UNIVERSIDADE FERNANDO PESSOA

FACULDADE DE CIÊNCIAS DA SAÚDE

ESCOLA SUPERIOR DE SAÚDE

LÍNGUA INGLESA II
2019/2020
PART I

1. Human Anatomy
1.1. Systems of the Body

1.2. Medical terminology

Language

PART II

2. Dental Medicine

2.1. Tooth anatomy

2.2. Dental Specialties

2.3. Dental equipment

2.4. Oral Health

2.5. Tooth Problems

2.6. Medical Terminology

Language

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1. Human Anatomy

1.1. Systems of the Body

1.1.1. The Skeletal-Muscular System

1.1.2. The Respiratory System

1.1.3. The Cardiovascular System

1.1.4. The Digestive System

1.1.5. The Integumentary System

1.1.6. The Nervous System

1.1.7. The Reproductive System

1.1.8. The Urinary System

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 WARM-UP: HUMAN ANATOMY

A. Complete the sentences with the words in the box.

1. The body is supported and given shape by the ............................. system. alveoli
2. The largest organ in the body is the ............................. . anus
3. The ............................. system controls all other systems and bodily movements. arteries
4. Muscles control ............................. and many organic functions. atria
5. The vertebral column runs up and down the back and protects the ...................... brain
......................, where the major nerves are located. bronchi
carbon dioxide
6. At the top of the vertebral column is the ............................., which protects the brain.
cerebellum
7. Attached to the vertebral column, below the neck, are the 12 pairs of .............................. dermis
At the bottom is the sacrum, which connects the vertebral column to the epidermis
.............................. joints
8. Bones are united by ............................. and held together by .............................. kidneys
9. The ....................... blood cells carry the haemoglobin, which carries ......................... to large
left (2x)
the body cells. The ......................... blood cells help to fight disease.
ligaments
10. The human heart consists of 4 chambers: 2 .......................... and 2 ............................. mouth
11. Oxygenated blood is pumped out of the............................. ventricle into the aorta and movement
from there through the ............................. to all organs of the body. nerves
12. ............................. ............................. is removed from the blood in the lungs. nervous
13. Complete the scheme which illustrates the passage of air in the body: nose
.............................  larynx and .............................  ............................. and oesophagus
oxygen
bronchioles  ............................. (in the lungs)
pelvis
14. The outer layer of the skin is the .............................. Beneath this layer lies the rectum
.............................. red
15. The following represents the process that food goes through in the body. Complete it: ribs
........................... (teeth and saliva)  .............................  stomach  right
......................... intestine  ........................ intestine  ......................... (where solid skeletal-
muscular
waste is stored)  ..........................
skin
16. Liquid wastes are picked up by the blood and removed by the .............................. skull
17. The central nervous system consists of the ............................. and the ....................... small
........................ The peripheral nervous system consists of the .............................. spinal cord (2x)
18. The area of the brain that coordinates the voluntary muscles is the ............................ trachea
19. The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the ........................ hemisphere processes ventricles
verbal functions and the ......................... hemisphere is involved in non-verbal white
activities.

B. Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE?

20. Bones are very strong and inflexible. True / False
21. Stomach muscles are voluntary and are operated automatically by the CNS. True / False
22. Hormones are secreted by glands of the endocrine system. True / False
23. The blood is made up of three parts: plasma, blood cells and haemoglobin. True / False

C.  Speaking
Which is the most important: the heart or the brain? Why?

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 LANGUAGE CORNER

WORD FORMATION

A. As you know, a sentence has different parts, including verbs, nouns, prepositions, pronouns,
adjectives and adverbs.

1. Look at the terms below and place them in the correct column of the table. Then try to
complete the remaining table.
A. cardiovascular B. circulation C. endocrine D. digestive
E. bones F. integumentary G. muscular H. nervous
I. reproductive J. respiratory K. skeletal L. skin

Verb Noun Adjective 2. Now decide which of the words

--- --- cardiovascular above can be used before the
circulation noun 'system'.
e.g. A. cardiovascular system

B. We do not say the 'circulation

system' but rather the circulatory
system because 'circulation' is a
noun and before the noun
'system', we need an adjective.

Now it's up to you!

3. Complete the sentences below with the correct form of the words in CAPITAL LETTERS.
1. ............................ muscles are voluntary. SKELETON
2. The ............................ has several functions, e.g. protection, temperature regulation,
etc. INTEGUMENT
3. After travelling through the pulmonary valve, it enters the lungs. This is called the
pulmonary ............................ CIRCULATE
4. Most of the ............................ occurs in the small intestine but the ............................
process begins in the mouth with the action of salivary amylase. DIGEST
5. A lot of models are all ............................ and bones. They are very ............................
SKIN
6. In humans, the average breathing, or ............................ rate, mostly depends on age.
RESPIRE
7. This may cause frequent headaches and can also produce ............................ disorders.
NERVE

4
HUMAN ANATOMY
The human body is a remarkably complex and Research
efficient machine. It takes in and absorbs oxygen
through the respiratory system. The oxygen-
enriched blood is then distributed through the 1. What is the difference
cardiovascular system to all tissues. The digestive between anatomy and histology?
system converts digestible food to energy and
disposes of the rest. The skeletal-muscular system 2. What is a body system?
gives form to the body. Covering almost the entire
mass is the skin, the largest organ of the body.

Fill in the blanks with the correct words from the word bank to complete the map about the body
systems and their functions.

http://www.anatomycorner.com/intro/organ_systems_blanks.jpg (accessed on 19-01-2013)

The Skeletal-Muscular System

  I. Reading and speaking

A. Do you think that using mobile phones can cause MSDs?

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 (The extract below is an adapted version of the Implications section of the article Texting on mobile phones
and musculoskeletal disorders in young adults: a five-year cohort study
Gustafsson, E. et al. (2017). Texting on mobile phones and musculoskeletal disorders in young adults: a
five-year cohort study. Applied Ergonomics 58:208–214. )

4.2. Implications
This epidemiological study, based on self-report data, showed associations between SMS text messaging
and MSDs among young adults. This warrants attention, considering the immense use of mobile phones
for SMS text messaging together with other uses of the phone with similar physical exposure, i.e. entering
texts on a small keyboard. Although SMS as a communication method is decreasing in favor of other
communication methods and smartphone applications, texting in general is expected to prevail.
One obvious ergonomic problem when using a mobile phone or a smartphone for texting is that keys and
screen are in the same plane. To reach a comfortable posture for the arms when texting, most users hold
the phone quite low in front of the belly which means they have to flex the neck to read the screen. To
reach a comfortable posture for the neck, i.e. an upright neck, one needs to hold the phone quite high in
front of the chest.
New design has focused on technical and aesthetic features but the ergonomic problem with the keys and
the screen in the same plane remains. Data entering by voice-command has been introduced and it can
be a way to solve at least the problem with repetitive thumb movements. However, using voice-command
seems so far less common.
Meanwhile, in order to prevent the development of MSDs due to extensive texting on mobile phones,
information about the risks of spending much time texting with an inappropriate technique, together with
ergonomic recommendations about good technique when texting on a mobile phone, should be
disseminated, e.g. through school, primary care and occupational health.

- adapted from - https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003687016301235 (accessed on 02-02-2019)

B. After reading the text, decide what each of the words below refer to.
1. This (line 2, paragraph 1)
2. they (line 3, paragraph 2)
3. it (line 3, paragraph 3)

C. Find antonyms in the text for the following words.

1. discontinue (p. 1) 2. prone (p. 2)

D. Now find synonyms for these words.

1. calls for (p. 1) 2. spread (p. 3)

E. Circle the appropriate answer to complete each

sentence.
1. The study data were collected
a) by observing young mobile phone users.
b) from information provided by young mobile
phone users.
c) by consulting other academic research.
2. The study authors recommend
a) informing people about the risks of texting using incorrect techniques.
b) spending too much time texting.
c) both of the above.

