How Did Anthropology anthropological analysis and

intervention.
Begin?  How Did Anthropology
In fall 2015, I adopted the
Begin? – Colonial Origins
Robert Welsch and Luis Vivanco
The colonial origins of
textbook Cultural Anthropology.
anthropology are hardly in
The first chapter discusses “How
dispute. In fact this should be the
Did Anthropology Begin?” Welsch
very first of the three key
and Vivanco detail three key
concerns. But perhaps even more
concerns: “(1) the disruptions of
important is the need to discuss
industrialization in Europe and
the beginnings of the global
America, (2) the rise of
system. This should start with a
evolutionary theories, and (3) the
discussion of the Reconquista of
growing importance of Europe’s
the Iberian peninsula, the
far-flung colonies” (2015:5).
seafaring voyages from what is
Although it was difficult reading, I
now Portugal and Spain, and the
immediately missed my previous
subsequent Conquista of the
book by Michel-Rolph
Americas.
Trouillot, Global
The 15th and 16th centuries were
Transformations (2003). I re-
crucial for how Europe became
assigned Trouillot for the fall
“The West,” how others would be
2016 version of Cultural
portrayed as savage, and the
Anthropology, pairing it with
establishment of transoceanic
the concise version of Welsch &
global flows that would predate
Vivanco.
academic anthropology by more
It’s not so much that Welsch and
than three centuries. Welsch and
Vivanco are completely wrong. It’s
Vivanco discuss how “overseas the
that the order of prioritization
colonial period flourished from the
should be reversed and the
1870s until the 1970s.” But this
historical timeframe adjusted.
refers only to the flourishing of
Otherwise, their depiction
North Atlantic colonialism, which
validates contemporary US-centric
was by that time following well-
ideas, limiting the scope of
worn routes and templates
established centuries earlier (see
the discussion of Europe and the
People Without
History and Myths of the Spanish
Conquest).
 How Did Anthropology
Begin? – Plantation Slavery
& Industrialization
By not beginning their colonial
account earlier, Welsch and
Vivanco then re-tell a standard
story-line about industrialization.
The standard line is that
industrialization occurs in Europe
and in the United States in the
nineteenth century and then from
there “affected peoples in
European colonies” (2015:5).
Such a story ignores decades of
anthropological and historical
research that shows how crucial
the colonies always were in the
genesis of European
industrialization. Specifically in the
classic Sweetness and Power: The
Place of Sugar in Modern History,
Sidney Mintz details the factory-
like aspects of Caribbean slave
plantations. Mintz demonstrated
how sugar production “fueled” the
later rise of the working class and
factory production in Europe.
(For an update on Mintz’s work
and legacy, see The Discovery of
Sidney Mintz: Anthropology’s
Unfinished Revolution.)
 How Did Anthropology
Begin? – Darwin in the
Tierra del Fuego
Darwin’s ideas about evolution
were undoubtedly important to
the emergence of anthropology.
But they were not solely ideas
about non-human biological
variation. Darwin’s Voyage of the
Beagle followed the routes of
Iberian colonialism. Darwin’s
observations of natives in Tierra
del Fuego could now be wrapped
in a narrative of savagery as
“absence” and negation:
The language of these people,
according to our notions, scarcely
deserves to be called articulate. .
. . We have no reason to believe
that they perform any sort of
religious worship. . . . The
different tribes have no
government or chief. . . . They
cannot know the feeling of having
a home, and still less that of
domestic affection. . . . Their skill
in some respects may be
compared to the instinct of
animals, for it is not improved by
experience. (The Voyage of the
Beagle 1831-1836, [2001:183, condition of human society and
191-2]) culture. All of them who got
Darwin’s misrecognition of native themselves involved in the
societies that had by that time comparative study of preliterate
been thoroughly affected by prior societies and cultures at that
conquests fit well within a similar time, with the intention of
erasure of the colonial studying origin and evolution
contribution to European preferred the term ethnologists
industrialization and dominance. for them. It deals with man in
This dominance would then be the context of society and
further justified by evolutionary culture. While society�s
ideas. presence is attested at sub-human
level, culture is exclusively a

Branches of Anthropology human phenomenon. Broadly

speaking, it concentrates on the
Socio-Cultural Anthropology: life patterns of people. It
Branch of anthropology concerned develops as a science of socio
with the study and comparison of cultural similarities and differences
human cultures. with no limitation of time and
Second half of the 19th century space. In the beginning it studies
was the beginning period of the only among the preliterate people,
socio-cultural Anthropology. It is but now it entertains no such
being inspired by the idea of limitations. By the beginning of
evolution after the Darwin's the 20th century its earlier
publication of the Origin of designation as Ethnology was
Species. Many socio-cultural gradually abandoned. It is replaced
anthropologists become interested by the terms cultural
in exploring the possibility of a Anthropology in America and by
similar process of evolution in the social Anthropology in Britain.
