (‫ ﺑﺤﺮ اﻟﺮوم‬or ‫ﺑﺤﺮ‬
‫' )}اﻟﺮوﻣﻲ‬the Sea of the Romans' or 'the Roman Sea'. At first, that name referred to only the Eastern
Mediterranean, but it was later extended to the whole Mediterranean. Other Arabic names were Baḥr al-
šām(ī) (‫"( )ﺑﺤﺮ اﻟﺸﺎم‬the Sea of Syria") and Baḥr al-Maghrib (‫"( )ﺑﺤﺮاﻟﻤﻐﺮب‬the Sea of the West").[12][6]

In Turkish, it is the Akdeniz 'the White Sea'; in Ottoman, ‫ﺁق دﻛﻴﺰ‬, which sometimes means only the
Aegean Sea.[13] The origin of the name is not clear, as it is not known in earlier Greek, Byzantine or
Islamic sources. It may be to contrast with the Black Sea.[12][10][14] In Persian, the name was translated
as Baḥr-i Safīd, which was also used in later Ottoman Turkish. It is probably the origin of the colloquial
Greek phrase Άσπρη Θάλασσα (Άspri Thálassa, lit. "White Sea").[12]

Johann Knobloch claims that in classical antiquity, cultures in the Levant used colours to refer to the
cardinal points: black referred to the north (explaining the name Black Sea), yellow or blue to east, red to
south (e.g., the Red Sea), and white to west. This would explain the Greek Άspri Thálassa, the Bulgarian
Byalo More, the Turkish Akdeniz, and the Arab nomenclature described above, lit. "White Sea".[15]

History

Ancient civilizations
Several ancient civilizations were located around
the Mediterranean shores and were greatly
influenced by their proximity to the sea. It
provided routes for trade, colonization, and war,
as well as food (from fishing and the gathering of
other seafood) for numerous communities
throughout the ages.[16]

Due to the shared climate, geology, and access to

the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean Greek (red) and Phoenician (yellow) colonies in
tended to have some extent of intertwined culture antiquity c. the 6th century BC
and history.

Two of the most notable Mediterranean

civilizations in classical antiquity were the Greek
city states and the Phoenicians, both of which
extensively colonized the coastlines of the
Mediterranean. Later, when Augustus founded the
Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the
Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum ("Our Sea"). For
the next 400 years, the Roman Empire completely
controlled the Mediterranean Sea and virtually all
its coastal regions from Gibraltar to the Levant.
The Roman Empire at its farthest extent in AD 117
Darius I of Persia, who conquered Ancient Egypt,
built a canal linking the Mediterranean to the Red
Sea. Darius's canal was wide enough for two triremes to pass each other with oars extended, and required
four days to traverse.[17]
In 2019, the archaeological team of experts from Underwater Research Center of the Akdeniz University
(UA) revealed a shipwreck dating back 3,600 years in the Mediterranean Sea in Turkey. 1.5 tons of
copper ingots found in the ship was used to estimate its age. The Governor of Antalya Munir Karaloğlu
described this valuable discovery as the "Göbeklitepe of the underwater world”. It has been confirmed
that the shipwreck, dating back to 1600 BC, is older than the "Uluburun Shipwreck" dating back to 1400
BC.[18][19][20][21]

Middle Ages and empires

The Western Roman Empire collapsed around 476 AD. Temporarily the east was again dominant as
Roman power lived on in the Byzantine Empire formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the
Roman Empire. Another power arose in the 7th century, and with it the religion of Islam, which soon
swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled 75% of the Mediterranean
region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores.

The Arab invasions disrupted the trade relations between Western and Eastern Europe while cutting the
trade route with Oriental lands. This, however, had the indirect effect of promoting the trade across the
Caspian Sea. The export of grains from Egypt was re-routed towards the Eastern world. Oriental goods,
like silk and spices, were carried from Egypt to ports like Venice and Constantinople by sailors and
Jewish merchants. The Viking raids further disrupted the trade in western Europe and brought it to a halt.
However, the Norsemen developed the trade from Norway to the White Sea, while also trading in luxury
goods from Spain and the Mediterranean. The Byzantines in the mid-8th century retook control of the
area around the north-eastern part of the Mediterranean. Venetian ships from the 9th century armed
themselves to counter the harassment by Arabs while concentrating trade of oriental goods at Venice.[22]

The Fatimids maintained trade relations with the Italian city-

states like Amalfi and Genoa before the Crusades, according to
the Cairo Geniza documents. A document dated 996 mentions
Amalfian merchants living in Cairo. Another letter states that the
Genoese had traded with Alexandria. The caliph al-Mustansir had
allowed Amalfian merchants to reside in Jerusalem about 1060 in
The Battle of Lepanto, 1571, ended place of the Latin hospice.[23]
in victory for the European Holy
League against the Ottoman Turks. The Crusades led to flourishing of trade between Europe and the
outremer region.[24] Genoa, Venica and Pisa created colonies in
regions controlled by the Crusaders and came to control the trade
with the Orient. These colonies also allowed them to trade with the Eastern world. Though the fall of the
Crusader states and attempts at banning of trade relations with Muslim states by the Popes temporarily
disrupted the trade with the Orient, it however continued.[25]

Europe started to revive, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later
Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century.

