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MICHAŁ BRONIKOWSKI
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
TEACHING AND LEARNING
Poznań 2010
SERIA: PODRĘCZNIKI NR 63
EDITORIAL BOARD
Lechosław B. Dworak, Tomasz Jurek, Krzysztof Kasprzak, Stanisław Kowalik
(przewodniczący), Piotr Krutki, Jacek Lewandowski, Wojciech Lipoński, Wiesław Osiński,
Maciej Pawlak, Ryszard Strzelczyk
REVIEWERS
Ken Hardman
Katerina Zounhia
PROOF READING
Sam Bennett
LAYOUT
Ewa Rajchowicz
ISBN 978–83–61414–36–0
ISSN 0303–5107
CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................... 92
REFERENCES ............................................................................................ 94
Preparing teachers for their service in modern education is a challenge for Higher
Educational Institutions and it is understandable that there will be differences between nations
and cultures because of their individual traditions and historical backgrounds. In this context
Physical Education is a complex process which is determined by various social, biological
and, critically, pedagogical influences. Indeed, numerous books have been written on each of
these subject areas.
This particular effort is a manual designated mainly for Erasmus and exchange students
for providing the selected basis. The book is organized into seven chapters. The introduction
(Chapters 1 and 2) provides some information on the idea of teaching physical education in
various European countries, but it also gives some insight into the basic means of the
teaching/learning process. The reader is presented with explanations of what is understood as
play, game or exercise, as well as definitions and the theoretical underpinning of motor, social
and moral development, which are core theoretical terms of physical education. In the
subsequent sections (Chapters 3, 4 and 5) the book concentrates on teaching practices with
summary critical reviews of teaching models in this area of physical education. The models
reviewed include: the Sport Education Model, Motor Learning Model, The Tactical Games
Approach Model, Co-operative Learning Model and newly Health(a)ware Four-Module
Model. There are also curricular and planning issues with explanations of how aims,
objectives and outcomes ought to be developed. This section also includes a review of
teaching styles and evaluation of the teaching/learning process, with examples of grading
students in various European countries. In the last two chapters (6 and 7), issues concerning
PE teachers and safety in physical education are addressed.
It is understood that, because of the limited space the manual was permitted, there might
be some issues and areas which have not been covered in detail or not mention at alland I
apologise for any exceptional omissions. The mistakes are solely mine. Having said this, it
should also be noted that this manual is intended as a starting point: a platform for providing
students with a comprehensive and accessible manual of the essential and most important
aspects of teaching/learning process rather than a book containing it all. I hope you will find it
useful in your teacher training and later in your teaching.
Michał Bronikowski
1. INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING
PHYSICAL EDUCATION
“implicit agreement as to what should be included in the curriculum and how it should be
taught, with the focus being largely on the sporting model. Sport is believed to be a
“mirror” of society, its small microcosm with all the relationships miniaturized
(unfortunately sometimes caricaturized) but condensed in limited shots of time of the
game. But this could be used effectively in physical education if only this process could
gain some dignity from its own professionalism”.
Physical education has a long and broad range of traditional forms that can be included in its
educational process of socialization. Here, “traditional” does not mean just traditional teaching
(usually associated with unattractive and emotionally and intellectually undemanding). Although it is
difficult to describe here precisely the whole of what might be considered as culture of physical, Kirk
[1990] believes that to emphasize the idea of culture (physical culture) pupils in schools should be
taught traditional games such as croquet as well as modern games such as curling. Introduction of
“extraordinary” sports and forms of activity may induce resistance to traditional sports and
participation in these, whilst offering different choices, allows another challenge to the pupils, that
they would not normally face.
Today one can observe that the values, once designed and destined for the upper classes, have
been assimilated with those characteristic for less noble and less financially independent ones. Mass
popularity of some sports has caused changes in the nature of sport, thus reflecting social changes in
the domain we can call the ‘culture of physical activity’. Recent technological revolutions have
brought the media along and what once was undertaken as a sport, recreational or pastime activity, has
shifted towards something that is now watched on television. Therefore one may wonder if any form
of activity (lacking for example its physical side) be considered as a part of physical culture? I do not
know, but we all know how people tend to value things that they obtain without any effort – “easy
come, easy go”. Will the same apply to valuing physical efforts? If not today, it might become so in
30-50 years. And what will be done about it then?
Today’s physical culture is a recognized part of human life, responsible not only for developing
natural biological predispositions and needs, but also for creating certain life attitudes and thus plays
an important role in developing social relationships, interests and moral values. It also concerns the
organizational sphere of physical culture and how it deals with the whole range of matters – who runs
sport federations, what it the policy behind national sports, how much money is spent on mass sport
and how much on “elite”, professional sport, how things are handled on individual or family levels.
Such an understanding of physical culture also influences the aims of physical education which, being
a foundation for future self-development, has to emphasize and integrate those issues into its teaching
more than ever. Physical education through pedagogical methods and the specific interactive nature of
the relationship between teacher and pupils (in the educational environment of a sport gym) should
aim at strengthening personal traits (beliefs, moral values, motives and interests as much as motor
skills or sporting skills) in preparation for an active life style not just in the school but for a person’s
whole life span. If the process is delivered appropriately, according to pedagogical principles, some
basic motor skills (i.e. running, jumping, skipping or catching) would be the means of achieving social
and moral development. The variety of activities, the forms and methods of delivering it, and
broadness of contexts should only enhance the educational process and help young people to direct
their interests into physical culture in the future. The way physical education influences the future
choices is presented in fig. 1 below.
New, original movement play, games and sports can add flavour to everyday teaching, making
it more varied and vivid, whilst at the same time engaging pupils thoughtfully as they have to pay
more attention to the things they haven’t heard of before. Some new games like English rock-it-ball,
Canadian lacrosse or Polish ring-netball need special prior preparation (especially concerning
equipment) so it is relatively difficult to introduce them widely. On the other hand, games like Indian-
originated kabbadi, African abgârin or even Italian bocce, in France called pétanque, do not need as
much preparatory instruction and although they may cause some confusion in their names on the
school fields, they still may come in handy to teach other cultures and certainly are worth trying in a
lesson. Another solution comes with the “American way” – inventing basketball by J. Naismith in
Springfield College or volleyball by W. Morgan. These should be encouraging examples for each
physical education teacher and sport coach in undertaking the endeavour of creating new sports.
In social life, physical culture has a role to play, with individuals of all ages participating in it
for different reasons and on different levels. Most of them play sport for purely recreational purposes
and appreciate the more social aspects of the sporting activity within a group of friends. Playing sport
in groups can widen a friendship circle by bringing likeminded people together. Only selected ones
(mostly better equipped genetically) perform at a high “elite” professional level of competition. But
school physical education curricula need to cater for all kinds of pupils.
One of the potential problems with the school curriculum is that it is created on the basis that
“one size fits all”, which can have a damaging impact on those who are not mean in the group. Lack of
equality limits chances and in some cases leads to exclusion (self-exclusion such as with obese
children or group-exclusion such as with disabled students). Educational authorities will argue that the
curriculum is broad enough for each teacher to be able to differentiate and cater for all pupils and their
needs in the class but reality proves otherwise.
The world is so culturally diverse rich and yet still changing that there is a need to explore it and
keep up-to date in all forms of education. This may be one of the ways of reducing some very difficult
social problems like racial or religious discrimination (lack of tolerance) and gender problems. It
would also help to alert stereotypical views on physical education and on sport in particular. Today
physical education needs to explore and use activities from throughout the world and cultures.
Allowing the pupils to experience games and sports from cultures others than their own provides
a unique chance to 1) introduce new, attractive forms of activities, 2) help them recognize and learn
respect for other cultures and traditions with their rich ethics and social contexts, and 3) capture their
attention and emotional involvement to let them create their own interests in the sustainable
development of health potential and resources.