5 A
 F. Answer this question in a full sentence using your own words.
According to the text, why is it a problem to have the keys and screen in the same place?

G. Based on the text, give 3 pieces of advice to a friend to prevent MSDs due to mobile phone use.

II. Using the words and numbers given on the right, first Labelling exercise:
label the skeleton and then fill in the gaps in the text Carpal bones
about the skeletal system. Clavicle / collar bone
Coccyx / tail bone
Distal Phalanx
Femur / thigh bone
Fibula
Floating rib
Frontal bone
Humerus
Ilium
Mandible / lower jaw
Maxilla
Metacarpus
Metatarsus
Patella / knee cap
Proximal phalanx
Radius
Rib cage
Sacrum
Scapula / shoulder blade
Sternum / breast bone
Tarsal bones
Temporal bone
Tibia / shin bone
Ulna
Vertebra
Zygomatic bone

Gap-filling exercise:
bones brain femur
pelvis protects ribs
sense tarsal
vertebral column vertebrae
26 27 206

Your skeleton provides the framework for your body and (1) .................... the main delicate internal organs.
At birth, babies have about 350 individual (2) ..................., many of which fuse together as you grow. By the
time you are an adult, you have an average of (3) ............ bones.
Your skull bones begin as 26 separate bones. As a baby, these bones are connected by flexible, cartilaginous
membranes called fontanels. The membrane ossifies over time, forming the rigid sutures of the adult skull.
The bones of the skull form a strong protective case which protects your (4) .................. and other major (5)
................... organs. It is connected to your (6) .................... ....................., which is composed of thirty-three
small, irregularly shaped bones called (7) ..................... The spine is, in every sense, the backbone of your
body as it directly or indirectly anchors all other bones.

6
 Twelve pairs of (8) ............. are held in place by your spine. The bony cage formed by the ribs
protects your major organs.
Together with the (9) ...... bones of the hand, the versatile arm is well-suited to the varied
manipulations and motions which are required in the ballet dancer, the watchmaker, and the boxer.
The (10) ................. is the bony structure at the base of your vertebral column, connecting your legs
to the rest of the skeleton. Your leg bones are your body's supports. They are much larger and stronger
than your arm bones. Your thigh bone, or (11) ............, is the largest bone in your body.
Each foot is made up of (12) ...... bones. When you stand, the weight is distributed evenly along the
foot. Half of the weight is funnelled to the calcaneus, your heel bone, while the other half is channelled
into the (13) ............. bones that make up the arch of your foot.

III. Match the words in the box to the missing labels.

Biceps
11
2 Biceps femoris
3 7 Deltoid
4
Extensors of the hand
5 8

Pectoralis major

Quadriceps

Rectus abdominis
9
6 10
Rectus femoris

Trapezius

Triceps

IV. Complete the text about the muscular system by circling the correct option.
The human body is composed of more than 600 muscles, which are special fibrous tissues found
throughout the body. They control movement and many (1) organ / organic functions by contracting in
response to (2) nerve / nervous signals. The contraction of the various muscles causes all body movement,
from sitting, to running, to lifting. Muscles work by (3) contract / contraction and (4) relax / relaxation
During contraction they shorten their (5) long / length to bring the bone closer to their points of attachment
on two different bones. Every muscle movement therefore is a pull. The pulling action is accomplished by
the fibres and fibrils of the muscle. The fibres are made up of many cylindrical sub-units called fibrils. These
are the structures that actually (6) contract / contraction. Fibrils are made of two types of protein: actin
and myosin, both of which are in the form of long filaments.
Skeletal muscles are called (7) voluntary / involuntary as they can be consciously controlled. They are
attached to bones by tough fibrous tissues called tendons. Muscles, such as the stomach muscles and the
heart, are (8) voluntary / involuntary and are operated automatically by the CNS.
If muscles are (9) health / healthy, they are said to have good muscle tone. Not all muscles are healthy,
however, for various ailments may affect them. The most common symptoms or signs of a muscle disorder
include (10) weak / weakness, abnormal fatigue with activity, as well as muscle spasms, cramping or
twitching.

7
V. Ask questions for these answers according to the information from the text and from further
research you do.
1. 206 bones. ........................................................................................................................
2. Only one bone. ........................................................................................................................
3. They’re lighter and thinner. ……...............................................................................................
4. It helps to manipulate objects. ...................................................................................................

VI. Answer the questions on the skeletal-muscular system. You may need to do some research to
get the information.
1. What are the 5 main functions of the skeleton?
2. Which are the two longest bones in the body?
3. What is the name of the topmost vertebra?
4. What happens to our skull as we grow?

VII. Are the following statements about the skeletal-muscular system TRUE or FALSE? Not all the
answers are in the above texts, so you will have to do some research.
1. Bones are as strong as steel but much lighter and more flexible.
2. The periosteum is a membranous tissue that covers all the surfaces of the bones, except the
surfaces of the joints.
3. The skull is at the top of the vertebral column and protects the heart.
4. The rib cage consists of twelve pairs of ribs.
5. Bones are united by ligaments and held together by joints.
6. Bursitis occurs as a result of inflammation of the muscle itself.
7. We have 8 carpal bones and 7 tarsal bones.

VIII. Now let’s see how much you remember with this crossword puzzle.
Across
1 2 3 1. The upper arm bone.
H
6. The … joins muscles to bone.
5 6
9. The collection of bones that run
J T
down your back. (2 words)
A 11. One of the lower leg bones.
7 8
S F 12. The … protects the brain.
15. The bones in the vertebral
9 10
V C N column.
17. One of the forearm bones.
11
F Down
2. The bone on your jaw.
12
C 13
M 3. One of the forearm bones.
A 14
S 4. … joins bone to bone.
R 5. Two bones meet at a ….
15
V E R 16
T E B R A E 7. One of two flat triangular bones
O on each side of the shoulder.
W 8. The largest bone in the human
17
R
body.
10. The bone across your
M
shoulders.
13. The substance inside a bone
that makes blood cells.
14. The …is in the centre of the

8
 Research
1. Bones are composed of
minerals, organic matter and
water, are held together by
collagen, and are filled with red and yellow
marrow. What is marrow? And collagen?
2. What is cramping?
3. Several ailments can affect our muscles
and the skeleton, e.g. osteoporosis, arthritis,
muscular dystrophy and fibromyalgia. Find
out about these diseases and how they affect
a person’s life.

Pronunciation activities

A. Read these sentences out loud.

1. This candy is very sweet.
2. The sweat glands of the skin secrete sweat.
3. My friend told me a secret.
4. The sight of blood made the little boy cry.
5. I wound a bandage around the patient’s wound.

B. The letters sc sometimes sound like an s and

sometimes like sk. In general, if the c is followed
by an e, i or y, the sound is [s], but if it is followed
by any other letter, the sound is [sk]. However,
there are exceptions to this general rule (e.g. muscle). Pronounce these words out loud.
[s] - muscle, scissors, science, sciatica, scene
[sk] - muscular, miscarriage, scalp, scrotum, scar, scan, schizophrenia, scheme

LANGUAGE CORNER

PASSIVE VOICE

A. Read this extract taken from the text on the skeleton and then underline the sentences that
are in the passive voice.
Your skull bones begin as 26 separate bones. As a baby, these bones are connected by flexible, cartilaginous
membranes called fontanels. The membrane ossifies over time, forming the rigid sutures of the adult skull.
The bones of the skull form a strong protective case which protects your brain and other major sense organs.
It is connected to your (6) vertebral column, which is composed of thirty-three small, irregularly shaped bones
called vertebrae. The spine is, in every sense, the backbone of your body as it directly or indirectly anchors all
other bones.