Ottoman power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire
with the Conquest of Constantinople. Ottomans gained control of much of the sea in the 16th century and
maintained naval bases in southern France (1543–1544), Algeria and Tunisia. Barbarossa, the famous
Ottoman captain is a symbol of this domination with the victory of the Battle of Preveza (1538). The
Battle of Djerba (1560) marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranean. As the
naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when
the Battle of Lepanto (1571) checked the power of the Ottoman
Navy. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily
between galleys.

The Barbary pirates of Northwest Africa preyed on Christian

shipping and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea.[26]
According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries,
pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves.[27]
The bombardment of Algiers by the
The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Anglo-Dutch fleet in support of an
Mediterranean. Once, most trade between Western Europe and ultimatum to release European
the East had passed through the region, but after the 1490s the slaves, August 1816
development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the
importation of Asian spices and other goods through the Atlantic
ports of western Europe.[28][29][30]

The sea remained strategically important. British mastery of Gibraltar ensured their influence in Africa
and Southwest Asia. Wars included Naval warfare in the Mediterranean during World War I and
Mediterranean theatre of World War II.

21st century and migrations

In 2013, the Maltese president described the
Mediterranean Sea as a "cemetery" due to the large
number of migrants who drowned there after their boats
capsized.[31] European Parliament president Martin
Schulz said in 2014 that Europe's migration policy
"turned the Mediterranean into a graveyard", referring to
Satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea at
the number of drowned refugees in the region as a direct
night
result of the policies.[32] An Azerbaijani official
described the sea as "a burial ground ... where people
die".[33]

Following the 2013 Lampedusa migrant shipwreck, the Italian government decided to strengthen the
national system for the patrolling of the Mediterranean Sea by authorising "Operation Mare Nostrum", a
military and humanitarian mission in order to rescue the migrants and arrest the traffickers of immigrants.
In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe.[34]

Italy was particularly affected by the European migrant crisis. Since 2013, over 700,000 migrants have
landed in Italy,[35] mainly sub-Saharan Africans.[36]

Geography
The Mediterranean Sea connects:

to the Atlantic Ocean by the Strait of Gibraltar (known in Homer's writings as the "Pillars of
Hercules") in the west
to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Straits of the Dardanelles and the
Bosporus respectively, in the east
The Sea of Marmara (Dardanelles) is often
considered a part of the Mediterranean
Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally
not.

The 163 km (101 mi) long artificial Suez

Canal in the southeast connects the
Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.[10]

Large islands in the Mediterranean

A satellite image showing the The Dardanelles strait in
include:
Mediterranean Sea. The Strait Turkey. The north (upper) side
of Gibraltar appears in the forms part of Europe (the
Cyprus, Crete, Euboea, Rhodes,
bottom left (north-west) Gelibolu Peninsula in the
Lesbos, Chios, Kefalonia, Corfu,
quarter of the image; to its left Thrace region); on the south
Limnos, Samos, Naxos, and
is the Iberian Peninsula in (lower) side is Anatolia in
Andros in the Eastern
Europe, and to its right, the Asia.
Mediterranean
Maghreb in Africa.
Sicily, Cres, Krk, Brač, Hvar, Pag,
Korčula, and Malta in the central
Mediterranean
Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic
Islands: Ibiza, Majorca, and
Menorca in the Western
Mediterranean
The typical Mediterranean climate has hot,
humid, and dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include olives, grapes, oranges,
tangerines, and cork.

Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Mediterranean Sea as follows:[37]
Stretching from the Strait of Gibraltar in the west to the entrances to the Dardanelles and the Suez Canal
in the east, the Mediterranean Sea is bounded by the coasts of Europe, Africa, and Asia and is divided
into two deep basins:

Western Basin:
On the west: A line joining the extremities of Cape Trafalgar (Spain) and Cape Spartel
(Africa)
On the northeast: The west coast of Italy. In the Strait of Messina, a line joining the north
extreme of Cape Paci (15°42′E) with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of
Sicily. The north coast of Sicily
On the east: A line joining Cape Lilibeo the western point of Sicily (37°47′N 12°22′E),
through the Adventure Bank to Cape Bon (Tunisia)
Eastern Basin:
On the west: The northeastern and eastern limits of the Western Basin
On the northeast: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and Cape Helles, the western
entrance to the Dardanelles
On the southeast: The entrance to the Suez Canal
On the east: The coasts of Lebanon, Syria, and Israel
Coastal countries
The following countries have a coastline on
the Mediterranean Sea:

Northern shore (from west to east):

Spain, France, Monaco, Italy,
Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Montenegro, Albania,
Greece, Turkey.
Eastern shore (from north to
south): Turkey, Syria, Lebanon,
Israel, Egypt.
Southern shore (from west to Map of the Mediterranean Sea
east): Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia,
Libya, Egypt.
Island nations: Malta, Cyprus.
Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea (from west to east):

the British overseas territory of Gibraltar

the Spanish autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla and nearby islands
the Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus
the Palestinian Gaza Strip

Coastal cities
Major cities (municipalities), with populations larger than
200,000 people, bordering the Mediterranean Sea include:

Alexandria, the largest city on the

Mediterranean

Barcelona, the second largest

metropolitan area on the
Mediterranean Sea (after Alexandria)
and the headquarters of the Union
for the Mediterranean
 Country Cities
Algeria Algiers, Annaba, Oran
Cyprus Larnaca, Limassol, Paphos
Egypt Alexandria, Damietta, Port Said
France Marseille, Nice
Greece Athens, Piraeus, Patras, Thessaloniki
Israel Ashdod, Haifa, Netanya, Rishon LeZion, Tel Aviv The Acropolis of Athens with the
Bari, Catania, Genoa, Messina, Naples, Palermo, Rome, Mediterranean Sea in the
Italy background
Taranto, Trieste, Venice
Lebanon Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon
Libya Benghazi, Khoms, Misrata, Tripoli, Zawiya, Zliten
Malta Valletta
Morocco Tétouan, Tangier
Palestine Gaza City
Alicante, Badalona, Barcelona, Cartagena, Málaga,
Spain
Palma, Valencia.
Syria Latakia
The ancient port of Jaffa (now part of
Tunisia Sfax, Sousse, Tunis Tel Aviv-Yafo) in Israel: where Jonah
Adana, Antalya, Istanbul (through the Sea of Marmara), set sail (according to the Bible)
Turkey before being swallowed by a
İzmir, Mersin
whale[38]

Subdivisions
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) divides the
Mediterranean into a number of smaller waterbodies, each with
their own designation (from west to east):[37]

the Strait of Gibraltar

the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco
the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its
Balearic Islands
the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy) Catania, Sicily, with Mount Etna in
the background
the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian
peninsula and Sicily
the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece
the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and
Albania
the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey

Other seas
Some other seas whose names have been in common use from the ancient times, or in the present:

the Sea of Sardinia, between Sardinia and Balearic Islands, as a part of the Balearic Sea
the Sea of Sicily between Sicily and Tunisia
 the Libyan Sea between Libya and Crete
In the Aegean Sea,
the Thracian Sea in its north
the Myrtoan Sea between the Cyclades and the
Peloponnese
the Sea of Crete north of Crete
the Icarian Sea between Kos and Chios
the Cilician Sea between Turkey and Cyprus
the Levantine Sea at the eastern end of the İzmir, the third metropolis of Turkey
Mediterranean (after Istanbul and Ankara)

Many of these smaller seas feature in local myth and folklore and
derive their names from such associations.

Other features
In addition to the seas, a number of gulfs and straits are
recognised:

the Saint George Bay in Beirut, Lebanon

the Ras Ibn Hani cape in Latakia, Syria Africa (left, on horizon) and Europe
the Ras al-Bassit cape in northern Syria. (right), as seen from Gibraltar
the Minet el-Beida ("White Harbour") bay near ancient
Ugarit, Syria
the Strait of Gibraltar, connects the Atlantic Ocean to
the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain from
Morocco
the Bay of Gibraltar, at the southern end of the Iberian
Peninsula
the Gulf of Corinth, an enclosed sea between the Ionian
Sea and the Corinth Canal
the Pagasetic Gulf, the gulf of Volos, south of the
Positano, Tyrrhenian Sea
Thermaic Gulf, formed by the Mount Pelion peninsula
the Saronic Gulf, the gulf of Athens, between the
Corinth Canal and the Mirtoan Sea
the Thermaic Gulf, the gulf of Thessaloniki, located in
the northern Greek region of Macedonia
the Kvarner Gulf, Croatia
the Gulf of Lion, south of France
the Gulf of Valencia, east of Spain
the Strait of Messina, between Sicily and Calabrian
peninsula
the Gulf of Genoa, northwestern Italy
View of the Saint George Bay, and
the Gulf of Venice, northeastern Italy snow-capped Mount Sannine from
the Gulf of Trieste, northeastern Italy the Corniche, Beirut
the Gulf of Taranto, southern Italy
the Gulf of Saint Euphemia, southern Italy, with the
international airport nearby
the Gulf of Salerno, southwestern Italy
 the Gulf of Gaeta, southwestern Italy
the Gulf of Squillace, southern Italy
the Strait of Otranto, between Italy and Albania
the Gulf of Haifa, northern Israel
the Gulf of Sidra, between Tripolitania (western Libya)
and Cyrenaica (eastern Libya)
the Strait of Sicily, between Sicily and Tunisia
the Corsica Channel, between Corsica and Italy
the Strait of Bonifacio, between Sardinia and Corsica The Port of Marseille seen from
the Gulf of İskenderun, between İskenderun and Adana L'Estaque
(Turkey)
the Gulf of Antalya, between west and east shores of
Antalya (Turkey)
the Bay of Kotor, in south-western Montenegro and
south-eastern Croatia
the Malta Channel, between Sicily and Malta
the Gozo Channel, between Malta Island and Gozo

Ten largest islands by area Sarandë, Albania, stands on an

open-sea gulf of the Ionian sea in the
Country Island Area in km2 Population central Mediterranean.

Italy Sicily 25,460 5,048,995

Italy Sardinia 23,821 1,672,804
Cyprus Cyprus 9,251 1,088,503
France Corsica 8,680 299,209
Greece Crete 8,336 623,666
Greece Euboea 3,655 218.000
Spain Majorca 3,640 869,067
Greece Lesbos 1,632 90,643 The two biggest islands of the
Greece Rhodes 1,400 117,007 Mediterranean: Sicily and Sardinia
(Italy)
Greece Chios 842 51,936

Climate
 Map of climate zones in the areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, according to the Köppen climate
classification

Much of the Mediterranean coast enjoys a hot-summer Mediterranean climate. However, most of its
southeastern coast has a hot desert climate, and much of Spain's eastern (Mediterranean) coast has a cold
semi-arid climate. Although they are rare, tropical cyclones occasionally form in the Mediterranean Sea,
typically in September–November.