To smoothen the process here below are some characteristic features which would make modern (but
also some old traditional) forms of activity (mainly games and sports) easier to incorporate into the
existing range in schools if the following points are considered:
1) Secularism – sport nowadays is played for personal and social reasons (not for religious or
political ones),
2) Fairness – there is the presumption in sport that everyone should have the opportunity and equal
chance both to compete and to win,
3) Lack of strong specialisation (position specialization) which would make it easy to enter for all
willing to participate.
But teachers have to be aware that there is no “silver bullet” solution to the problems that
physical education and sport are facing today and above all, the teaching/learning process has to be run
efficiently with strong emphasis on pedagogical aspects of discovering one’s body in a healthy
environment.
Practically speaking there are a few points that a teacher has to bear in mind before starting to
test motor fitness:
1. It is a good idea to demonstrate the desired behaviour first – teaching students to self-test gives
them the opportunity to demonstrate the behaviours they will need to create their own effective
physical activity programs throughout life.
2. For better cognitive processing, link directly to the curriculum – self-testing as a self-teaching
activity helps make health-relate fitness concepts “essential content” of the curriculum.
3. Try to inform the students that self-testing makes it easy to test on an ongoing basis, because it
saves teacher time in the future, more importantly it individualizes the instruction and sequence of
learning.
4. Make students both capable and likely to apply the tests and set goals for achieving physical gains
in real life, self-testing gives students the practical experience they need to feel confident and
capable in their abilities to apply the tests and seek improvement in real life.
So perhaps to provide the most appropriate motor development physical education teachers
should use more health-related exercise (H-RE) which, according to Harris& Elbourn [2002] may be
taught by the curriculum in:
1. Permeation method, which means that it is taught through the PE activity areas (athletics, dance,
games, gymnastics, swimming and outdoor and adventurous activities). However there are certain
limitations, for example knowledge and skills may become marginalized among other PE
objectives (or the opposite may occur: an overload of information and work), unstructured and less
effective in conventional PE lessons. These objectives may, and should be, achieved by other
activities as well.
2. Focused method, which involves teaching H-RE through specific lessons or units of work within a
physical education or health education programme. The main focus of these lessons is the learning
concept rather than the activity itself so it also has some limitations as it may be seen in isolation
and not closely linked to traditional activities (athletics, dances, games, gymnastics, swimming,
etc.).
3. As a series of topics, which involve a series of physical activities and classroom lessons following
a specific topic or theme (teaching to recognize and value the effects of exercise on the body
through PE and classroom lessons on a topic such as „My body and others”, „My body and time”
as proposed in a health(a)ware model of teaching). The limitation of this method is dealing with “a
topic- or theme-based” approach, which may take more time to plan and may be less practically
oriented than the other methods.
4. Combined method, which includes the above mentioned: permeation through PE (dance, games,
gymnastics) and topic method (such as „my body and other bodies”, or „body and time”).
Limitations will depend on the time plan, structure, implementation and co-ordination within the
curricula, which may all take a long time.
So, relying on ill-taught sport education instead of physical education in schools, poses some
treats. It may lead to an overemphasis on organized elite sports – which are not the only sports in
society – and a high level of competitiveness (professional sports) may particularly be discouraging
for less motor and sport-skills gifted members of society. It is here where social critical theory may be
useful as it offers an alternative to the system-based focus of functionalist theory. Critical theory is
based on the following assumptions [Coakley&Pike 2009, p. 45]:
Groups and societies are characterized by shared values and conflicts of interests.
Social life involves continuous processes of negotiation, compromise and correction because
agreements about values and social organization are never permanent.
Values and social organization change over time and from one situation to another as there are
shifts in the power balance between groups of people in society.
This theory is valuable and can be adapted for modern physical education in delivering social
values as “instead of focusing on society as whole, it focuses on the diversity, complexity,
contradictions and changes that characterize social life as it is lived and experienced by people who
interact with one another and struggle over how to organize their lives together. It focuses on three
topics:
the process through which culture is produced, reproduced and changed,
the dynamics of power and social inequalities in cultural processes and
the ideologies that people use as they make sense of the world, from identities, interact with others
and transform the conditions of their lives” [Coakley & Pike 2009, p. 45].
Certainly sport, through its variety of experiences, may provide a range of opportunities for
exploring values and character building. Some [Shields, Bredemeier 1995, Parry 1998] argue that it
may be a laboratory for developing ideas and social/moral values, but it cannot be narrowed to
physical exercise: It has to go beyond the sports gym, as physical education needs to get back to the
mainstream of school education – preparing for life, not just for sports.
This kind of thinking has underpinned the foundations for developing the health(a)ware modular
model of delivering physical education combined with health education, where a person is “set on a
journey” through interactions with other people (body and bodies module) or in relation to time (body
and time module) or against changing environment (body and environment) and in a company of
quantifiable facts (body and measures). The model is described in detail in the following chapters.
It is important for all teachers to equip their pupils with social skills enabling them to recognize
and respect universal social and moral values and positive attitudes. But the process of developing
those does not happen automatically during schooling. It has to be enhanced by specially designed
educational tasks and programmes. To create a certain ability to understand, appreciate and follow
values accepted by society, each member of society has to go through the process of creating and
implementing them in a controlled school environment. Raths et al [1966, p. 34] believe that “values
are based on three processes: choosing, prizing and acting. Choosing should be based on free action,
from alternatives, after thoughtful consideration of the consequences of each alternative. Prizing will
require cherishing, being happy with the choice, willing to affirm the choice publicly, while acting is
doing something with the choice, repeatedly, making in a pattern of life”. But teachers and pupils must
know how to progress from one stage of morality (or social competence) to another. Therefore a
framework suggested by Rest [1984] may be a useful route for educationalists.
Rest suggested a four-part model of moral development including the following phases:
1) interpreting the situation and identifying a moral problem (involving empathy, people-talking, and
figuring out how the participants in a situation are each affected by various actions),
2) figuring out what one ought to do, formulating a plan of action that applies the relevant moral
standard and ideal (involving concepts of fairness and justice, moral judgement, application of
social moral norms),
3) evaluating the various courses of action for how they would serve moral and non-moral values and
deciding what one will actually try to do (involving decision-making processes, value integration
models, defensive operations) and,
4) executing and implementing the moral plan of action (involving “ego strength” and self-regulation
processes).
Therefore, to make today’s learning meaningful, integrated and transferable to social life outside
of school, education needs to consider more than subject-related content, materials and management of
a class. Even the most sophisticated teaching programme or teachers’ manual will not secure the
successful achievement of educational goals if it is not fit for the curriculum, designed in a pupil-
friendly manner, age adjusted and most of all, content-attractive and related to real-life situations.
Beyond this, teachers have to consciously use cognitive strategies to enhance their teaching in a
planned way. Problem solving, dealing with moral dilemmas, ability to cooperate and team-cohesion
building are among the most desired social values to be learnt through education. All of them have a
very good chance to be learnt in a physical education setting, if only the emphasis is laid on social and
moral rather than on physical aspects. Some simple reactions and motor skills may be learned by
observing others whereas more complex ones will require repetition and a changing of the context, but
moral skills cannot be learned in any other than experiencing and dealing with problems in real-life
situations. Below are some basic terms associated with social and moral development that have been
explained.
Cognitive skills:
a) strategic thinking – to be able to advance an optimal solution to a particular problem or situation
(question, challenge, issue); be able to propose the means by which such a situation may be
attained; anticipate potential problems and unanticipated side-effects and other problematic
outcomes; and be able to implement the most appropriate course of actions.
b) critical thinking – to be able to have one’s own point of view despite stereotypes and other
detected bias or opinions; to be able to determine key factors and crucial elements and the
complexity of the issue, question or situation. One needs to be able to review one’s own process
of thought and action, critically appraise (self-evaluate) the actions undertaken so far and plan the
action upon what has been learnt. This also applies to a critical analysis of others’ people work
and achievements, but critical should not mean undermining, nor should it lead to destructive
actions against other people.