B. Formation
The passive voice focuses on the action rather than on the person or thing (agent) that performs the action.

The passive voice has three main elements:

1. the subject (the previous direct/indirect object of the active sentence)
2. the appropriate form of the verb 'to be'
3. the past participle

9
 Tense Active Voice Passive Voice
Present Simple The doctor prescribes some painkillers. Some painkillers are prescribed (by the
doctor).
Present The dentist is extracting Mary’s tooth. Mary’s tooth is being extracted (by the
Continuous dentist).
Past Simple Charles Dickens wrote Oliver Twist. Twist Oliver was written by Charles Dickens.
Past He was painting the roof when he fell. The roof was being repaired when he fell.
Continuous
Present Perfect Cathy has finished the project work. The project work has been finished by
Simple Cathy.
Future Simple They will tell the patient to go to his GP. The patient will be told to go to his GP.
‘going to’ The pharmacist is going to open a new A new pharmacy is going to be opened by
future pharmacy. the pharmacist.
Modal verbs I can do it tomorrow. It can be done tomorrow.
The researcher must develop that theory. That theory must be developed by the
researcher.

C. Practice
1. Lymphocytes make antibodies.
........................................................................................................................................................
2. We have cancelled all surgeries because of the flu outbreak.
........................................................................................................................................................
3. Scientists carried out an experiment to test the viability of the drug.
........................................................................................................................................................
4. They are performing hip replacement surgery.
........................................................................................................................................................
5. We will have to change the study protocol.
........................................................................................................................................................
6. Antibiotics have improved his condition substantially.
........................................................................................................................................................
7. The nurse is going to write the report on what happened in her ward.
........................................................................................................................................................

See further exercises on pages 29 and 30.

The Respiratory system

  I. Reading and speaking

A. Before reading the extract below, speak about what you have heard in relation to this new virus.

Coronavirus "2019-nCoV”
Following the detection of the “2019-nCoV” virus in China, in the city of Wuhan, that has caused the
recent cases of viral pneumonia, mostly in that country, we would like to reinforce DGS prevention
measures, such as:
● Avoid close contact with anyone who has a fever and cough;
● Wash your hands frequently, especially after direct contact with ill people or their

10
 environment;
● People with symptoms of acute respiratory infection should practice cough etiquette
(maintain distance, cover coughs and sneezes with disposable tissues or clothing, and wash
hands).

If you plan to travel to or from Asia, follow these recommendations as well:

● avoid direct unprotected contact with live animals, and surfaces in contact with animals;
● the consumption of raw or undercooked animal products should be avoided.
● raw meat, milk or animal organs should be handled with care.

If you have a fever, cough and difficulty breathing or require further information, contact the support
line SNS24 - 808 24 24 24. If you need medical care, share travel history with your health care provider
or GP.
Adapted from na e-mail sent by ‘Serviço de Saúde e Risco Ocupacional da Fundação Fernando Pessoa’ (29-01-2020)

II. Fill in the gaps in the text about the respiratory system.
The (1) l........... are large, cone-shaped, spongy organs which play a vital role in bringing (2) o................
to the body. Oxygen enables the body to burn its fuel ꟷ the nutrients in the food that we eat. The lungs
are divided into the right lung which has three (3) l........... and the left lung which has two lobes with a
notch to fit the bottom of the (4) h.......... .
The lungs have no muscles of their own so it is those around the chest that do the work of breathing.
Most of the work is done by a large, thin muscle at the base of the lungs called the (5) d...................
We usually breathe automatically, even if we are unconscious. In quiet breathing, the average adult
(6) i................ and (7) e................. 16 times per minute. As we inhale, the air enters the nasal passage,
where it is filtered and its temperature regulated. It then travels down the larynx (voice box) and windpipe,
or (8) t................, to the bronchi, which branch to enter the left or right lung. (9) B...................... branch off
the large bronchi. Each respiratory bronchiole subdivides into five or more (10) a................. d............,
which are the narrow inlets into the alveolar sacs. The structure of the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles,
alveolar ducts, and alveolar sacs is often called the "bronchial tree".
Each alveolar sac contains ten or more (11) a................ and resembles a cluster of grapes. It is within
the tiny alveolar chambers that oxygen is transferred through the membrane of the alveolar walls to the
(12) b................. c................... of the capillaries within. At the same time, waste gases diffuse out of the
blood cells and into the air in the alveoli to be expelled upon exhalation. This whole process is called
respiration and occurs at the rate of about 16 to 20 times per minute.
The alveoli are particularly susceptible to (13) i........................., as they provide a warm and moist
environment for bacteria and viruses to grow. This accounts for the tendency for a chest cold or other
lung problem to advance to (14) p........................, a potentially dangerous condition in which the innermost
parts of the lungs become infected.

III. What is the term for the definition given? After doing this exercise, label the image.
....................... tree - the system of airways within of the lung on the right side of the body.
the lungs, which bring air from the trachea to .................... .................. lobe - the top lobe of the lung
the lung's tiny air sacs (alveoli). on the right side of the body.
.................... .................. - the indentation in the .................... (windpipe) - the tube through which air
left lung that provides room for the heart. travels from the larynx to the lungs.

11
 ................. -a muscular membrane under the
lungs.
.................... - a muscular structure at the top of
the trachea, containing the vocal cords.
left .................... .................. - the bottom lobe of
the lung on the left side of the body.
left .................... .................. - the top lobe of the
lung on the left side of the body.
.................... .................. lobe - the bottom lobe of
the lung on the right side of the body.
.................... .................. lobe - the middle lobe

Research
3. Several ailments can affect our respiratory
1. What specific kinds of problems
system, e.g. influenza, asthma, pneumonia, chronic
can interfere with normal breathing?
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung
2. What is the difference between
cancer. Find out about these diseases and how
inspiration and expiration?
they affect a person’s life.

The Cardiovascular System

 I. Reading and discussion activity: Before reading the extract, comment on the headline.
Pneumonia Raises Heart Disease Risk for Years By Steven Reinberg
TUESDAY, Jan. 20, 2015 (HealthDay News) -- Older patients hospitalized with pneumonia appear to have
an increased risk of heart attack, stroke or death from heart disease for years afterward, a new study
finds.
This elevated risk was highest in the first month after pneumonia -- fourfold -- but remained 1.5 times
higher over subsequent years, the researchers say. "A single episode of pneumonia could have long-
term consequences several months or years later," said lead researcher Dr. Sachin Yende, an associate
professor of critical care medicine and clinical and translational sciences at the University of Pittsburgh.
This year's flu season is particularly hard on older adults, and pneumonia is a serious complication
of flu," Yende said. Getting a flu shot and the pneumonia vaccine "may not only prevent these
infections, but may also prevent subsequent heart disease and stroke."
Pneumonia, which affects 1.2 percent of the population in the northern hemisphere each year, is the
most common cause of hospitalizations in the United States, the researchers said in background notes.
The report was published Jan. 20 in the Journal of the American Medical Association. Dr. Gregg Fonarow,
a professor of cardiology at the University of California, Los Angeles, said prior studies have suggested a
link between hospitalization with pneumonia and increased risk of heart disease, stroke and death
within the first few months. The reason for this association isn't altogether clear, but Fonarow said he
suspects that pneumonia triggers inflammation of the heart and blood vessels, thereby increasing the
risk for heart disease and stroke.
- adapted and abridged from -http://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/news/20150120/pneumonia-raises-heart-disease-risk-for-years-study
(accessed 29-01-2015)

12
 II. Label the image which illustrates the blood flow. Then complete the text about the cardiovascular
system with one of the words/numbers in the box.

aorta arteries atria atrium beat capillaries(2x) carrying

carbon dioxide cells heart left lungs mitral neck
muscular nutrients (2x) oxygen (2x) oxygen-poor plasma platelets pump
pulmonary(2x) pumps pumping (2x) red blood right supplying tissues
venae cavae veins ventricle ventricles white blood wrist 4