Sea temperature

Mean sea temperature (°C)

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Marseille[39] 13 13 13 14 16 18 21 22 21 18 16 14 16.6

Gibraltar[40] 16 15 16 16 17 20 22 22 22 20 18 17 18.4

Málaga[41] 16 15 15 16 17 20 22 23 22 20 18 16 18.3

Athens[42] 16 15 15 16 18 21 24 24 24 21 19 18 19.3

Barcelona[43] 13 12 13 14 17 20 23 25 23 20 17 15 17.8

Heraklion[44] 16 15 15 16 19 22 24 25 24 22 20 18 19.7

Venice[45] 11 10 11 13 18 22 25 26 23 20 16 14 17.4

Valencia[46] 14 13 14 15 17 21 24 26 24 21 18 15 18.5

Malta[47] 16 16 15 16 18 21 24 26 25 23 21 18 19.9

Alexandria[48] 18 17 17 18 20 23 25 26 26 25 22 20 21.4

Naples[49] 15 14 14 15 18 22 25 27 25 22 19 16 19.3

Larnaca[50] 18 17 17 18 20 24 26 27 27 25 22 19 21.7

Limassol[51] 18 17 17 18 20 24 26 27 27 25 22 19 21.7

Antalya 17 17 17 18 21 24 27 28 27 25 22 19 21.8

Tel Aviv[52] 18 17 17 18 21

Oceanography
Being nearly landlocked affects conditions
in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, tides
are very limited as a result of the narrow
connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The
Mediterranean is characterised and
immediately recognised by its deep blue
colour.

Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation

and river runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact
Predominant surface currents for June
that is central to the water circulation
within the basin.[53] Evaporation is
especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase
eastward.[54] The average salinity in the basin is 38 PSU at 5 m depth.[55] The temperature of the water
in the deepest part of the Mediterranean Sea is 13.2 °C (55.8 °F).[55]

General circulation
Water circulation in the Mediterranean can be described from the surface waters entering from the
Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar. These cool and relatively low-salinity waters circulate eastwards
along the North African coasts. A part of these surface waters does not pass the Strait of Sicily, but
deviates towards Corsica before exiting the Mediterranean. The surface waters entering the eastern
Mediterranean basin circulate along the Libyan and Israelian coasts. Upon reaching the Levantine Sea,
the surface waters having experienced warming and saltening from their initial Atlantic state, are now
more dense and sink to form the Levantine Intermediate Waters (LIW). Most of the water found
anywhere between 50 and 600 m deep in the Mediterranean originates from the LIW.[56] LIW are formed
along the coasts of Turkey and circulate westwards along the Greek and South Italian coasts. LIW are the
only waters passing the Sicily Strait westwards. After the Strait of Sicily, the LIW waters circulate along
the Italian, French and Spanish coasts before exiting the Mediterranean through the depths of the Strait of
Gibraltar. Deep water in the Mediterranean originates from three main areas: the Adriatic Sea, from
which most of the deep water in the eastern Mediterranean originates, the Aegean Sea, and the Gulf of
Lion. Deep water formation in the Mediterranean is triggered by strong winter convection fueled by
intense cold winds like the Bora. When new deep water is formed, the older waters mix with the
overlaying intermediate waters and eventually exit the Mediterranean. The residence time of water in the
Mediterranean is approximately 100 years, making the Mediterranean especially sensitive to climate
change.[57]

Other events affecting water circulation

Being a semi-enclosed basin, the Mediterranean experiences transitory events that can affect the water
circulation on short time scales. In the mid 1990s, the Aegean Sea became the main area for deep water
formation in the eastern Mediterranean after particularly cold winter conditions. This transitory switch in
the origin of deep waters in the eastern Mediterranean was termed Eastern Mediterranean Transient
(EMT) and had major consequences on water circulation of the Mediterranean.[58][59][60]

Another example of a transient event affecting the Mediterranean circulation is the periodic inversion of
the North Ionian Gyre, which is an anticyclonic ocean gyre observed in the northern part of the Ionian
Sea, off the Greek coast. The transition from anticyclonic to cyclonic rotation of this gyre changes the
origin of the waters fueling it; when the circulation is anticyclonic (most common), the waters of the gyre
originate from the Adriatic Sea. When the circulation is cyclonic, the waters originate from the Levantine
Sea. These waters have different physical and chemical characteristics, and the periodic inversion of the
North Ionian Gyre (called Bimodal Oscillating System or BiOS) changes the Mediterranean circulation
and biogeochemistry around the Adriatic and Levantine regions.[61]

Climate change
Because of the short residence time of waters, the Mediterranean Sea is considered a hot-spot for climate
change effects.[62] Deep water temperatures have increased by 0.12 °C (0.22 °F) between 1959 and
1989.[63] According to climate projections, the Mediterranean Sea could become warmer. The decrease
in precipitation over the region could lead to more evaporation ultimately increasing the Mediterranean
Sea salinity.[62][64] Because of the changes in temperature and salinity, the Mediterranean Sea may
become more stratified by the end of the 21st century, with notable consequences on water circulation
and biogeochemistry.