Social skills:
a) communication – one should be able to communicate their messages but also be able to listen to
others using different channels of communication – verbal, mimic, gesture, written
communication including also the use of modern technologies like the Internet or mobile
phones.
b) leadership – to be able to lead other people, to be in charge of a group of people and still be able
to implement a plan of actions (changes) by reasoned decisions both by using teamwork or
individualize targets and objectives when necessary.
c) participation – not only participating in an activity but also being able to influence the decision
making process (active participation). In the case of school education it needs to be done
sensibly but also sensitively, involving different members of the group/class (possibly each of
them should have a chance to influence the plan of actions) with the use of different teaching
methods and approaches.
Attitudes:
a) pursuit of excellence (sustainable development) – to have a positive attitude towards
developing one’s own potentials (both in biological and cultural terms) and talents (in sports,
music, art, drama or other gifts) in a pursuit to gain as much self-esteem and self-confidence as
possible and to be able to act with awareness of one’s capacity and worth. This belief in oneself
however, should not lead to over-confidence nor to the abuse of other, weaker students,
especially in a sporting context, where physical context and rivalry is inevitable.
b) respect for diversity – an empathy with others’ views and needs and respect for their work,
opinion, race or religion, but also to be able to value different cultures and traditions (to show
openness to welcome and create opportunities to learn from other cultures and societies).
c) sense of justice and equity – to be able to recognize social injustice and act justly; to have a
sense of fairness, especially in sporting situations, but also to present it outside the gym; and to
have the willingness to act accordingly with moral standards both in self-related but also in
other-related circumstances (willingness to speak up for undermined others).
One of the leading theoretical frameworks for social development through sport is based on
Hellison’s [2003] Teaching Responsibility through Physical Activity (TRPA) model. It is becoming
more and more visible that there is a need for improving control and discipline in the class to
counterbalance violence and aggression present in the streets. Schools need to develop a sense of
meaningfulness for young people [Antonovsky 1995], but it has to equip them with such social skills
that would enable them to enter adulthood with an optimistic belief that “they can make it if they
want”. If we could achieve these along with increasing their participation in physical activity this
could be a major benefit of physical education. Obviously this will not happen instantaneously, as
most of the progressive changes in human behaviour take time. Hellison [1985, 2003] described this
development through certain levels, where goals have been organized into a step-by-step progression
of attitudes and behaviours:
1) Level 0: irresponsibility – describes pupils who are unmotivated and undisciplined, they make
excuses and blame others for their behaviour, deny personal responsibility for what they do or fail
to do, and may feel powerless to change their lives.
2) Level 1: self-control – pupils are asked to control their behaviour and thereby responsibility is
shifted from external source (e.g. teacher) to the pupils. They may not show much mastery or
improvement, but are able to control their behaviour enough so that they do not interfere with
other pupils’ right to learn. Through this process, both self-discipline and the beginning of self-
responsibility are encouraged.
3) Level III: self-responsibility – emphasizes the need for pupils to learn to take more responsibility
for their choices, and for linking these choices to their own identities. They can identify their own
needs and interests and can begin to plan and execute their own physical education programs. This
goal fully rests on the assumption that pupils can independently reflect, plan, work, and play if
given proper guidance and an appropriate framework.
4) Level IV: caring – deals with the need for social stability in pupils’ lives by encouraging pupils to
reach out beyond themselves to others – to commit themselves to caring about others. Pupils at this
level are motivated to extend their sense of responsibility by cooperating, giving support, showing
concern, and helping (although there is the assumption that pupils must meet some of their own
needs before they can reach out very far or very often to others).
In achieving this development through the mentioned levels, Hellison [1985, p. 9] suggests
using the following teaching strategies:
Teacher talk – one of the ways to have pupils interact with the levels is to explain those levels,
post them, refer to them during spontaneous acts of self-responsibility or caring or, conversely,
during uncontrolled behaviours.
Modelling (being) – this is what the teacher does in the presence of the pupils, it is his/her
attitudes and behaviours. Pupils interact with the levels when the teacher is under control
(recognizing different teaching styles), involved (actively participating whenever possible),
responsible (by keeping promises) and caring (demonstrating concern for each pupil).
Reinforcement – this is any act by the teacher that strengthens a specific attitude or behaviour of
an individual pupil. A teacher’s praise can be a reinforcer if it is genuine, positive, specific, and
appropriate to the situation. Awards can also be reinforcers. So can a formal reward system that
gives rewards for meeting certain criteria. So can grades. When attitudes and behaviours which
represent the higher developmental levels (levels that are higher than the pupil’s typical attitudes
and behaviours) are regularly reinforced in a genuine manner, pupil interaction with the levels is
enhanced.
Reflection time – refers to time pupils spend thinking about their attitudes and behaviours in
relation to the levels. Such interaction can take place at the end of a class period by asking pupils
to state or record the level at which they operated during the period, and the basis for their
evaluation.
Pupil sharing – this happens when pupils are asked to give their opinions about some aspects of
the program. Pupil sharing results in interaction with the levels by emphasizing the worth of each
pupil’s opinion (Level III) and a sense of community in trying to resolve a gray issue (Level IV).
In addition, it gives pupils the opportunity to talk with the teacher about how best to encourage
self-control, involvement, self-responsibility and caring. Opinions about the worth of these values
can also be elicited, thereby giving pupils the opportunity to evaluate and perhaps even suggest
modifications to the developmental level system.
Specific strategies – a group of strategies that refers to those activities that increase interaction
with a specific level. For example, pupil contracts may help pupils operate at Level III, and
reciprocal teaching, whereby pupils pair up and teach each other, may help pupils to operate at
Level IV.
It is worth remembering that both developmental levels, as well teaching strategies, are only
conceptual frameworks that can be used to enhance the teaching/learning and socialization processes.
It is the responsibility of the teacher to select the most appropriate ones for the particular context and
setting, and moreover, individualize them to match the specific needs of each individual pupil. The
effectiveness of education depends not on the knowledge of a teacher but on his/her ability to use the
most appropriate solutions in their teaching and to stand for what they teach.
2. BASIC MEANS OF PHYSICAL
EDUCATION
Many educational tasks specific for physical education are usually built around sport-related
activities enriched by values characteristic for the development of social and moral values. All this is
supposed to lead to the development of physically active lifestyles. According to the EU Physical
Activity Guidelines [European Union Physical Activity Guidelines, Brussels 2008, p. 3] physical
activity is defined as “any bodily movement associated with muscular contraction that increases
energy expenditure above resting levels”. This can includes leisure physical activity, occupational
physical activity or physical activity at home. It also relates to the school physical education, which is
a first and fundamental stage in preparation for a lifelong physical activity. To make it educational, the
aims and means have to be rooted in social, moral and cultural contexts. Therefore the teacher should
use the wide variety of the means, among which the following ones are the most common:
1) Play is a voluntary activity, characterised by minimal rules (often re-invented along the way),
spontaneity and fantasy and is viewed by participants as non-work. According to Huizinga [1985]
play is a cultural phenomenon characterised by freedom of choices, standing outside ‘ordinary’ life as
being ‘non-serious’ (although due to the high level of emotional engagement it may become ‘deadly’
serious), but at the same time absorbing the player intensely and utterly. It is an activity connected
with no material interest and gains. Huizinga believed that the function of play can be derived from the
two basic aspects under which we meet it – as a contest for something or a representation of
something. These two functions can be united in such a way that the play ‘represents’ a contest or else
becomes a contest for the best representation of something. Bronikowski and Muszkieta [2000] see
play serving more than two functions: practical, cognitive, social, educational and hedonic (ludic)
functions. It is characteristic that in play, everyone may be a winner and the rivalry is not a team
against any other team but it is rather a challenge to individuals to cope with the set of rules to the best
of their skills and abilities. Play is more about cooperating than competing, though it is always a good
idea to praise the best ones in every form of activity.
An example of a play:
Name of the game: Who is your neighbour?
Participants: 20 pupils, aged 10-16.
Equipment and facilities: 80 cones, poster prepared prior to the lesson (possibly during a lesson of
geography) and blue tac.
Playing area: sport hall, grass playingfield.