1 8 In order for your body to stay alive, each of its cells must receive a
continuous supply of nutrients and (1) ..................... At the same time,
2 9 carbon dioxide and other materials produced by the (2) ....................
must be picked up for removal from the body. The circulatory system is
3 10 a network of vessels that enables the heart to (3) .................... blood
4 through your body.
Blood vessels are small tubes that are responsible for (4) ....................
5 11 blood to and from all parts of your body. The human circulatory system
is composed of three types of blood vessels: arteries, (5) ....................
6 12 and (6) ..................... An artery is a large blood vessel that carries
oxygen-rich blood from the (7) .................... to the cells and tissues of
7 13
the body. The veins are vessels that carry (8) .................... - ....................
blood and waste products toward the heart. Your capillaries are
microscopic in size. They link the arteries and veins to the (9)
.................... of the body. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
takes place across the thin walls of the (10) .....................
Your arteries transport blood under high pressure and, therefore, have walls that are much more
elastic than the veins. The blood flow in the arteries pulsates. It constantly increases and decreases as a
result of the heart (11) .................... a new volume of blood into the arteries 70 times per minute. The
effect is what causes the pulse you can feel by placing your fingertips over the arteries in your (12)
.................... and (13) ....................
Blood supplies oxygen and transports (14) ...................., waste, and hormonal messengers to each of
the sixty billion cells in your body. Blood has four main components: (15) .................... cells, (16)
.................... cells, (17) .................... and liquid (18) .....................
The human heart is a hollow pear-shaped (19) .................... organ located between the lungs
in the middle of your chest. It is responsible for (20) .................... blood through your body and
(21) .................... the cells and tissue with oxygen and nutrients. In order to meet your body's
energy demands, your heart must (22) .................... more than 100,000 times per day. Like all of
the other tissue of the body, your heart also needs (23) .................... and (24) .................... in
order to function properly.
Inside your heart there are (25) ...... chambers. The upper chambers are called (26) ..................... The
lower chambers are called (27) ..................... Each half of your heart works as a separate circulatory pump.
The right side of the heart is responsible for returning the oxygen-poor blood to the (28) .................... to
expel (29) .................... and be reoxygenated.
The right chamber of the heart receives blood from the (30) ..................... The blood is then pushed
through the tricuspid valve into the (31) .................... ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts, the
blood rushes into the (32) .................... artery and into the lungs. This is the only artery in your body that
carries oxygen-poor blood.

14
 The (33) ............... side of your heart receives the newly oxygenated blood from your lungs and (34)
............... it through your entire body. The oxygen-rich blood enters the left (35) ............... through the
four (36) .................. veins, which are the only veins in your body that carry oxygenated blood. From the
left atrium, the blood flow to the left (37) ................. is controlled by the (38) ............... valve. The thickness
of the cardiac muscle gives the left ventricle the power to pump the blood through your entire body. As
your heart contracts, the blood is pushed through the aortic semilunar valve into the (39) .................., your
body's largest blood vessel, and is distributed through your body via a network of (40) ...................

III. What is the term for the definition given? After doing this exercise, label the image.
........................ - the biggest and longest artery (a blood vessel carrying blood away from the heart)
in the body. It carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the body.
...................... ..................... cava - a large vein (a blood vessel carrying blood to the heart) that carries
oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium from the lower half of the body.
...................... ..................... - the left upper chamber of the heart. It receives oxygen-rich blood from
the lungs via the pulmonary vein.
...................... ..................... - the left lower chamber of the heart. It pumps the blood through the
aortic valve into the aorta.
...................... ..................... - the valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle. It prevents the
back-flow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium.
...................... ..................... - the blood vessel that carries oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle
of the heart to the lungs.
................. .................. - the flaps between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. When the
ventricle contracts, the valve opens, causing blood to rush into the pulmonary artery. When the
ventricle relaxes, the valves close, preventing the back-flow of blood from the pulmonary artery to
the right atrium.
................... ................... - the blood vessel that carries oxygen-rich blood
from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.
.................... ................... - the right upper chamber of the heart. It receives
oxygen-poor blood from the body through the inferior vena cava and the
superior vena cava.
.................. .................. - the right lower chamber of the heart. It pumps the
blood into the pulmonary artery.
..................... - the muscular wall that separates the left and right sides of
the heart.
superior ...................... ..................... - a large vein that carries oxygen-poor
blood to the right atrium from the upper parts of the body.
...................... .................... - the flaps between the right atrium and the right
ventricle. It is composed of three leaf-like parts and prevents the back-flow
of blood from the ventricle to the atrium.

Research

1. What is the common name for erythrocytes
and leukocytes? What functions do they have in
our body?
2. What is the function of platelets?
3. What are the differences between the right and
left sides of the human heart?
4. How do veins and arteries differ?
5. Which is the only artery that carries oxygen-poor
blood? Why is it an artery and not a vein
6. What is the protective, flexible membrane that
encloses the heart called?
7. Several ailments can affect our cardiovascular
system, e.g. hypertension, heart failure,
myocardial infarction and stroke. Find out about
these diseases and how they affect a person’s life.

15
 IV. Now let’s see how much you remember with this crossword puzzle.
Across
1 3. Nutrients enter the blood in the ….. (2 words)
2
7. …… maintains the flow of blood through the
entire circulatory system.
3
S 8. A small vessel that connects veins and arteries.
10. The circulatory system …… gases, nutrients,
4 5 6 liquids, and heat around the body.
11. This system distributes …… throughout the
7
H E A R T body, which helps regulate temperature.
8 9
12. The liquid in the circulatory system.
13. Oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide
10 leaves the blood in the ….
14. A vessel that moves blood to the heart.
11
H 15. ….. is transported in arteries from the lungs to
the rest of the body via the heart.
Down
12
1. The heart …. blood.
2. The system comprising the heart, blood, and
vessels. (2 words)
13 14 4. Blood in arteries is ….. red because it is rich in
oxygen. (Hint: an adjective meaning full of colour)
15
5. The largest artery in the body.
6. …… that is transported in veins from the body
to the lungs via the heart. (2 words)
9. A vessel that moves blood away from the
heart.
Pronunciation activities
Read the following words out loud.
1. oesophagus, peripheral, phase, 2. fluid, coordinate, create,
In many English words, two
diaphragm, phrase, phalanx, aorta, trachea, cooperate,
vowels next to each other
appreciate, periosteum
The letters ph make the sound [f]. are pronounced separately.

The Digestive System

 I. Reading and discussion activity: Before reading the extract, comment on the headline.
New way to stop food poison bugs
Researchers believe they may have found a novel way to disrupt bacteria that cause food poisoning.
The US and UK team have uncovered a previously unrecognised mechanism which bacteria use to escape the
body's natural defence responses. Using this mechanism, the pathogens detect a toxic gas produced by the body
and turn it into something that is harmless to evade the onslaught. Interrupting this might be a way to beat these
bacteria, they told Nature.
The team from Georgia Institute of Technology in the US, and the John Innes Centre in the UK looked at harmless
strains of the bacterium Escherichia coli. However, they believe their findings will apply to the more harmful strains
of E. coli and its close relation salmonella that cause outbreaks of food poisoning around the world.
These bacteria are usually transmitted to humans through undercooked meat, unwashed vegetables and poor
food hygiene and can cause diarrhoea and cramps, which usually get better without help. However, in those who
are particularly vulnerable, such as people with weakened immune systems, the consequences can be particularly
serious and may require hospital treatment.
About six million people in the UK - 10% of the population - have a case of food poisoning each year. More than
half of these are caused by bacteria such as E. coli and salmonella.
- adapted and abridged from - http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4609022.stm (accessed 17-12-2006)

11
 A. What do the following words in the text refer to?
1. it (paragraph 1, line 3) …………………………………… 2. their (paragraph 2, line 2) ………………………………..
3. These bacteria (paragraph 3, line 1) ………………………….….