Biogeochemistry
In spite of its great biodiversity, concentrations of chlorophyll and nutrients in the Mediterranean Sea are
very low, making it one of the most oligotrophic ocean regions in the world. The Mediterranean Sea is
commonly referred to as an LNLC (Low-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll) area. The Mediterranean Sea fits
the definition of a desert as it has low precipitation and its nutrient contents are low, making it difficult
for plants and animals to develop.

There are steep gradients in nutrient concentrations, chlorophyll concentrations and primary productivity
in the Mediterranean. Nutrient concentrations in the western part of the basin are about double the
concentrations in the eastern basin. The Alboran Sea, close to the Strait of Gibraltar, has a daily primary
productivity of about 0.25 g C (grams of carbon) m−2 day−1 whereas the eastern basin has an average
daily productivity of 0.16 g C m−2 day−1.[65] For this reason, the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea is
termed "ultraoligotrophic". The productive areas of the Mediterranean Sea are few and small. High (i.e.
more than 0.5 grams of Chlorophyll a per cubic meter) productivity occurs in coastal areas, close to the
river mouths which are the primary suppliers of dissolved nutrients. The Gulf of Lion has a relatively
high productivity because it is an area of high vertical mixing, bringing nutrients to the surface waters
that can be used by phytoplankton to produce Chlorophyll a.[66]

Primary productivity in the Mediterranean is also marked by an intense seasonal variability. In winter, the
strong winds and precipitation over the basin generate vertical mixing, bringing nutrients from the deep
waters to the surface, where phytoplankton can convert it into biomass.[67] However, in winter, light may
be the limiting factor for primary productivity. Between March and April, spring offers the ideal trade-off
between light intensity and nutrient concentrations in surface for a spring bloom to occur. In summer,
high atmospheric temperatures lead to the warming of the surface waters. The resulting density
difference virtually isolates the surface waters from the rest of the water column and nutrient exchanges
are limited. As a consequence, primary productivity is very low between June and October.[68][66]

Oceanographic expeditions uncovered a characteristic feature of the Mediterranean Sea biogeochemistry:

most of the chlorophyll production does not occur on the surface, but in sub-surface waters between 80
and 200 meters deep.[69] Another key characteristic of the Mediterranean is its high nitrogen-to-
phosphorus ratio (N:P). Redfield demonstrated that most of the world's oceans have an average N:P ratio
around 16. However, the Mediterranean Sea has an average N:P between 24 and 29, which translates a
widespread phosphorus limitation.[70][71][72][73]

Because of its low productivity, plankton assemblages in the Mediterranean Sea are dominated by small
organisms such as picophytoplankton and bacteria.[74][75]

Geology
The geologic history of the Mediterranean Sea is complex.
Underlain by oceanic crust, the sea basin was once thought to be
a tectonic remnant of the ancient Tethys Ocean; it is now known
to be a structurally younger basin, called the Neotethys, which
was first formed by the convergence of the African and Eurasian
plates during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. Because it is a
near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the
Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the
precipitation of evaporites. The Messinian salinity crisis started
A submarine karst spring, called
about six million years ago (mya) when the Mediterranean vrulja, near Omiš; observed through
became landlocked, and then essentially dried up. There are salt several ripplings of an otherwise
deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a calm sea surface.
million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three
kilometres thick.[76][77]

Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5.3 million years ago (mya) in less than two years by
the Zanclean flood. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now
called the Strait of Gibraltar at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude (one thousand times)
larger than the current flow of the Amazon River.[78]

The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the deepest recorded point is
5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the Ionian Sea. The coastline extends for 46,000 km
(29,000 mi). A shallow submarine ridge (the Strait of Sicily) between the island of Sicily and the coast of
Tunisia divides the sea in two main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about
850,000 km2 (330,000 mi2); and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1.65 million km2 (640,000 mi2).
Coastal areas have submarine karst springs or vruljas, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the
water from below the surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal.[79][80]

Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis

The Mediterranean basin and sea system was established by the ancient African-Arabian continent
colliding with the Eurasian continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed over the ancient
Tethys Ocean which had earlier separated the two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana. At about that
time in the middle Jurassic period (roughly 170 million years ago) a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the
Neotethys, was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western (Arabian) end. The broad
line of collisions pushed up a very long system of mountains from the Pyrenees in Spain to the Zagros
Mountains in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the Alpine orogeny. The
Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of collisions (and associated foldings and subductions) that
occurred during the Oligocene and Miocene epochs (34 to 5.33 mya); see animation: Africa-Arabia
colliding with Eurasia. Accordingly, the Mediterranean basin consists of several stretched tectonic plates
in subduction which are the foundation of the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Various zones of
subduction contain the highest oceanic ridges, east of the Ionian Sea and south of the Aegean. The
Central Indian Ridge runs east of the Mediterranean Sea south-east across the in-between of Africa and
the Arabian Peninsula into the Indian Ocean.