field of society and culture. They
In America, a tradition of study
focused in the study of
of whole cultures developed, while
preliterate societies in the belief
in Britain the comparative study
that they represented the earliest
of social structures was considered
to be the subject matter of social transactions and its processes.
anthropology. Economic Anthropologists
concentrate on these activities
The American Anthropologists,
mainly in non-literate and peasent
however, considered the study of
societies. They focus on the
culture of people to include social
modes of exchanges including
structure. So the two differed
ceremonial exchanges. The concept
only in degrees.
of reciprocity and redistribution
Unlike its earlier exclusive pre- are crucial here The nature of
occupation with the preliterates, trade and market systems are also
it has extended its domain to studied.
cover complex societies as well,
The process of economic growth
though the study of small scale
and development in societies are
non-literate societies is still
ultimately studied. Some scholars
important to it.
argue that the economic activities
The life of people has several of man are not studied in
dimensions, and the attempts to isolation but in their socio-cultural
study each one in detail has setting with the emphasis on
resulted in the origin and growth those socio-cultural factors that
of several sub-branches from the influence and determine economic
elementary branch of socio- activity in each society. It
cultural Anthropology such as resulted in a hot debate between
Economic Anthropology, Political the formalists and substantivists
Anthropology, Psychological i.e those who feel that the
Anthropology, Anthropology of theories formulated in the
Religion and so on and so forth. discipline of Economics are equally
We shall overview only these sub- sufficient in explaining economic
branches of major interest. processes in simple societies, and
a) Economic Anthropology: those who counter by arguing
Production, consumption that the economy of each society
distribution and exchange are the is embedded in the bed of culture
basic structures of economic and so that economic theories
that have been constructed with
the modern monetized systems in process by which culture is
mind do not find a credible place transmitted from one generation
in the anthropology of simple to the next.
societies.
d) Ecological Anthropology:
b) Political Anthropology: The term �ecology� refers to
It concentrates on the ubiquity of the totality of relations between
political process and the functions environment and organism. It
of legitimate authority, law, deals with the relationship
justice and sanctions in simple between human beings and their
societies� ; focus of power and environments. It is the use of the
leadership. It focuses on the concept of environment in the
Anthropological point of view in explanation of different cultural
the formulation of the typology elements and also the diversity of
of political structures based on cultural groups. Two main views
differences and similarities relatd to cultural behavior and
observed among the societies of environment are determinism and
the world and its political possibilism. The former, also called
processes emerging among nations environmentalism, states that
and complex societies. Moreover, environment dictates cultural
it also studies political culture and practices whereas the latter
the nation building processes. denies it and holds that
environment has a limiting rather
c) Psychological Anthropology:
than the determining effect on
It is the study of cross cultural
cultural behaviours.
variations in psychological traits.
It studies psychological, It deals with the relationship
behavioural and personal between human beings and their
approaches of man. It is developed environments. It is the use of the
as an interdisciplinary approach concept of environment in the
between psychology and socio- explanation of both the origin of
cultural anthropology. Modern different cultural elements and
Psychological Anthropologists are also the diversity of cultural
very much interested in the groups. It also attempts to
understand of cultural groups. It reconstruction of cultures that no
also attempts to understand the longer exist. It helps to
relative influence of environment reconstruct the human past in its
on human society and how it is material features including how
used by different societies. The people lived and worshipped, how
ecological perspective is based on they built, their arts, tombs and
the assumption that constant travels. It provides material on
interplay takes place between man man�s prehistory about which
and his environment. They cannot no written records are available.
be understood as isolated entities. It is concerned with all of
The ecological perspective in man�s material remains. Thus,
Anthropology was first expressed the use of archaeology to study
by Steward in the 1930�s ethnography becomes imperative.