Rules: The class is split into two mixed teams of ten, one team is called “hosts” And the other team is
called “guests”. Approximately eight cones (a mixture of green, blue, red and yellow) are placed in
the centre of the court on four cone stands, and each wall of the sport hall represents north, south,
west and east direction of the Earth. The centre of the court is called Poland (or it may be called
Europe and the same play may be carried out with continents) and each wall is the name of a country,
which is located in that direction from Poland. For example north is Sweden (or Norway or Finland),
south is Greece (or Italy), east is Russia (or Ukraine) and west is Germany (or France) – the names of
the countries may be changed every time the play is organized. Each country has a colour (if possible
matching the colour on the national flag of the country) and the children have to match the colour of
the cones with the colour of the country. So Sweden will be yellow and the yellow cones must be taken
to whichever direction they (the children) think Sweden is from Poland. A key is attached to each wall
to prevent children from forgetting which country is which colour (this key may be a flag of the
country). To incorporate the teams, the “host” team must place their cones in the area marked for
hosts and the “guest” team must place their cones in the area for the arriving guest. This lets there be
a winning team at the end of each 2 minutes by counting how many cones have been places in “hosts”
and “guests” areas. After the first 2 minutes the teacher blows the whistle, counts the cones in each
area to reveal the winning team for that game, then changes the game by changing to other countries.
Cross-curricular links: This activity may be linked to geography to learn the direction of certain
countries from Poland (or from Europe) and social skills such as communication and working
together as a team will be developed as well.
In the teaching process play should be taught prior to any more complex means of physical
education as it uses the most basic forms of motor movement (i.e. running, jumping, catching,
twisting, tossing, grasping a ball, throwing). Unfortunately play is often confused with race. The
difference is considerable and both forms have different educational impacts. Race has no fable nor
plot and the whole idea of the racing task is based around a mere physical competition enhanced with
development of basic motor and sport skills (i.e. running with bouncing a ball). However, there are
some things which are difficult or impossible to be achieved through a race where a play may serve its
role perfectly. Preparation to more advanced game playing requires involving moderate forms of
tactical thinking and this is best achievable by employing pre-considered teaching strategies like for
example the Teaching Games for Understanding model (TGFU).
2) Game is a more formalised form of the play and is characterised by explicit rules, and the outcome
is ‘measured’ by its score. In its form outside the schooling context game may be a form of organised
recreational activity or a highly competitive form of team against team rivalry, determined by strict
rules and technical regulations. In either case game has formal rules, which could however be
alternated for the schooling purposes (modified, simplified). According to Bunker and Thorpe [1982]
the TGFU model is based on the principle that the process of learning is equally as important as the
intended outcomes. In this model it is intended that the learner would rather understand the tactical
strategies of a game than simply perform the task mastering it by constant repetition, which often
comes without an appropriate level of intellectual processing. Use of this model enables the learner to
employ the most suitable solutions in a range of situations and contexts, which is vital in all team
games. There is a strong tendency to field-position specialisation (i.e. goalkeeper or forward) and
frequently lessons of games lack other educational momentums making this form of activity especially
vulnerable for occurrence of misbehaviour problems, particularly in invasion-games where the
chances of encountering an opponent are unavoidable. Most of the so-called traditional sports (e.g.
football, basketball, volleyball often called games) are well known to most of the physical education
and sport students thus below a new, modified game exemplifying TGFU model is presented.
Name of the game: Hooped basket ball.
Participants: up to 20 students aged 14-20.
Equipment and facilities: 18 hoops, 3 basketballs, two sets of colour bibs.
Playing area: sport hall, outdoor basketball court.
Rules: The class in divided into two teams. The hoops are placed at either side of a rectangular
playing area and teams of 5 a side compete with one basketball. Points are scored by getting the ball
into any of the three hoops.
Modification: This game can be modified to have 3 hoops on one sideline (belonging to one team) and
three hoops on the other side (belonging to the other team). Each of the hoops will have a different
value of points ranging from 1 to 3 and it will be up to a team to come up with both defending and
attracting strategy. The idea is to develop a sense of team tactics and team communication in finding
where the gaps are and when the ball should be passed. The game develops also hand-eye
coordination and participants use the skills already gained in the 3 player tag to evade opponents.
Variants of the game can be no bouncing of the ball (when preparing for other games – e.g., a game
of Korfball) or being unable to communicate verbally or having to pass the ball at the least a certain
number of times before scoring a hoop (few times for when practicing counterattack and more when
practicing positioned attacking).
Cross-curricular: This activity ties in with one of the national key stage 3 and 4 curriculum (in UK) of
performance as it enables individuals to know what needs to be achieved and appreciate how to make
adjustments from working individually and in teams. It also allows building up upon the previous
experience of 3 player tag (increasing complexity of a task).
3) Exercise usually it is commonly to be one of the forms of leisure activities developing physical
activity and health potential. However, in the schooling process, it is planned and structured,
employing repetitive bodily movements that the teacher engages pupils in for the purpose of
improving or maintaining physical fitness and health. It requires accuracy and therefore concentration
on a task given and as such needs to be strictly supervised by the teacher. This also involves
immediate feedback from the teacher (correcting mistakes, telling pupils what went wrong and giving
advice how to improve their ways) which in many cases, if done in an inappropriate way (i.e.
inadequate support, poor instruction, embarrassment) leads to potential drop-out situations. When
giving pupils an exercise to perform the teacher needs to consider personal factors such as the age,
personality and interests as well as educational determinants such as the goal or learning phase in the
process. If those factors are appropriately addressed, then the individuals are more likely to make
exercising a regular part of their daily routines, which is one of the fundamental general aims of
physical education.
Examples of set of exercises in teaching basketball.
Warm up
Pupils dribble around a figure of 8 using the correct hands at appropriate times and turns, the teacher
asks the pupils to:
– change direction,
– stop and get the next ball in front,
– change pace,
– dribble around the circuit and when the participant comes to the basket perform a lay up
(alternatively with a set shot).
Later the pupils are asked to include a set shot and there are asked to:
– swap roles,
– once they have grasped the idea of the concept, change the shooting angle.
The teacher needs to point to the following things concerning technique:
– crouch with knees apart and face basket,
– shooting hand must be behind the ball and cocked,
– shooting foot, elbow, wrist and hand should be in the same vertical place.
Recently, however, physical education (in some countries shifting towards movement didactics)
started its theoretical “lift up”. It is becoming more obvious that modern physical education needs to
combine its content and efforts with health education, providing pupils with adequate life-skills
enabling them to develop life habits and positive attitudes toward physical activity and health
awareness throughout life. Technological changes (such as the Internet or mobile phones) that
influence all spheres of life, will also affect education in the near future by alternating the ways in
which content is delivered. Traditional teaching models are based on providing pupils with knowledge
(delivered to them as a number of facts through the variety of tasks to be completed in a formal and
instructional form in the setting of a classroom). The side-effects of using such models are visible in
physical inactivity of the previous few generations of adults, who indicated an ignorance of health and
body needs immediately after they finished school education. Modern teaching models call for
emotional and intellectual involvement of pupils (i.e. by increasing creativity and motivation for
participation) combined with “life skills” learning. The emphasis should be centred on the pupils and
their capacities, interests and holistic development. The role of the teacher is to create a pupil-friendly
educational environment to enable pupils to experience an educationally motivating atmosphere and
therefore stimulate a high level of intellectual and emotional processing. However, it should be, the
pupil’s role to explore the area of teaching/learning process, to discover and develop their physical and
intellectual potential and find an appropriate solution to the problem presented by the teacher.
Certainly, such teaching will require more consideration in the near future if physical education is to
stay among the core subjects in schools.
This notwithstanding, changing (or sticking to) a model may not be enough. Social stereotypes
associated with physical education are so strong that it requires a new, fresh approach to the delivery
of contents. Fullan [1982] proposes the establishment of a new educational model that allows the
implementation of challenges ahead of the teacher and the pupil. This model should involve
educational changes in three areas: 1) curriculum basis – teaching syllabi and materials; 2)
teaching/learning process and 3) attitudes and beliefs of the educational community (academic
centres). The least complex seems to be the planning and development of teaching materials; whilst
the most difficult involves changing the attitudes and pedagogical habits of teachers themselves.