Messinian salinity crisis

During Mesozoic and Cenozoic times, as the northwest
corner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif
mountain belts across southern Iberia and northwest Africa.
There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif
basins created two roughly-parallel marine gateways
between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.
Dubbed the Betic and Rifian corridors, they gradually
closed during the middle and late Miocene: perhaps several
times.[81] In the late Miocene the closure of the Betic
Corridor triggered the so-called "Messinian salinity crisis" Messinian salinity crisis before the Zanclean
flood
(MSC), when the Mediterranean almost entirely dried out.
The start of the MSC was recently estimated
astronomically at 5.96 mya, and it persisted for some
630,000 years until about 5.3 mya;[82] see Animation:
Messinian salinity crisis, at right.

After the initial drawdown and re-flooding, there followed

more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea
drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC.
It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin
—creating the Strait of Gibraltar and causing the Zanclean
flood—at the end of the Miocene (5.33 mya). Some
research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding- Play media
desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which Animation: Messinian salinity crisis
could explain several events of large amounts of salt
deposition.[83][84] Recent studies, however, show that
repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a geodynamic point of view.[85][86]

Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna

The present-day Atlantic gateway, the Strait of Gibraltar, originated in the early Pliocene via the
Zanclean Flood. As mentioned, there were two earlier gateways: the Betic Corridor across southern
Spain and the Rifian Corridor across northern Morocco. The Betic closed about 6 mya, causing the
Messinian salinity crisis (MSC); the Rifian or possibly both gateways closed during the earlier Tortonian
times, causing a "Tortonian salinity crisis" (from 11.6 to 7.2 mya), long before the MSC and lasting much
longer. Both "crises" resulted in broad connections between the mainlands of Africa and Europe, which
allowed migrations of flora and fauna—especially large mammals including primates—between the two
continents. The Vallesian crisis indicates a typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in
Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland migrations of new species:[87]
see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis (and mammal migrations), at right.
The almost complete enclosure of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gateways to dominate
seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin. Circulation patterns are also
affected by several other factors—including climate, bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—
which are interactive and can induce precipitation of evaporites. Deposits of evaporites accumulated
earlier in the nearby Carpathian foredeep during the Middle Miocene, and the adjacent Red Sea Basin
(during the Late Miocene), and in the whole Mediterranean basin (during the MSC and the Messinian
age). Many diatomites are found underneath the evaporite deposits, suggesting a connection between
their formations.

Today, evaporation of surface seawater (output) is more than the supply (input) of fresh water by
precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher
than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters
incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the Strait of Gibraltar: that is, an outflow
submarine current of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of
less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. In the 1920s, Herman Sörgel proposed the building of a
hydroelectric dam (the Atlantropa project) across the Straits, using the inflow current to provide a large
amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was also intended to support a political
union between Europe and, at least, the Maghreb part of Africa (compare Eurafrika for the later impact
and Desertec for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid).[88]

Shift to a "Mediterranean climate"

The end of the Miocene also marked a change in the climate of the Mediterranean basin. Fossil evidence
from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer
supporting laurel forests. The shift to a "Mediterranean climate" occurred largely within the last three
million years (the late Pliocene epoch) as summer rainfall decreased. The subtropical laurel forests
retreated; and even as they persisted on the islands of Macaronesia off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and
North Africa, the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and
sclerophyllous trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry
summers. Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of
years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a
heavily wooded region.

Paleoclimate
Because of its latitude and its land-locked position, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to
astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since
the Mediterranean is subject to the deposition of eolian dust from the Sahara during dry periods, whereas
riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine sapropel-bearing sequences
provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing
astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time
of past geomagnetic reversals.[89] Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records
has improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past.

Biodiversity
Unlike the vast multidirectional ocean currents in open oceans within their respective oceanic zones;
biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of
currents which affects favorably, even the smallest macroscopic type of volcanic life form. The stable
marine ecosystem of the Mediterranean Sea and sea temperature provides a nourishing environment for
life in the deep sea to flourish while assuring a balanced aquatic ecosystem excluded from any external
deep oceanic factors. It is estimated that there are more than 17,000 marine species in the Mediterranean
Sea with generally higher marine biodiversity in coastal areas, continental shelves, and decreases with
depth.[90]

As a result of the drying of the sea during the Messinian salinity crisis,[91] the marine biota of the
Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder
and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt
to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded.

The Alboran Sea is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and
Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of bottlenose dolphins in the Western
Mediterranean, is home to the last population of harbour porpoises in the Mediterranean, and is the most
important feeding grounds for loggerhead sea turtles in Europe. The Alboran Sea also hosts important
commercial fisheries, including sardines and swordfish. The Mediterranean monk seals live in the
Aegean Sea in Greece. In 2003, the World Wildlife Fund raised concerns about the widespread drift net
fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals such as the spiny squat
lobster.