through his most important That�s why this branch is
concept, �cultural ecology, referred to as Ethno- archaeology.
which recognized that culture and
e) Anthropology of Religion:
environment are not separate
There are many theories regarding
spheres but are involved in a
the origin of religion among
dialectic interplay or reciprocal
people. Some of the major
causality.
theories are Animism, Animatism,
d) Ethno-archaeology: Manaism and Primitive
The term ethnic refers to a group monotheism. The perceptions of
distinguished by common cultural people regarding the differences
characteristics. The comparative between man and nature are
study of cultures in historical studied first of all. The beliefs in
perspective is the subject matter natural forces and super-natural
of ethnology whereas the forces, and/or being are
descriptive account of the total investigated. The operation of
way of life of the people at a religious traditions including the
given time is devoted as rituals and ceremonies among non-
ethnography. Archaeology is that literate and peasant societies are
branch of anthropology which is studied in detail.
concerned with the historical
The practices which fall within the cebus to the largest huge bodied
domain of religion such as taboo gorilla, in their various stages of
and totemism are also examined. development show different life
The differences between magic, patterns. The integrated study of
religion and science are discussed the primates, in the background
and debated. Witch craft and of physical Anthropology gives an
Sorcery are examined as intrinsic value to understand the
important aspects of non-literate position of man.
magic. Above all, the social and
b) Ethnology:
Psychological functions of magic
It is the study of human
and religion are emphasized.
diversities. All the living men in
2. Physical Anthropology: the world are categorized into
It is a branch of Anthropology different groups broadly known as
which attempts to explore human races. These are now understood
mystery related to their origin, as the Mendelian Populations, an
differentiation, diversities and inbreeding group of humanity
distributions. With the sharing a common gene pool. It
advancement of genetical sciences, also attempts to explain the
it becomes more and more biology nature, formation and
oriented, and by virtue of it, its differentiation of the racial
area of study got considerable groups.
extension. By considering the c) Human biology:
whole situations, it can be divided It deals with the concrete
into the following sub-branches. biological principles and concepts
a) Primatology: of man. It is differed from the
It is the Scientific study of biology of other animals because
primate group of mammal . Man, of the impact of cultural
the central figure of achievement. It is highly
Anthropological study, belongs to influenced by culture as well.
the order primate of animal Culture, sometime, remodelled
kingdom. The primates, starting biological phenomenon. Physical
from the smallest rat like micro anthropologist attempts to
understand this biological feature mechanism of heredity of various
of man and their successive traits in men.
development, changes in structure
f) Nutritional Anthropology:
and function through time.
It deals with the matter related
d) Palaeoanthropology: with the nutritional perspectives
It is the branch of physical of human beings and their
anthropology which deals with the subsequent growth and
documentation of biological history development. The population of a
of mankind. They work on fossil country needs proper growth and
evidences collected from the development. Growth, however, is
different layers of the earth. It depended on two factors �
also attempts to reconstruct the heredity and environment. This
link between the human and non- branch of knowledge concerns with
human traits that had so long the impact of these two factors
been lost. They evaluate the fossil on human beings as well.
remains found from different sites
g) Medical Anthropology:
and establish their status and
It studies disease patterns and
evolutionary significance.
their impact on human societies.
e) Human Genetics: Medical Anthropologist attempts
Genetics deals with the inherited to bring into light the socio-
characters. There is a genetic cultural as well as genetical or
relation between parents and environmental determinants of
their offspring. The tendency of disease within a population
inheritance of parental characters through the close study of the
in known as heredity. The people and their way of life. This
heredity and its mechanism must proves very much effective in
be well understood in order to combating different diseases in
know the origin and evolution of human societies.
man. Human genetics is a
h) Physiological Anthropology:
specialized branch of physical
This branch deals with the
Anthropology which reveals the
internal organs of the human body
in order to understand their bio-
chemical constitutions. It is also biological and mechanisms of
concerned with how the physiology growth as well as the impact of
of man interacts with the the environment on the growth
external factors like climate, food process are studied. Today,
habit, etc. Moreover, it studies physical anthropologists study the
bio-chemical variations in man and impacts of disease, pollution, and
other primates. poverty on growth. Detailed
studies of the hormonal, genetic
i) Forensic anthropology :
and physiological basis of the
It deals with the skeletal
healthy growth in living humans
structure of hominids and non-
contribute to the understanding
hominids to understand the
of the growth patterns of our
similarities and differences of the
ancestors and also, to the health
body parts. This branch of
of children today, etc. It is
knowledge becomes very effective
therefore, a specialized knowledge
in the detection of criminals as
which attempts to study the
well as in the identification of the
distribution of different dental
nature and status of individuals
traits among different population.