B. Find synonyms in the text for the following words.

1. new ……………………………… 2. micro-organisms ……………....……. 3. dangerous .............................

C. Answer these questions in full sentences. Please use your own words.
1. Does the headline correctly reflect the text? Substantiate your answer.
2. In your opinion, who are the ‘people with weakened immune systems’ (paragraph 3)?

D. Complete the sentences with the appropriate form of the words in capitals.
1. A cold can be ………………… if it develops into chronic …………………..… diseases. (HARM – RESPIRATION)
2. ……………………. against influenza has led to the ……………..………….. of bronchopneumonia in old people.
(VACCINE – REDUCE)

E. Which part of the digestive system is being defined?

1. expels solid waste - …………….. 2. stores bile - …………………….

II. Fill in the gaps about the digestive system. Then label the picture.

The digestive system is responsible for processing (1) f...........,

breaking it down into usable proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, fats, and
other substances, and introducing these into the (2) b................. so they
can be used by the body. These substances provide the (3) r.......... material
for building, repairing, and controlling body systems.
The digestive process begins at the (4) m...................., where food is
chewed and broken down into smaller parts. (5) E.................... in your
saliva begin digestion. The chewed food is carried down the (6)
o...................... in peristaltic, or contractile, waves to the (7) s....................,
where strong acids dissolve it. As the chewed food enters your stomach
the (8) g.................... glands secrete hydrochloric acid and the enzymes
pepsin, rennin, and lipase, which help digest carbohydrates, proteins and
fats in food. The (9) s.................... intestine is responsible for completing
digestion and for absorbing the usable products into the bloodstream. It is
a coiled, narrow tube, about 2o feet long. Food enters the (10)
d........................ the first part of the small intestine, from the stomach.
(11) B.................... and other digestive juices are deposited into the
duodenum from the gallbladder, (12) p...................., and (13)
l...................., to further digest the food. Any unabsorbed food materials are stored in the (14)
l.................... intestine until the body can partially reabsorb water from it. The remains are then passed
along to the (15) a.................... for elimination. The large intestine is divided into eight sections: the
appendix, the (16) c...................., the ascending (17) c.............., the transverse colon, the (18)
d.................... colon, the sigmoid colon, the (19) r.................... and the anus.

15
III. Match the definition to the part of the digestive system.
1. a sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the oesophagus. Both chemical and mechanical A. anus
digestion takes place here. ...............................
2. the long, coiled mid-section of the small intestine, between the duodenum and the ileum. B. appendix
...............................
3. the flap at the back of the tongue that keeps chewed food from going down the windpipe to C. bile
the lungs. ...............................
4. the opening at the end of the digestive system from which faeces exits the body. ................... D. caecum
5. an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the intestines. E. duodenum
...............................
6. a small, sac-like organ located by the duodenum. It stores and releases bile into the small F. epiglottis
intestine. ...............................
7. a digestive chemical that is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and secreted into G. gall bladder
the small intestine. ...............................
8. a small sac located on the caecum. ............................... H. ileum
9. the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins. ............................... I. jejunum
10. the first part of the large intestine ............................... J. liver
11. a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from the blood, and K. oesophagus
makes bile and some blood proteins. ...............................
12. the first part of the small intestine; it is C-shaped and runs from the stomach to the jejunum. L. pancreas
...............................
13. the long tube between the mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic muscle M. rectum
movements (peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. ............................
14. the lower part of the large intestine, where faeces are stored before being excreted. ..... N. stomach

Research
1. What is the difference between bloating, blood in the stool, Crohn’s disease and
ingestion and digestion? colon cancer. Find out about these
2. Diseases/ailments affecting the
diseases/ailments and how they affect a person’s
digestive system include constipation, life.

Many nouns relating to medical conditions or terms do not form their plural by adding –s or –
es. Instead, they have irregular plural forms, generally from Latin or Greek. Decide is the
following terms are singular or plural. Then give the other form. Use a dictionary if necessary.
1. atrium - ........................ 2. bronchus - ......................... 3. ganglia - .........................
4. pleura -......................... 5. stimuli - ............................ 6. testis - ...........................
7. diagnosis - ..................... 8. aortae - ........................... 9. bacteria - .......................

The Integumentary System

 I. Reading and discussion activity: Before reading the abstract of the article published in The
British Journal of Dermatology (January 2013), comment on the headline.

16
 Nine out of 10 sunbeds in England emit ultraviolet radiation levels that exceed current safety limits
Background Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation traceable to the National Physical Laboratory.
from sunlight is recognized as the principal cause of Compliance with the relevant British and European
skin cancer. Moreover, sunbeds have been classified standard was determined, and a skin-cancer
as carcinogenic by the International Agency for weighting factor was used to compare the
Research on Cancer. Despite this, there is a shortage carcinogenic potential of sunbeds with that of
of objective data on UV exposure levels in sunbeds in sunlight.
England. Conclusions Nine out of 10 sunbeds surveyed
Objectives We set out to measure UV emission throughout England emitted levels of UV radiation
levels in sunbeds at sites around England, and to that exceed the maximum levels contained within
compare these levels with both current standards the European standard. Moreover, the skin cancer
and natural sunlight. risk for comparable times of exposure was up to six
Methods Between October 2010 and February times higher than that for Mediterranean sunlight.
2011, UV spectra were measured on site from a total This situation is unacceptable and stricter control
of 402 artificial tanning units in England. measures must be put in place.
Measurement instrumentation was calibrated,
Adapted abstract from Tierney, P., Ferguson, J., Ibbotson, S., Dawe, R., Eadie, E. and Moseley, H. (2013), Nine out of 10 sunbeds in England
emit ultraviolet radiation levels that exceed current safety limits. British Journal of Dermatology. doi: 10.1111/bjd.12181 [Online]. Available at
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjd.12181/abstract [Accessed on 23-01-2013]

II. Fill in the gaps about the integumentary system.

The integumentary system consists of the (1) s.............., hair and (2) n..............., and acts as a barrier to protect
the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against (3) d...............................,
eliminate (4) w................ products, and regulate body (5) t.............................. The skin is the (6) l.....................
organ of the human body. Did you know that in an average adult the skin covers about 2 square metres, weighs
4.5-5 kg and varies in thickness (1.5 to 4.0 mm) depending on what part of the body it covers?
The skin has two layers:
• The (7) e............................ is the outer layer of the skin. It has four layers, called strata. There are no
blood vessels in the epidermis, which is why a small scratch will not cause bleeding. A
• Beneath the epidermis lies the (8) d....................... This layer connects the skin to the underlying tissue. It
contains blood (9) v......................., nerve endings, glands, sense organs, smooth muscles and (10)
h............ follicles.

III. Now label this diagram.

IV. Read the text and then link the

definitions below to one of the
words in bold and italics.
The thin outer layer of the skin is the
epidermis, which is made of tough, flat
cells. Dead cells at the surface form a scaly protective layer, and as these are lost, new skin cells are forming in
the basal cell layer at the bottom of the epidermis. Also in this bottom layer are melanocytes, which produce
the hormone melanin, which gives the skin its colour and protects it from UV light.
The skin's inner layer, the dermis, is made of strong, elastic tissue. It contains nerve endings and small blood
vessels.

17
Sebaceous glands produce sebum, an oil that rises to the surface of the epidermis to keep the skin lubricated
and waterproof.
Sweat is produced in sweat glands, and comes up through sweat ducts to the surface of the skin from where
it comes out through tiny pores. Body hairs grow in follicles in the dermis and are called hair shaft projecting
beyond the skin.
Under the skin is a layer of subcutaneous fat. This keeps the body warm, absorbs shocks, and helps hold the
skin to all the tissues underneath it.