There was a resident population of killer whale in the Mediterranean until the 1980s, when they went
extinct, probably due to long term PCB exposure. There are still annual sightings of killer whale
vagrants.[92]

Environmental issues
For 4,000 years, human activity has transformed most parts of Mediterranean Europe, and the
"humanisation of the landscape" overlapped with the appearance of the present Mediterranean
climate.[93] The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean paradise on
Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations, dates back to at least the 18th century and
was for centuries fashionable in archaeological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of
methods, e.g. historical documents, analysis of trade relations, floodplain sediments, pollen, tree-ring and
further archaeometric analyses and population studies, Alfred Thomas Grove's and Oliver Rackham's
work on "The Nature of Mediterranean Europe" challenges this common wisdom of a Mediterranean
Europe as a "Lost Eden", a formerly fertile and forested region, that had been progressively degraded and
desertified by human mismanagement.[93] The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape
to measure up to the imaginary past of the classics as idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early
modern Enlightenment.[93]

The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times
to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the
deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in the Roman age large enterprises
such as the latifundia took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came
with the end of the empire. Some assume that the major deforestation took place in modern times—the
later usage patterns were also quite different e.g. in southern and northern Italy. Also, the climate has
usually been unstable and there is evidence of various ancient and
modern "Little Ice Ages",[94] and plant cover accommodated to
various extremes and became resilient to various patterns of
human activity.[93]

Human activity was therefore not the cause of climate change but
followed it.[93] The wide ecological diversity typical of
Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human
behavior, as it is and has been closely related human usage
patterns.[93] The diversity range was enhanced by the widespread The thermonuclear bomb that fell into
exchange and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse the sea recovered off Palomares,
Almería, 1966
local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations, and the
interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use. The
greatest human-induced changes, however, came after World War
II, in line with the "1950s syndrome"[95] as rural populations throughout the region abandoned traditional
subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural
patterns and instead became scenery-setting agents for tourism. This resulted in more uniform, large-
scale formations.[93] Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are
overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via
the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations.[93]

Natural hazards
The region has a variety of geological hazards which have
closely interacted with human activity and land use patterns.
Among others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the Thera
eruption, dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large
tsunami that some experts hypothesise devastated the Minoan
civilisation on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some
to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired
the Atlantis legend.[96] Mount Vesuvius is the only active
volcano on the European mainland, while others, Mount Etna Stromboli volcano in Italy
and Stromboli, are on neighbouring islands. The region around
Vesuvius including the Phlegraean Fields Caldera west of
Naples are quite active[97] and constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world where
an eruptive event may occur within decades.[98]

Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive (Plinian)
eruptions.[99] It is best known for its eruption in AD 79 that led to the burying and destruction of the
Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

The large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the international
level with cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons.[100]
The Greek–Turkish earthquake diplomacy is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to
improved relations between traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmir and Athens in 1999.
The European Union Solidarity Fund (EUSF) was set up to respond to major natural disasters and
express European solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe.[101] The largest amount of
funding requests in the EU relates to forest fires, followed by floods and earthquakes. Forest fires,
whether man made or natural, are a frequent and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region.[100]
Tsunamis are also an often underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the 1908 Messina
earthquake and tsunami took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and was among the most
deadly natural disasters in modern Europe.

Invasive species
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 created the first salt-water
passage between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The Red
Sea is higher than the Eastern Mediterranean, so the canal
functions as a tidal strait that pours Red Sea water into the
Mediterranean. The Bitter Lakes, which are hyper-saline natural
lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red
Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the
salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea,
the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals The reticulate whipray is one of the
from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern species that colonised the Eastern
Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more Mediterranean through the Suez
nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have Canal as part of the ongoing
Lessepsian migration.
advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor
Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the
Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is
known as the Lessepsian migration (after Ferdinand de Lesseps, the French engineer) or Erythrean
("red") invasion. The construction of the Aswan High Dam across the Nile River in the 1960s reduced
the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich silt from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making
conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the invasive species.

Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious
impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and endemic Mediterranean species. A
first look at some groups of exotic species shows that more than 70% of the non-indigenous decapods
and about 63% of the exotic fishes occurring in the Mediterranean are of Indo-Pacific origin,[102]
introduced into the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal. This makes the Canal the first pathway of
arrival of alien species into the Mediterranean. The impacts of some Lessepsian species have proven to
be considerable, mainly in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean, where they are replacing native
species and becoming a familiar sight.

According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature definition, as well as Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) and Ramsar Convention terminologies, they are alien species, as they are
non-native (non-indigenous) to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are outside their normal area of
distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. When these species succeed in establishing populations in
the Mediterranean Sea, compete with and begin to replace native species they are "Alien Invasive
Species", as they are an agent of change and a threat to the native biodiversity. In the context of CBD,
"introduction" refers to the movement by human agency, indirect or direct, of an alien species outside of
its natural range (past or present). The Suez Canal, being an artificial (man made) canal, is a human
agency. Lessepsian migrants are therefore "introduced" species (indirect, and unintentional). Whatever
wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-
indigenous to this sea. In recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to
deepen and widen the canal have raised concerns from marine biologists, fearing that such an act will
only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, and lead to even more species
passing through the canal.[103]

Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species

In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become noticeable. Whether
this reflects an expansion of the natural area of these species that now enter the Mediterranean through
the Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the water caused by global warming; or an extension
of the maritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an open
question. While not as intense as the "Lessepsian" movement, the process may be of scientific interest
and may therefore warrant increased levels of monitoring.