Therefore I believe that the reasonable proposition of health(a)ware model presented underneath could
be stimulating and satisfying for all parties involved.
In some European countries (Germany, Spain, Czech Republic, Austria, Poland, Norway) a new
proposal of teaching physical education combined with health in the so-called “health(a)ware four
module approach” seems to be giving a new hope for school physical education. It is a very good
example of such updated trends of changing theoretical framework of physical and health education.
The European project Health(a)ware – an experienced-based learning and teaching approach for
physical and health education. Health(a)ware [28737-CP-1-2006-1-DE-Comenius-C2, www.health-a-
ware.eu] was a project founded by the European Commission in the Socrates-Comenius Program to
enable experimental health and physical education teaching within and across the school courses.
e) The Health(a)ware four-module model
The model comprises a combination of theme-based and experienced-based approach to
physical and health education. The idea of the development of health awareness is implemented in
four theme groups:
Body and Bodies – focusing on the individual functioning in wider social communities (including
family), within a framework of changing social relations and integration, intercultural and
aesthetical differences in physical activity;
Body and Time – concerning the transience of human life and historical aspects of health in terms
of social, psychological and physical human capabilities of using physical activity to improve the
quality of various aspects of daily life;
Body and Measure – focusing on experiencing physical (somatic and motor) changes in human
capabilities in everyday situations (covering distances, lifting weights, reaction times) as well as
developing self-control and self-evaluation and discovering one’s own range of movements;
Body and Environment – concerning aspects of physical activity in changing environmental
conditions to suit the individual in pursuit of pastimes activities, experience of urban and rural
environment and its influence of one’s life style.
This model introduces (and in some countries re-introduces) the idea of cross-curricular
teaching. Although cross-curricular teaching of knowledge and skills may help pupils in the process of
lifelong learning, it should be noted that the project does not cover all areas, objectives and tasks of
physical education and health and may serve better as a complementary model of teaching rather than
the “ultimate” model. But it is definitely the beginning of a new way of thinking about physical and
health education. The idea itself however, is not enough. It needs people who are aware of the new
developments and who would develop the appropriate skills (educational tools) necessary for their
implementation. What is really needed nowadays are skilful and pedagogically aware educators.
This example, as well as all examples, solutions and proposals for health(a)ware pan-European
physical education have been elaborated by a joint working group of the European Union grant project
which included: dr Antje Stache and dr Elke Knisel from the Humboldt University of Berlin, prof.
Konrad Kleiner from University of Vienna, dr Irena Martinkova from Charles University, prof.
M.Gonzalez-Gross from Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, prof. Ralf Erdmann from Norges
Idrettshogskole, dr hab. prof. AWF Michał Bronikowski from University School of Physical
Education from Poznan and their collaborates and teams from each respective university.
3.3. Developing curriculum
‘The purpose of developing a curriculum is to increase the total amount of desirable learning
occurring during the time periods when the student is under supervision of the school’ [Robinson,
Ross, White 1985, p. 6]. The way that new curricula are being developed follows Tyler’s model
presented in fig. 2.
Tyler [1949] would see the steps in developing curriculum as answering the following
questions:
1) What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2) What educational experiences can be provided which are likely to attain these purposes?
3) How can these experiences be effectively organized?
4) How can we determine that these purposes are being attained?
The models of developing curricula should either be based on the objectives (for these curricula,
a designer who would start and emphasize the aims and objectives first), or content based model (in
which emphasis is placed more on what the curriculum contains than on aims) and finally we will
have those teachers who are interested in teaching methods as a primary means for educating the
children and not the content or the objectives. This will be a developmental model orientated on the
teaching/learning process.
New proposals are supposed to be tailored to meet the needs of the pupils in a personalized way
to emotionally tie the content to what they feel and are capable of doing. Unfortunately it seems that
some of today’s teachers don’t possess the tools for it. Having taught the sport education model for 20
or 30 years how can one find a way to tailor the contents and tasks to meet the individuals’ needs in
developing social skills or moral values? They have to have their pedagogical skills upgraded to be
able to create and re-design activities and tasks, which would concentrate on developing successful
citizens of the world who are self-confident and responsible for their own actions in a dynamically to
the changing world around them.
In England, for example, the national curriculum guidelines
[www.teachernet.gov.uk/teachingandlearning] give the teacher some ideas of the key concepts which
need to be included if the teachers want to broaden students’ knowledge skills and understanding of
the subject, as follows:
competence – where the development of the skills and tactics are improved to respond to meet the
demands of an activity,
performance – understanding how competence can be used to bring success within the
performance, critically evaluating the performance and ways to improve it,
creativity – using imaginative ways to communicate, solve problems and overcome challenges,
also exploring with techniques and tactics,
healthy and active lifestyles – understanding how physical activity contributes to the healthy
functioning of the body and recognizing that physical activity is used to meet the demands of the
environment (the setting approach).
To achieve this, pupils will have to go through the following processes, enhancing their skills as they
progress in their movement competence:
developing skills in physical activity – pupils should be able to refine and adapt skills as well as
learn new ones, modify and make them more fluent,
making and applying decisions – pupils should be able to select and use tactics and refine them
with the changing settings, recognize hazards that are a risk to themselves and others,
developing physical and mental capacity – pupils should be able to develop their physical
strength, stamina, character, and will to succeed (although the teachers need to bear in mind that
a “success” may have different meaning to different people).
evaluation and improving – pupils should be able to analyze the performance and identify
strengths and weaknesses, also make decisions on how to improve their own and others’ potential
and performance,
making informed choices about health, active lifestyles – pupils should make choices on what suits
them best and what types of roles they would like to take on in the future, and throughout the life-
span.
Teachers will also have to provide an educational environment as well as tasks for developing
pupils into self-confident individuals.
Individualization can be introduced into a teaching strategy in numerous ways: differentiating
the tasks according to the level of needs/capacities of individual pupils, for example by putting pupils
in mixed ability pairs, using different sized equipment across the group or other methodological
solutions. However, implementing changes doesn’t come easy and among the most frequently
occurring problems in the process of planning units of work in physical education, one can list those
that lead to misconduct in teaching:
reasons for selection of material and connections to the previous classes are unclear,
lesson content and teaching material is poorly structured and organized insufficiently,
pupils are not led into the lesson and no links are indicated or poor explanation of a task is given
(the result is that they miss the point of an activity or a game),
the task is not adequate to the level of the pupils (too easy or too complex),
the selection of teaching methods is inappropriate (coming from the limited PKC of the teacher,
resulting in the same method used over and over again and the same teaching style – usually the
command style).
As a response to these issues, in the next chapters the idea of systematic process of delivering
quality physical education is discussed.
In other countries it will vary. Here is the example deriving from the health(a)ware
project. (European Union Grant 128737-CP-1-2006-1-DE--Comenius-C21: „Health(a)ware an
experienced-based learning and teaching approach for physical and health education”) – fig. 4.
Recently however, [QCA 2009] the idea of these key strands have been explained in more detail
and children must cover at least four of the following tasks in Key Stages 3 and two in Key Stages 4:
outwitting opponents,
accurate replication of actions, phrases and sequences,
exploring and communicating ideas, concepts and emotions,
performing at maximum levels in relation to speed, height, distance, strength or accuracy,
identifying and solving problems to overcome challenges of an adventurous nature,
exercising safely and effectively to improve health and well-being.