1. .............................. = tubes that carry blood as it circulates, including arteries and veins.
2. .............................. = (also called the cutis) the layer of the skin just beneath the epidermis.
3. .............................. = the outer layer of the skin.
4. .............................. = tube-shaped sheaths that surround the part of the hair that is under the skin. They are
located in the epidermis and the dermis, and nourish the hair at its base.
5. .............................. = the part of the hair that is above the skin.
6. .............................. = a cell in the epidermis that produces melanin (a dark-coloured pigment that
protects the skin from sunlight).
7. .............................. = small, sack-shaped glands that release oily (fatty) liquids onto the hair follicle (the
oil lubricates and softens the skin), located in the dermis, usually next to hair follicles.
8. ............................... = tube-shaped glands that produce perspiration (sweat). These glands are located in
the dermis, and release sweat onto the skin.
9. .............................. = fatty tissue located under the dermis.
10. .............................. = tiny openings in the skin through which sweat and sebum reach the skin's surface

Flames, hot water or steam, sunlight, electricity or corrosive chemicals may cause burns of the skin,
which can range from minor to fatal. The classification of burns is based on the extent of damage:

• First-degree burn: only the superficial epidermis is burned, so it is painful but not blistered. It causes
the death of epidermal cells.
• Second-degree burn: both the epidermis and the dermis are affected. There could be inflammation
and blisters, and the burned skin is often painful.
• Third degree burn: the skin is charred or burned away, and the burn may extend into the tissues
beneath. Often such a burn is not painful at first, if the receptors in the dermis have been destroyed.
Due to the loss of skin, living tissue is exposed to the environment and is susceptible to infection and
dehydration.

17
 LANGUAGE CORNER

IF CLAUSES / CONDITIONAL SENTENCES - 0, 1st and 2nd Conditional

A. Look at these sentences and explain the differences.

1. If you sit too long in the sun, you get a sunburn.
2. If you sit too long in the sun, you'll get a sunburn.

Both sentences are acceptable and grammatically correct. However, which conditional form is used
alters the meaning of the sentence and the context in which it is used.

Thus, if you use the zero conditional sentence (if present ... present) , it means that it's generally true that
too much sun causes sunburns. However, using the 1st conditional (if present ... future) means that a
sunburn is the possible result of sitting too long in the sun, e.g. you may be giving a friend a piece of advice
about being in the sun too long.

B. Look at these sentences and explain them.

If you sat too long in the sun, you'd get a sunburn.
If I were you, I wouldn't sit too long in the sun.

These sentences are in the 2nd conditional (if past ... conditional) which is used to refer to unreal or
hypothetical situations (that is, things we don't think will happen), and to the possible results of these
situations.
• In the 1st sentence, you don't normally sit too long in the sun so it's unlikely that you'll do it.
However, if you did, the possible result would be a sunburn.
• In the 2nd sentence, I am not you but I'm giving advice of what I would do if I were in your
position.

Remember that while we use the zero conditional to refer to something that is generally true, we use
the first conditional to show that it is the result of an action or situation. The second conditional is
used to talk about something which is unlikely to happen, or to refer to an imaginary situation. It is
possible but very unlikely that the condition will be fulfilled.

C. Other examples:
1. If you do exercise, your heart beats faster. (0 conditional - this is a fact)
2. If you do exercise, your heart beat will increase. (1st conditional - this is likely to happen)
3. Your risk of melanoma increases by 20% if you use a sunbed, (0 conditional)
4. You may increase the likelihood of getting skin cancer if you use a sunbed. (1st conditional)
5. If I didn't have a headache, I would go to the party. (2nd conditional - this is unlikely to happen)
6. I wouldn’t let him drop out of school, if he were my son. (2nd conditional - hypothetical situation)
adapted from
http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/course/intermediate/unit-5/session-2/activity-2 and
http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/course/lower-intermediate/unit-24/session-2 [Accessed on 3-02-2018]

See further exercises on pages 29

The Nervous System

 I. Reading and discussion activity: Before reading the extract, discuss the following:

18
 Do you ever speak on your mobile phone while driving? Why is it illegal to do so? Is it legal under any
circumstances – for example with hands-free phones? Do you know any horror stories caused by people
driving and talking on the phone?

II. Pre-reading preparation: predicting and deducing meanings.

• You are going to read an article about something called “dual-task interference”. What do you think
this might be?
• The text refers to a “bottleneck” that limits our ability to perform different cognitive tasks at the same
time. We also use the term “bottleneck” to describe a problem in road traffic conditions. Think about
the shape of a bottle, and try to explain what a traffic “bottleneck” is and what its effects are.
• The original meaning of “bombard” was to attack with bombs or artillery. Think about this image and
say what you think the scientist in the text means when he says "While we are driving, we are
bombarded with visual information".

 III. Now read the text to confirm your guesses.

Your Brain Is Fast, but Not That Fast
(Why you must never drive while talking on a cell phone)

Many people think they can safely drive while talking on their cell phones.
Neuroscientists Paul Dux, PhD, and René Marois, PhD, have found that when it comes
to doing two things at once, your brain, while fast, isn't that fast. "While we are driving,
we are bombarded with visual information," said Dr. Marois. "We could also be talking to passengers or talking on the
phone at the same time. Our new research offers neurological evidence that the brain cannot effectively do two things
at once. People think if they are using a headset with their cell phone while driving they are safe, but they're not because
they are still doing two cognitively demanding tasks at once."
"We seem to complete so many cognitive tasks effortlessly in our everyday lives," noted Dr. Dux. "However, we
experience severe limitations when we try to do even two simple tasks at once.”
Drs. Dux and Marois carried out a study to identify the regions of the brain responsible for the central "bottleneck"
which exists in the brain. They examined patterns of neural activity over time. The results revealed that the central
bottleneck was caused by the inability of the lateral frontal and prefrontal cortex and the superior frontal cortex to
process the two tasks at once. "Neural activity seemed to be delayed for the second task when the two tasks were
presented nearly simultaneously," Dr. Marois said. "If individuals have a second or more between tasks, we do not see
this delay." This temporal delay is the essence of dual-task interference for tasks that require actions, he stated. "These
findings allow us to focus on this set of brain areas and understand why they cannot process two tasks at once."
For the record, neither he nor Dr. Dux uses his cell phone while driving. "I would never do it," said Dr. Dux. "Dual-task
costs can be up to a second, and that may be lethal when you're traveling at 60 miles per hour."

(abridged and adapted from an article by Melanie Moran available at http://www.advanceforspanda.com/ Accessed 10-01-2010 )

IV. What do the underlined words in the above text refer to?

V. Fill in the gaps about the nervous system.

The nervous system of the human body is responsible for (1) s...................., (2)
r................... and processing nerve impulses. It controls the actions and sensations
of all the parts of your body, as well as your thoughts, emotions, and memories. Of
all of the components of the nervous system, the (3) b.................. is the primary
component, occupying the cranial (4) c.................. Without its outermost protective membrane the (5) d..........
m..........., the brain weighs an average of three pounds, comprising 92% of the entire nervous system. It is
connected to the upper end of the (6) s................. c................. and is responsible for issuing (7) n.................
impulses, processing nerve impulse data, and engaging in the higher thought processes. The spinal cord allows
signals to be sent to and from the brain to the structures of the body and received from them in turn.
(8) N.................. are the basic cells of the nervous system and are responsible for receiving and transmitting

19
 nerve impulses and forming long fibres by linking together. They consist of a cell body, which contains a (9)
n.................., with one or more (10) a............. and (11) d.................. extending from the body. The dendrites
carry impulses away from the body of the (12) c........... Billions of neurons are located in the body’s nervous
system. They are so efficient that a nerve impulse, such as a pain impulse can be transmitted from the hand to
the brain and back again to allow a reflex (13) m.................. in a fraction of a second.