through their biological remains.
l) Anthropometry:
j) Dental Anthropology :
It is the anthropological Science of
This branch of knowledge deals
measurement. This study is not
with teeth and its pattern. The
only useful in the study of
teeth provide the body shape and
gradual human development
size as well as food habit, and
through evolution and in
related behavior patterns. The
understanding the racial
dental morphology helps us to
discrimination patterns but also
understand human evolution,
helpful in the day to day way of
growth, body morphology,
life which is exclusively related to
genetical features.
human bodily forms.
k) Human Growth and
m) Ergonomy:
Development:
This branch of physical
It is another area of interest to
Anthropology is concerned with
physical anthropology in which
the correlation between the static 3. Archaeological Anthropology:
body dimensions and the designing This branch of knowledge
of machine to be driven by man attempts to trace the origin,
� this branch of knowledge is growth and development of
very important by the very fact culture in the past. By past we
that many groups of people differ meant the period before history
in body size as a result of varied when man had not acquired the
biological and environmental capabilities of language, not
factors. merely to speak but also to write
in order to record the story of
n) Demography:
his life.
It is the Science of population. It
deals with fertility and mortality. The Archaeological Anthropologist
These two factors are again differs from the socio �
influenced by heredity and cultural Anthropologist in two
environment. As it is concerned important aspects :
with the traits like growth, age
a) The former studies past
� sex structure, spatial
cultures while the latter studies
distribution, migration in addition
present.
to fertility and mortality of the
population, it naturally becomes a b) The former lacks the advantage
specialized branch of physical of personal contact and
Anthropology. interaction with the people he is
studying which the former enjoys.
o) Ethology:
It is the science of animal Archaeology can tell us about the
behavior. The data obtain from technology of peoples by analyzing
the study of other primate the tools they have left behind.
behaviors are being used to help Based on this, it can shed light
explain the basic background of on the economic activities of the
human behaviors and to suggest people who utilized that
how human ancestors may have technology. The artistic
acted on the different issues. capabilities of people become
apparent through the remains of
fine engravings on pottery, cultural Anthropologists to study
intricate designs on jewellery , and reconstruct past cultures by
etc. Physical remains of housing the method of extrapolation i.e.
can reveal certain aspect of social by inferring the unknown from
structure. Besides, certain aspects those things that are known.
of religions beliefs can also be
4. Linguistic Anthropology:
guessed by observing burial sites
Linguistic Anthropology is that
and the articles kept in graves.
branch of anthropology which deals
Such various aspects that
with language. It is concerned
Archaeological Anthropologists
with the languages of all people,
study begin with an attempt to
past and present as it is the chief
understand the geological
vehicle through which man
processes, particularly the Great
preserves and transmits his
Ice Age, and the succession of
culture from generation to
climatic phases that have left
generation. It also interested in
behind stratigraphic evidences in
the relationship between language
river terraces and moraines.
and cultural cognition as well as
Further, it studies man as an
cultural behavior.
artificer. Based on the types of
stone tools, they divided the The major difference between
cultural development of man into Linguists and Linguistic
three stone Ages : Paleolithic Anthropologist is that the former
(Old stone Age), Mesolithic are mainly concerned with the
(Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic study of how languages,
(New Stone Age). particularly written ones, are
constructed and structured. But
Excavation to discover artifacts,
the Linguistic Anthropologists
dating the assign an approximate
study unwritten languages as also
time period and clever conjectures
written languages. Another crucial
to build the cultural history of
difference between them is that
man�s past are the methods
those features which the former
used by Archaeological
taken for granted into
Anthropologists. Basically, they
consideration by the latter. These
often work with the socio �
features are related to the
systems of knowledge, belief,
assumptions and conventions that
produce particular ideas at
particular times in the mind of
people. Each of these features are
the mind of people. Each of these
features are culturally conditioned
and hence unique to each culture
and society.