On the other hand for example, in New Zealand school curricula, there are seven essential
learning areas, where health and physical well-being has been developed within a new
teaching/learning paradigm of physical education [Culpan 2004]. The Health and PE curriculum is
based around the four major strands: Strand 1: well-being, Strand 2: health promotion, Strand 3:
socio--ecological perspective and Strand 4: attitudes and values. Accordingly in New Zealand [Culpan
2004] physical education is a learning area that:
promotes the learning of new skills (not just physical skills) associated with, in, through and about
physical activity (movement skills for physical competence, enjoyment, self-worth and active
lifestyle);
enhances, extends, informs and critiques the deliberate use of play, exercise, sport and other forms
of physical activity within and individual and societal context (knowledge and understanding of
scientific and technological influences on physical activity, knowledge and understanding of
cultural practices associated with physical activity);
emphasises the inter-relatedness of physical education, social, mental, emotional and spiritual
nature of well-being (personal, and inter-personal skill development, knowledge and
understanding of the significance of social influences on physical activity, personal values,
attitudes, behaviours and actions in physical activity settings).
Nevertheless, since physical activity (which was once associated with energy expenditure
through skeletal and muscular movement) appeared on school curricula it has needed to be enhanced
with educative values and built upon using pedagogical concepts.
The way to achieve the abovementioned goals and learning objectives will have to be through
greater individualization (personalization) of tasks assignments and assessments which will eventually
lead to an increased level of engagement. Such approaches to delivering the contents of physical
education have been proven to be effective in gaining both health-related as well as socio-related
benefits and thus, opens a chance for creating a long-lasting changes in attitudes towards active
lifestyles [Bronikowski 2008].
Single lesson
Figure 5. Long term (schemes of work) – medium term (units of work) – short term (single lessons), source:
Bronikowski [2005]
Teachers in the their work are supposed to produce work schemes, unit plans and lesson
plans, which all contain specific objectives and timelines among which, lesson plans are more flexible
and fluid as they are supposed to cater to pupils’ individual needs on a daily basis, whereas units and
schemes give more of a route to go along. Therefore, in lesson planning, different teaching styles and
varied activities are vital. Some teachers tend to use a “trial and error” approach, but it can only be
helpful if it is planned and organized well and not used too often. When this happens due to the
teacher’s lack of preparation it actually may bring more hazard and risk involving unexpected
situations, something which the teacher can not foresee. But even this method may be tried out with
different teaching styles to find out which style suits a particular teacher the most (as long as they are
aware and are experimenting with different teaching styles, not just the command or practice ones).
Before deciding on more detailed aspects of teaching/learning process, each physical education teacher
has to decide on the teaching models to be used (sport model, motor learning/ecological task analysis
model or health(a)ware model) and only she/he can they sufficiently employ one (or a combination)
of the models into their planning. Whatever, physical education model they decide to use in their
teaching, it is advisable to follow the consecutive phases increasing the efficiency in all working
environments. However, the teacher has to recognize the situation first (carry out a diagnosis) and only
after having gathered information about the context of teaching, may they plan and execute the
realization of the process and finally assess its effectiveness (assess the progress gained in the
evaluation phase).
Unit of Work
ACQUIRING AND
DEVELOPING
SELECTING AND
APPLYING
EVALUATING AND
IMPROVING
KNOWLEDGE AND
UNDERSTANDING
ABOUT HEALTH AND
FINTESS
In other European countries teachers, usually plan their process of delivering physical education
in cycles of lessons linked up in a series of consecutive single lessons. With more experienced
teachers it will often be the case that they plan objectives and outcomes for the whole cycle and then
break it down into more specific objectives for every particular lesson or even a singular task. This
form of planning usually brings positive and lasting educational effects and allows the teachers to
improve the ways they carry out their teaching from year to year. However, with more experience,
teachers tend to limit their planning to single lessons. Examples of single lesson plans in two
abovementioned different approaches are presented in tab. 2 and tab. 3.
Table 2. A structure of a single physical education lesson – (an example of some English schools)
Table 3. A structure of a single physical education lesson – (Health(a)ware proposal for pan-European physical
education)
Introduction
S
T Short description of the necessary (activity) tasks within the first part
E of the teaching example
P
(Activity) Task 1
1
E (Activity) Task 2
P
E (Activity) Task 3
T
E In-between Reflection: experiences, background information, feedback
P (questions and comments)
1
Main part
S
T Short description of the necessary (activity) tasks within the second
E part of the lesson
P
(Activity) Task 1
2S (Activity) Task 2
T
E (Activity) Task 3
P (Activity) Task 4
2
In-between Reflection: experiences, background information
(questions and comments)
Short description of the necessary (activity) tasks within the third part
S
of the teaching example
T
E
(Activity) Task 1
P
(Activity) Task 2
3
T
In-between Reflection: experiences, background information, feedback
E
(questions and comments)
P
Cool down
S
T Final Reflection:
E
P Reflection of individual experiences, background information,
feedback and evaluation (questions and comments)
4
Fi Summary of the lesson’s aims and tasks
na The teacher revises the elements practiced during the lesson (suggests
l
St taking up any of the discussed sports by the students in their free time
ep
References (Literature and links about the theme)
Additional Information (Theoretical aspects, background, recommended
reading)
Lesson plans are an integral parts of every teacher’s job. They allow the teacher to structure the
time with the pupils to get the best out of them. A lesson plan is a teacher’s detailed description of the
course of instruction for the individual lesson. By using lesson plans, teachers can accurately state
what the objectives of the lesson are, and the pupils should be able to do (skills), understand
(knowledge) by the end of the lesson and how this will affect their attitude towards their own health-
related statues across the life-span. The lesson has clear Intended Learning Outcomes (ILO) described
and broken down into sections: the warm up, main part and then cool down part. Each activity should
have a clear description of how they fulfil the objectives of the lesson.
For the lesson to run smoothly the teacher needs to ensure that the explanations of activities and
expectations, given in the lesson, are clear (the best way is to provide an explanation with a
demonstration of an appropriate form of the task the pupils are to learn, adjusted to the motor and
cognitive abilities of the pupils) and that the language (its technicality and complexity) is appropriate
to the pupils’ level of understanding.
Lessons can be organized in a number of different ways (e.g., three-part, whole-part-whole,
accelerated learning cycle) but they should always include the following elements: learning objectives
and outcomes, some sort of high pace questioning to diagnose prior learning and current levels of
understanding (or clarifying misunderstandings). Lessons will also include visual, auditory and
kinaesthetic stimuli to encourage working inside and outside preferred learning styles (e.g., going
beyond traditional teaching) with a variety of problem-solving activities developing a higher level of
intellectual processing and thinking skills. Therefore providing opportunities for enjoyment, (while
dealing with intellectual, emotional and physical workloads through fun, plays and games, of various
nature and multicultural origins, and movement performances) remain one of the most fundamental
aims of physical/health education. In other words, pupils need to be allowed a chance to think for
themselves, work with appropriate assessment and timely feedback (leading to the development of
self-assessment skills), having to work on creative and challenging tasks both independently or in
collaboration with others.
Certain “key points” in lesson planning have to be included. It is necessary to explain to pupils
what and why they are going to learn something (via clear visual and kinaesthetic examples). The
teacher has to ascertain pupils’ existing knowledge and misunderstandings, provide an opportunity for
a variety of activities that will allow them to think for themselves and work with peers and set high
expectations (showing them that you want them to succeed). In addition, the teacher needs maintain a
balance between low-level recall questions and high level of thinking questions if she/he wants to
activate sufficient cognitive processing in pupils. In order to stimulate all of the pupils to think, the
teacher can give the pupil feedback individually (when helping/assisting at the task side) or evaluate
them from the experience through the use of questions and answers, where the teacher questions the
pupils individually or as a group in some moments of the lesson (usually towards the end of the lesson.
In the Kolb experience-based learning cycle this questioning may occur in the earlier stages of the
lesson, e.g., after experiencing some activity at the beginning of the lesson). This process, and more
advanced methods of interactive teaching (like “decision making tree”, “mapping”, “brain storm” or
“projects” and “portfolio” methods), have been blended together and presented in a quite refreshing
didactical approach in some recent publications for physical education students and teachers [Harris,
Elbourn 2002, Krawański 2006, WHO 1997, 1998, 2006, Mohnson 2008].