Sea-level rise
By 2100 the overall level of the Mediterranean could rise between 3 to 61 cm (1.2 to 24.0 in) as a result
of the effects of climate change.[104] This could have adverse effects on populations across the
Mediterranean:

Rising sea levels will submerge parts of Malta. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt
water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water.[105]
A 30 cm (12 in) rise in sea level would flood 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) of the Nile
Delta, displacing over 500,000 Egyptians.[106]
Cyprus wetlands are also in danger of being destroyed by the rising temperatures and sea
levels.[107]
Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the
Baltic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east–west
movement corridors, which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas.[108] Sea
level rise for the next century (2100) could be between 30 cm (12 in) and 100 cm (39 in) and temperature
shifts of a mere 0.05–0.1 °C in the deep sea are sufficient to induce significant changes in species
richness and functional diversity.[109]

Pollution
Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The United Nations Environment
Programme has estimated that 650,000,000 t (720,000,000 short tons) of sewage, 129,000 t (142,000
short tons) of mineral oil, 60,000 t (66,000 short tons) of mercury, 3,800 t (4,200 short tons) of lead and
36,000 t (40,000 short tons) of phosphates are dumped into the Mediterranean each year.[110] The
Barcelona Convention aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the
marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development.'[111] Many marine
species have been almost wiped out because of the sea's pollution. One of them is the Mediterranean
monk seal which is considered to be among the world's most endangered marine mammals.[112]

The Mediterranean is also plagued by marine debris. A 1994 study of the seabed using trawl nets around
the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an
average of 1,935 items per km2. Plastic debris accounted for 76%, of which 94% was plastic bags.[113]
Shipping
Some of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the
Mediterranean Sea. It is estimated that approximately 220,000
merchant vessels of more than 100 tonnes cross the
Mediterranean Sea each year—about one third of the world's total
merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo,
which if lost would result in severe damage to the marine
environment. A cargo ship cruises towards the
Strait of Messina
The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also
represent a significant source of marine pollution. The
Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0.7% of the global water surface and yet receives 17% of global marine oil
pollution. It is estimated that every year between 100,000 t (98,000 long tons) and 150,000 t (150,000
long tons) of crude oil are deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities.

Approximately 370,000,000 t (360,000,000 long tons) of oil are transported annually in the
Mediterranean Sea (more than 20% of the world total), with around 250–300 oil tankers crossing the sea
every day. Accidental oil spills happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill
could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean.[109]

Tourism
Tourism is one of the most important sources of income for many
Mediterranean countries, despite the man-made geopolitical
conflicts in the region. The countries have tried to extinguish
rising man-made chaotic zones that might affect the region's
economies and societies in neighboring coastal countries, and
shipping routes. Naval and rescue components in the
Mediterranean Sea are considered to be among the best due to the
rapid cooperation between various naval fleets. Unlike the vast
open oceans, the sea's closed position facilitates effective naval Antalya on the Turkish Riviera
and rescue missions, considered the safest and regardless of any (Turquoise Coast) received more
man-made or natural disaster. than 11 million international tourist
arrivals in 2014.
Tourism is a source of income for small coastal communities,
including islands, independent of urban centers. However,
tourism has also played major role in the degradation of the coastal and marine environment. Rapid
development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of
tourists visiting the region; but this has caused serious disturbance to marine habitats by erosion and
pollution in many places along the Mediterranean coasts.

Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a serious threat to the habitats of
endangered species such as sea turtles and monk seals. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce the
incentive for tourists to visit.[109]

Overfishing
Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says
that more than 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United
Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as albacore
and bluefin tuna, hake, marlin, swordfish, red mullet and sea bream—are threatened.

There are clear indications that catch size and quality have declined, often dramatically, and in many
areas larger and longer-lived species have disappeared entirely from commercial catches.

Large open water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the
stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, Greenpeace published a report revealing that the amount of
bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government
scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse.

Gallery

Beach of Hammamet, Tunisia The beach of la Sardinia's south

Courtade in the Îles coast, Italy
d'Hyères, France

Pretty Bay, Malta Panoramic view of Piran, Panoramic view of

Slovenia Cavtat, Croatia

View of Neum, A view of Sveti Ksamil Islands, Albania

Bosnia and Stefan, Montenegro
Herzegovina
Navagio, Greece Marmaris, Turquoise Paphos, Cyprus
Coast, Turkey

Burj Islam Beach, A view of Raouché A view of Haifa, Israel

Latakia, Syria off the coast of
Beirut, Lebanon

Coast of Alexandria, Old city of Ibiza Les Aiguades near

view From Bibliotheca Town, Spain Béjaïa, Algeria
Alexandrina, Egypt
 El Jebha, a port town Europa Point,
in Morocco Gibraltar

Panoramic view of La Condamine, Monaco Sunset at the Deir al-

Balah beach, Gaza
Strip

See also
Babelmed, the site of the Mediterranean cultures
Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly
Familial Mediterranean fever
History of the Mediterranean region
Holy League (1571)
List of islands in the Mediterranean
List of Mediterranean countries
Mediterranean diet
Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub
Mediterranean Games
Mediterranean race
Mediterranean Sea (oceanography)
Piri Reis – Early cartographer of the Mediterranean
Seto Inland Sea – A marginal sea between Honshū, Shikoku, and Kyūshū – also known as
the Japanese Mediterranean Sea
Tyrrhenian Basin
Union for the Mediterranean

References
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p. 220. ISBN 978-0-7637-5993-3.
 2. "Mediterranean Sea" (http://www.britannica.com/place/Mediterranean-Sea). Encyclopædia
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External links
Mediterranean Sea Microorganisms: 180+ images of Foraminifera (http://www.foraminifera.
eu/querydb.php?area=Mediterranean+Sea&aktion=suche)
Eastern Mediterranean Sea Long Term Ecological Research Station (http://med-lter.haifa.a
c.il/index.php/about)

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