Research
1. The nervous system is divided into the • nerve disorders, e.g. stroke,
central nervous system (CNS) and the • functional difficulties, e.g. Parkinson’s disease,
peripheral nervous system. epilepsy, multiple sclerosis
What does each part consist of? • infections, e.g. meningitis, polio,
encephalitis
2. Several different types of problems can
Find out about these diseases/ailments and
affect the nervous system, namely:
how they affect a person’s life.

After each prefix below, write its meaning. Then write a word which contains
that word part. Use a dictionary if necessary.
Prefix Meaning Example
1. cardi-
2. cerebr-
3. cutane-
4. derm-
5. hist-
6. leuc-
7. peri-
8. pharyng-
9. vas-

The Reproductive System

  I. Reading and discussion activity: Before reading the extract, comment on the 1 st
sentence.

A 67-year-old Spanish woman is reported to have given birth to twins according to hospital officials
in Barcelona, becoming the world's oldest mother.

The woman, whose name has not been revealed, became pregnant after fertility treatment in Latin
America. She gave birth to the twins, who have been placed in an incubator, by caesarean section
early on Saturday. It was the woman's first birth and she is expected to spend a few days in the Sant
Pau hospital recovering. A spokesman for the hospital, which specialises in high-risk births, said that
both the mother and her babies were doing well.

The woman is one year older than Romanian Adriana Iliescu who gave birth in January 2005 to a baby
girl. She too had been pregnant with twins but one of her babies died in the womb.

- adapted and abridged from - http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6220523.stm (accessed 02-01-2007)

20
II. Fill in the gaps and label the images about the reproductive system, using the terms in the box.

bladder cervix embryo fallopian tube fertilisation foetus nutrients ovaries penis
prostate prostate gland rectum spermatozoa testes testis tubes
umbilical cord ureter urethra uterus (3) vagina (2) vas deferens zygote

The reproductive system is the system that allows for the continuation of the human species. This
system is different in males and females. The male’s reproductive system includes the (1) t.................,
vasa deferentia, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, (2) u.................. and (3) p....................., while the
female’s is composed of the (4) o.................., fallopian tubes, (5) u......................, (6) v.....................
and vulva. The role of the male’s reproductive system is to manufacture (7) s......................... and then
to deliver them to the female’s reproductive tract where
fertilization may occur.
The role of the female’s reproductive system is basically the
same except that it goes further if the sperm meets an ovum. If
fertilization occurs, the female reproductive system is designed to
nurture and care for the cell that will soon grow into a baby. A
The sperm is produced in the male’s testis and then travels
through a series of ducts to reach the body exterior. The ova are
produced in the ovary of a female. Pregnancy occurs as the result of
(8) f........................ of an
ovum by a sperm. The ovum
and sperm meet in one of
the two fallopian (9) t............... With fertilization, cell division
begins, and the fertilized egg, called a (10) z.......................,
develops into a mass of cells called morula, which continues
to develop until it becomes a hollow clump of about 100 cells
called a blastocyst. It then travels down the tube and
implants in the (11) u________. An outer layer, the
trophoblast eventually develops into the placenta, which will
transfer (12) n......................... from the mother to the
embryo. The (13) u................... c............. links the embryo
to the placenta and is formed at the same time as the placenta. The developing baby is now called
an (14) e..................... Once the organs have begun to develop it will be called a (15) f....................

Research
1. What is the function of the placenta? • cancer: cervical, prostate
2. What is the main difference between an • Infertility
embryo and a foetus? • STDs, e.g. chlamydia, gonorrhoea, HIV,
2. Several different types of problems can Find out about how these ailments affect a
affect the reproductive system, such as, person’s life.

21
 The Urinary System

I. Fill in the gaps and label the image about the urinary system.
Your urinary tract is the body system involved in the formation and excretion of urine. The main organ of
the urinary system is the (1) k.................... whose main functions are to filter out (2) .................... products
from the blood, thereby (3) .................... the blood. The waste products, in combination with water, are
(4) ..................... The urine passes out of the kidneys through two narrow, muscular
tubes called (5) u........................ The ureters empty the urine into the (6)
...................., and the urine is then excreted from the body through a tube-like
structure called the (7) u.................... .

II. Which structure is being defined?

....................... = a tube that conducts urine from the kidneys to the bladder
....................... = a sac-shaped organ that stores the urine produced by the kidneys
....................... = the tube that conducts urine from the bladder to the exterior

 Review

I. Answer the following questions in full sentences and using your own words.
1. What are some important functions of the skin?
2. Which layer of the skin contains the sweat glands?
3. Which tissues enable the body to move?
4. Which vessels carry blood to the heart, and which carry it away?
5. What is the difference between an organ and a system? Which is the skin?
bones of a finger or toe;
6. What is the name of the tissue that connects muscle to bone?
breastbone;
collarbone;
II. Match the medical terms with their common words in the box.
kneecap;
1. clavicle - ....................................... 2. larynx - ....................................... shoulder blade;
3. patella - ........................................ 4. phalanges - ................................. skull;
5. scapula - ........................................ 6. sternum - .................................... spine;
7. trachea - ........................................ 8. uterus - ........................................ voice box;
9. vertebral column - ........................... 10. cranium - ................................... windpipe;
womb

III. Are the following statements TRUE or FALSE? Correct the false ones.
1. Bronchi are part of the skeleton. ....................
2. The most important muscle in the body is the heart. ....................
3. Haemoglobin is a protein found in white blood cells. ....................
4. The top layer of the skin is constantly dying and being replaced. ....................
5. Capillaries help with the digestion of food. ....................
6. Oxygen is breathed into the body during inspiration, and CO2 is released during expiration. ..................
7. The pulse is a measure of the heartbeat. ....................
8. Liquid wastes are passed out of the body through the rectum. ....................

23
 QUIZ

1. What is the central part of your body called?

2. What is another name for the chest?
3. What is one of the differences between the big toe and the other toes?
4. Where in your body are your lungs?
5. Which of the five senses are connected?
6. Why are the bones in your feet very strong?
7. When does your heart beat faster?
8. What are your lower extremities?
9. What happens to the cranial bones as you get older?
10. What substance determines the colour of your skin and hair?
11. What does your blood supply your body with?
12. Which is the largest organ? And the largest internal organ?
13. How many bones are there in one foot?
14. What are the bones in the fingers called?
15. Why are platelets important?
16. Which organ cleans your blood: your lungs or your liver?
17. What are the two sets of layers of skin called?
18. In which region of the body are your kidneys?
19. What is the name of the little black circle in the centre of your eye?
20. What is the difference between the epidermis and the dermis?
21. What is haemoglobin?
22. What part of your body is the abdomen?
23. Where in the body would you find keratin?
24. How many bones in the skull can move?
25. What do your white blood cells do?
26. How many knuckles in your hands do you have in total? www.onestopenglish.com
27. What protects your lungs? (accessed on 01-02-2019)
28. Which organ pumps blood around your body?