It is important also to plan the exact amount of time spent on each specific task so that there is
sufficient time for pupils to practice and learn and meet the learning outcomes of the class. But when
considering the lesson plan, it is important for the teacher to first diagnose the ability and the level of
the group. The teacher must be aware whether or not a particular task may be too easy or too complex
for the majority of the group and if so, it would be more valuable if the teacher used an activity that
was less difficult and built up to the original task over a period of time. It is also important for the
teacher to ensure that the task is not too easy for the group as there must be room for the pupils to
improve their skills (and give the teacher an opportunity to evaluate progression more than
performance). Failure to do this would result in the lesson not being challenging enough for them and
thus de-motivating. If the lesson is well planned, where both parties are challenged, both will enjoy it
and the positive feedback will enable the teacher to come up with even more challenging tasks for the
next lesson, thus maintaining the motivation level at a reasonably high level. That said, it is certainly
more difficult with qualitative outcomes to be measured and evaluated than it is with quantitative
(especially motor fitness assessment) ones. It is equally important to provide both forms of assessment
leading to the development of self-accuracy and self-confidence of one’s own performance (not only
in record-related sense) and allowing for more a responsible approach to one’s physical and health
status. There is always the opportunity for more progression based on a systemic approach, as well as
a chance for the teacher to re-focus and correct their (and pupils) plans in the event of negative
feedback or lack of progression. If the pupils are able to provide structured and reasonable feedback,
it demonstrates their understanding of the task (which proves they have engaged in cognitive
processing) and helps to plan further steps on basis of what they have already learnt.
A typical lesson plan will include three major parts:
2. Main part
Usually in the main part, major activities may take a variety of forms. It may vary in terms of training
session e.g. interval training, continuous training, ‘Fartlek’ training, circuit training, weight training or
aerobics, but the whole idea is to introduce new skills, revise and practice/master old ones and
depending on the focus and strands (acquiring, selecting and applying or evaluating) organize the rest
of the lesson content.
This part is usually broken into whole-part-whole approach and will relate to the whole activity
in the final part of the lesson. It will obviously vary depending on what the objectives and intended
learning outcomes (ILOs) are (i.e. to lose weight, to win a class title, to improve current fitness, to
have fun and be healthy or to build social relationships).
Now it is recommended that this part should concentrate on other aspects of human physical
activity such as discovering one’s body and how it changes with time and what needs it has and
building the relationships with others in range of social environments, thus making it more physical
and health education than physical training.
Figure 6. The intensity profile of a basketball lesson with 13-year old pupils
Figure 7. The intensity profile of a track and field lesson with 13-year old pupils
Figure 8. The intensity profile of a football lesson with 13-year old pupils
Percentage distribution of conflict sources in PE
50
40
30
20
10
0
teacher's fault
pupil's fault
neither
unresolved
Figure 9. Conflicting situations in various physical education lessons (source: Broni-kowski M. et al. 2006)
A successful lesson plan will be the one which makes the lesson well-organized, with challenging
activities resulting in a free flow of the teaching/learning process in which all the pupils take part,
enjoy and develop upon. But they will also need to receive some feedback. This brings us to another
equally important aspect of the lesson planning, often overlooked: Evaluation. There is also a question
of a risk assessment: teachers must always be prepared for the unexpected and by planning and
estimating the risk assessment of what “might happen” they are, in some ways, prepared for the
unexpected accidents and have clear emergency plans of action in place, should any of these problems
arise.
To make sure that physical education is not separated from the rest of the curriculum (because
of its particular focus on physical skills) and prevent the PE teachers from distancing themselves from
the rest of the teachers in school, sometimes head teachers assign them responsibilities beyond those
connected with delivering sporting contents in school. It is a good idea for PE teachers to understand
how to undertake and extend their wider societal roles. In school, cross-curricular ties are one of the
ways and extra-curricular activities is another, of the potential areas of involvement. But nevertheless,
it is PE teacher’s role to contribute to the development of desirable moral and social behaviours (and
its maintenance on school premises). With bullying, aggression or unhealthy eating habits there are far
more challenges facing PE teachers today than some thirty to forty years ago. But this can also be very
rewarding if the teacher shows consistency and earns his/her authority through his/her professional
conduct. Thus, arguably the role of a teacher is one of the most crucial in initiating youth into active
lifestyles.
National grading scales within the countries of the European Community (university level)
ECTS A B G D S F F G H I I H P P UK/
Grade U E E E P I R R U T R O O O E
S L R N A N A E N A E L R L N
T G M M I L N E G L L L T A G
R I A A N A C C A Y A A U N L
I U N R N E E R N N G D A
A M Y K D Y D D A D
L
Excellent 1 18 1 13 10 3 16 10 5 30 1 10 20 5 over
(A) 17 1,5 12 9 17 70%
Very good 16 1,6 11 9 3 15 9 5 30 2nd/I 9 16 4,5 60-
(B) 14 2,0 10 2,5 8 8 15 69%
Good 2 13 2,1 9 7 2,5 14 7 4 29 2nd/II 8 14 4 50-
(C) 3,0 8 2+ 27 7 13 59%
Satisfactory 3 12 3,1 7 6 1,5 12 6 3 26 3rd 7 12 3,5 45-
(D) 11 3,5 1+ 25 6 11 45%
Sufficient 4 10 3,6 6 5 1 10 5 2 24 pass 6 10 3 40-
(E) 4,0 18 44%
Insufficient/fail 5 9 4,1 5 4 0 9 4 1 17 fail 5 9 2 below
(F) 7 5,0 0 1 7 2 1 1 1 40%
Table 5 below contains proposed evaluation criteria used in some English schools to assess physical
education process of teaching and learning [after Capel 2005].
Table 6 comprises a proposal (Bronikowski) for evaluating one’s lesson or making evaluation
from observation of another teacher/student performing a physical education lesson. Each of the
aspects indicated in A to F may be graded in % (from 0 to 100%) or in marks from 1 to 6 and the total
average mark may be provided at the end of the observed lesson if needed.
Table 6. Evaluation and observation sheet for physical education lessons
Comments:
6. TEACHER OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
As is the case in many educationally bound processes, much depends on the authority of the
person in charge. However, this authority cannot be self-claimed, rather it has to be earned. Some PE
teachers try to earn it by “showing off” their physical abilities, by dominating children in motor and
sports skills, but this cannot be a long-time strategy if a proper pedagogical process is to be
maintained. Knowledge about the subject taught can always help but the most effective in achieving
lasting positive attitudes is the “magical” ability of being a pedagogue, not just a mere sport instructor
or a sport coach. This implies that teachers are able to deal with a class in every kind of educational
circumstances and that their professional teaching skills are not narrowed to one subject specific area
(so physical education teachers would have to be able to deal with controlling a math or biology class,
in case of a sudden “emergency” one-off replacement). This obviously comes with experience.
Shulman [1987] suggests that, as teachers develop, they acquire knowledge of the learner, knowledge
of the curriculum, knowledge of the context and knowledge of the pedagogy – the sum of all these
types of knowledge has been labelled as “Pedagogical Content Knowledge”.
Social changes require changes in a matter of a teaching conduct. The difference between what
was believed to be traditional and progressive was described by Bennet [1976, p. 38, after Capel
2005] as presented in table 7.
Although this division clearly shows the difference between the two approaches to teaching,
today education demands more if it is to keep pace with the changing world. We can point to some
aspects, which are even more important today than they were thirty years ago and are still neglected
(or undermined). A modern teacher would regard the curriculum (textbooks) as a set of minimal
educational standards with some key elements that have to be learned at first, to establish a solid
foundation. So in the case of physical education in England, the six major activities (dance, games,
gymnastics, swimming, athletics, outdoor and adventurous activities), which are mentioned in the
national Key Stages standards, should be seen as a starting base that needs to be extended each
teaching year. The same applies to teaching strategies which would evolve and expand along the Key
Stages together with the growing experience of both pupils and the teacher.
Planning a process including physical movements always involves some risk of unexpected
situations, particularly when dealing with teenagers whose behaviour is not always as appropriate as is
required. Therefore, the better prepared the teachers are for the lessons, the less frequently they are
faced with unexpected situations. It is advisable (and this especially concerns novice and pre-service
teachers) to try to foresee the potentially risky class situations and plan accordingly to prevent them
from occurring in the first place and have a ready-to-use plan of action in case anything does happen.
Once they have been identified, teachers should estimate the potential risk (low, medium, high) and
consider actions to be undertaken in case of emergency (have a plan of routine action in place and all
necessary medical equipment, such as a First Aid Kid, and important phone numbers at hand). There
will be a different level of hazards according to sports (i.e. more conflictive situations have been
reported in invasion team sports like basketball or football than in less dynamic volleyball) and it will
vary according to the phase of lesson and to the level and the form in which the workloads have been
applied. The difference will also apply to the moment of the class (i.e. if there is no proper warm up,
or a warm up is inappropriate, there is an increased risk of accident or injury in sports requiring high
level of fitness) and the equipment and facilities to be used. It is well-known that pupils who are more
fit and better prepared are less exposed to injuries or other risks but on the other hand, in school, those
pupils who are usually more physically capable tend to get bored easily, especially if the task is not
challenging to them. This can more often than not result in misbehaviour and a general lack of
discipline. Each national educational board or safety authority will have different safety procedures, so
there is no reason to cite them all here as each teacher will have to go through the training in her/his
specific environment. It is, however, important to understand some universal principles of maintaining
safety environment in teaching physical education.
Each teacher will need to be informed (instructed) on key healthy and safety procedure in their
schools (usually by a school safety officer) and if it is not the case, it is every teacher’s responsibility
to request it. This will enable the teacher to create and maintain a safe educational environment and
thus minimise potential hazards and risks. The procedure of checking the safety aspects of the
teaching/learning process concerns every single lesson throughout the school year as well as any out-
of-school endeavours (like inter-school competitions). Checking the quality and appropriateness of
equipment needs to be carried out before and after each lesson (whether it is age-adjusted or gender-
related), as well as at the beginning and end of the school year. One may even rate it each year to see
the changes from the previous year and apply the most suitable actions to minimise and eliminate the
risks. But teacher’s roles go beyond the teaching environment of a particular school. When travelling
to other sport venues or during simple outdoor activities, teachers become responsible for pupils in
terms of a duty of care and in “loco parentis” as they are carers (in other words in place of their
parents). Therefore, it is vital that teachers make sure that all the pupils have handed in written
participation agreements prior to such circumstances.
Among the risk areas that a physical education teacher must be aware of are the following:
1. Teacher’s professional (unprofessional) conduct – planning (clear lesson plan with obtainable
objectives and expected outcomes), preparation of equipment and tasks (who, what, when),
teaching strategies and methods to be used in the lesson but also organizational and management
issues in the lesson.
2. Level of pupils’ skills, fitness and intellectual capabilities which, blended with their ambitions
(either intrinsically/extrinsically or both bound), create the motivational aspirations and climate of
a lesson.
3. Place of the teaching/learning process, hazards it brings, risks it poses use of facilities and
equipment, ration of number of pupils to the venue size (small gym or outdoor green area of a
school yard).
In table 8 below there is an example of a simple risk assessment card from an English school,
which may be useful while preparing teaching of a physical education lesson.
Table 8. An example of risk assessment form
HAZARDS RISKS
ex. Football ex. Football
1. Indoor activity – pupils will be playing 1. Injury on the fall to the hard surface or
on a hard surface. danger of a slip.
2. Potential dangerous slide tackling. 2. Injury to others while making a slide.
3. Goalposts – danger to collide with. 3. Injury on collision (also with walls).
ex. Field hockey (or Cricket) ex. Field hockey (or Cricket)
1. Handling and carrying equipment to the 1. Arguments, refusals.
place of practice. 2. Broken bones, bruises, dislocations (of
2. Hitting other pupils with a hard ball or shoulders), cuts.
being struck with the wooden stick (or 3. Strains, loss of consciousness.
bat).
3. Colliding with other pupils during the
play.
CONTROLS EMERGENCY ACTION
ex. Football ex.
1. Warn pupils of the dangers and 1. First Aid Kid nearby.
consequences of playing on a hard 2. Keep the surface (floor) tidy and dry.
surface. 3. Have emergency phone numbers at
2. Impose tackling rules – no sliding, no hand.
contacts. 4. Have clear rules for those who disobey
3. Warn pupils not to play close to the regulations.
goalpost (nor hanging on the goalpost),
keep away from the walls, ensure
benches are removed or secured.
e.x. Field hockey (or Cricket) 1. Have a set of penalty actions for those
1. Clear division of duty – who carry who misbehave.
what, why and when (building 2. Have first aid kid fully equipped nearby
responsibility, caring for others, and emergency numbers displayed in a
respect to the equipment etc.). well visible place.
2. Proper warm up including dynamic
stretching.
INCIDENTS / ACCIDENTS (in case of an incident have a clear procedure on how to report it back and to
whom it should be reported).
CONCLUSIONS
The main aim of this book was to show that learning needs to be an education enterprise
that spans a whole lifetime. Moreover, it is one in which the development of appropriately
relevant skills has a significant presence. A special role in this process has been ascribed to
physical education which ought to counteract the growing prevalence of the “couch potato”
generation. The problems are not going to be only health-related ones, not mentioning
economical (medical) costs. To put it quite simply – the more healthy young people are, the
lower cost for National Health Services in the future, hopefully.
It has been a difficult and complex endeavor to introduce physical education into school
curricula on a regular basis and as a subject equal to other ones. But since then, a lot of
changes have happened to educational systems all over the world. Some subjects adjusted to
those changes faster than others. Physical education has been undergoing a “little” crisis
recently and it as appears that it will have to fight its way back to the front line of school
education. With this manual, to the aim was to provide some basis for international
understanding of various contexts on teaching physical education. Such a book was extremely
necessary, especially for growing Erasmus programme of students exchange.
Physical education students are among the forerunners in this programme. When they
find themselves in Poland or in Greece or Spain, or in fact, in any European country, they
want to see what schools are like in that country and what the physical education system is
about in orderto compare it with what they knew from their school days in their home
countries. Such observations in person certainly enrich their educational experience, but
understanding the theoretical frameworks underpinning teaching/learning process could better
prepare them for active participation in the profession in the future within the labour market
of a united Europe.
This book gives students some background information on the place of physical
education within a broader context of physical culture as a key sphere of human activity. As it
was designed to provide a common platform for studying this subject by students from
different universities, it required clarification of some basic terms useful for further physical
education specialist. Therefore in the first parts of the book there are shortened explanations
of motor abilities. But since physical education is not just about physical aspects of physical
education in the book there are also definitions of social skills and attitudes which are also
valued in this area of education. And although, for some, these sections may look a bit
eclectic, it allows us to build a common understanding of basic standards among such diverse
classes as Erasmus students usually are. This is followed by an explanation and
exemplification of play, game and exercise, all to make sure which term we refer to when we
plan lesson schemas or contents of a single lesson. Delivering curriculum, preceded by a
discussion on the teaching models, with details such as teaching methods, styles and teacher
preparation is explained a bit further. This is put into a wider perspective and enhanced with
cross-national illustrations as examples of good practice. There are also selected issues related
to the efficacy of teachers of physical education and in the final sections, matters such as
safety and the role of the teacher as a carer, or in the position of in loco parentis, are dealt
with.
Some things have not been fully dealt with in the book for example, competences.
Certainly more could have been expanded on health issues in physical education. I understand
that for some, the selection of topics may seem somewhat complex or incomplete, but the
reasons for that were rather simple one. Firstly, the author was given only limited space for
this book Secondly, the key had to be a degree of applicability that would be universal enough
to match the needs of teaching students the basic skills.
Various threads have been negotiated and the context-setting issues, which were
introduced, were aimed to enhance understanding acquisition as well as stimulate reflection
on what physical education really is today and how can it be up-graded to fit the expectations
of today’s and tomorrow’s youth. The chance lays on the creative and open-minded pre-
service and in-service teachers of physical and health education.
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