24
 Language

Word Formation
If clauses
Passive Voice
Rephrasing activities

25
 Word Formation

A. Prefixes are syllables which we add before certain 2. Nouns formed from verbs
words to form new words. The meaning of the new -age e.g. pack – package
word depends on the prefix that has been used. -al e.g. arrive – arrival
-ance e.g. accept – acceptance
anti- = against, opposite e.g. antisocial -ation e.g. realise – realisation
bi- = two e.g. biannual -ence e.g. differ – difference
co- = with, together e.g. co-pilot -er e.g. cook – cooker
ex- = previous, former e.g. ex-wife -dom e.g. bore – boredom
inter- = between e.g. international -ing e.g. build –building
macro- = large e.g. macro-economics -ion e.g. revise – revision
micro- = very small e.g. micro-biology -ment e.g. employ – employment
mini- = small e.g. mini hi-fi -sion e.g. comprehend – comprehension
mis- = done wrongly/badly e.g. misbehave -sis e.g. diagnose – diagnosis
mono- = one e.g. monorail -th e.g. grow – growth
multi- = many e.g. multinational -tion e.g. prescribe – prescription
out- = more, better e.g. outnumber
over- = to a great extent, e.g. overweight 3. Nouns formed from adjectives
too much -ance e.g. important – importance
post- = after e.g. post-war -cy e.g. vacant – vacancy
pre- = before e.g. prehistoric -ence e.g. competent – competence
pro- = in favour of e.g. pro-government -ion e.g. desolate – desolation
re- = again e.g. redecorate -ity e.g. formal – formality
semi- = half e.g. semi-final -ness e.g. happy – happiness
sub- = under, less e.g. submarine -th e.g. deep – depth
super- = big, more e.g. superhuman -ty e.g. loyal – loyalty
trans- = across e.g. transcontinental -y e.g. modest – modesty
under- = not enough, too little e.g. undercooked
4. Adjectives formed from nouns
-al e.g. addition – additional
NB - The prefixes below are used to express opposite
-ic e.g. hero – heroic
meanings.
-ive e.g. expense – expensive
ab- e.g. abnormal
-ful (with) e.g. care – careful
de- e.g. debone, devalue
-less (without) e.g. care – careless
dis- e.g. dislike
-ly e.g. friend – friendly
in- e.g. indirect
-ous e.g. fame – famous
il- e.g. illegal (before l)
-y e.g. health – healthy
im- e.g. impossible, immoral (before m, p)
ir- e.g. irresponsible (before r) but unreliable 5. Adjectives formed from verbs
non- e.g. non-smoker -able e.g. like – likeable
un- e.g. unacceptable -ible e.g. defend – defensible
-ive e.g. conclude – conclusive

B. Suffixes are syllables which we add to certain words 6. Verbs formed from adjectives
to form new words. -en e.g. light – lighten
-ise e.g. legal – legalise
1. Nouns referring to people
- verb + er /or e.g. teach – teacher; sail – sailor 7. Abstract nouns formed from nouns
- noun/verb/adjective + ist e.g. tourist; motorist -dom e.g. king – kingdom
- verb + ant/ent -ship e.g. champion – championship
e.g. contest – contestant; study – student -hood e.g. neighbour – neighbourhood
- verb + ee e.g. train – trainee
- noun + (i)an e.g. music – musician

26
Now do these exercises
A. Prefixes and suffixes quiz
1. What prefix would you add to the word 'finished' to show that there is still some work to be done?
A) un B) dis C) mis
2. What suffix would you add to the word 'air' to show that a room is very stuffy?
A) ed B) ful C) less
3. What prefix would you add to the word 'view' to indicate that you see something before other people
do? A) re B) pre C) dis
4. What suffix would you add to the word 'blame' to show you have done nothing wrong?
A) ness B) less C) ed
5. Which two suffixes have the same meaning?
A) ful and less B) s and es C) less and ness
6. Which of these words cannot be made into another word by adding the prefix 'sub'?
A) way B) marine C) book
7. Which of these prefixes means below? A) under B) pre C) over
8. What does the prefix do to the word 'cooked' in this sentence? "The pies were precooked."
A) It tells you need to cook the pies. B) It tells you the pies need cooking again.
C) It tells you the pies have already been cooked.
9. What does the prefix 'dis' do to the word appeared in this sentence? "The cat disappeared before her
very eyes." A) It tells you that the cat appeared bigger than before.
B) It tells you that the cat vanished.
C) It tells you that the act appeared to be further away.
10. What does the suffix 'ful' do to the word house in this sentence? "She had a houseful that
weekend." A) It tells you that her house was empty that weekend.
B) It tells you that her house was a mess that weekend.
C) It tells you that she had lots of people staying in her house that weekend.
http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/skillswise/english/en17suff/quiz/en17suff-e3-quiz.pdf (accessed on 29-01-2015)

B. Try the exercises on this webpage http://www.literacytools.ie/files/pdfs/Word%20building.pdf

C. The words in this list are all verbs. What are the noun forms? The 1st has been done as an
example.
1. diagnose diagnosis 2. examine ………...…… 3. prescribe ………...……
4. suffer ………...……........ 5. operate ………...…… 6. cure ………...……
7. recover ………...…......… 8. analyse ………...…… 9. infect ………...……
10. experience ………...…… 11. replace ………...…… 12. degenerate ………...……
13. refer ………...……....... 14. exceed ………...…… 15. withdraw ………...……

D. Rewrite the sentences below using nouns instead of verbs. Do not change the meanings of the
sentences.
1. I diagnosed that the patient had a heart condition.
My ……………………was that the patient had a heart condition.
2. I examined the patient fully. I made …………………………………....……….………….................................
3. I prescribed a course of antibiotics. I wrote …………….................................................………………..
4. He suffered very little. He experienced ………………………………….…..….............................................
5. We operated immediately. The …...................................................……………………………………………
6. The disease cannot be cured. There is …................................................……………………………………
7. He has recovered fully. He has made ………………….....................................................………………
8. The lab analysed the blood sample. The lab made ………...................................………………………...

27
9. We found that the tissue was infected. We found …………………………………………............................
10. He has experienced six years of tropical work. He has ……...................……………...……………
11. We replaced the patient’s hip. The patient …………….………..............................................……………
12. His condition has degenerated. There has been ……......................................……….……………………
13. The patient was referred to a specialist. The patient was given ……......................…..…..……………
14. The amount of sugar in the blood sample exceeded the norm.
There was …………………...........................…………………..
15. This is the time to withdraw the drugs treatment. This is the time …………………………........……
Wyatt, R. (2006). Check Your English Vocabulary for Medicine: All You Need to Improve Your Vocabulary. London, A&C Black Publishers Ltd (p 2)

E. Decide if the following sentences are correct or incorrect in relation to the use of the adjective suffixes
–ING or –ED. Correct the false ones.
1. Some magazines have very amusing cartoons – they help to start our days with a nice laugh.
2. The scientists were surprising at the results of the tests as they were very disappointing.
3. The neighbours are revolted at the crime that was committed next door.
4. The audience was boring because the speaker had a very monotonous voice.
5. Most of my colleagues are interesting in the subjects we have at university.
6. The firemen had an overwhelmed task of putting out the fire.
7. It’s surprised that such a small country has such a fascinating history.
8. The little girl was delighted with her new doll.

F. Rewrite the sentences below so that you do not change their meanings.
1. The human body absorbs oxygen through the respiratory system.
The ......................... of oxygen in the ...............................................................................................
2. The oxygen-enriched blood is distributed through the cardiovascular system to all tissues.
The ......................... of the oxygen-enriched blood to all .........................................................
3. The digestive system converts digestible food to energy and disposes of the rest.
The ....................of digestible food to energy and ................... of the rest takes place in the ...................
4. The body responds immediately to a stimulus.
There is an ......................................................................................... by the body.
5. Normally nerve cells are divided into three types.
Normally there are ................................ of nerve cell ..........................
6. The foetus develops within a sac containing amniotic fluid.
The ................................................foetus takes place ............................................................
7. After birth, breast secretions feed the baby.
After birth, the breast ......................................................................................
8. Muscular contraction changes the length of the muscle.
When muscles ......................., this changes ...............................................................

G. Fill the gaps with words formed from the words in capitals.
1. I have no ....................... to people smoking in public. OBJECT
2. How long did the ....................... take from London to Paris? FLY
3. I think ....................... is very important. PUNCTUAL
4. It’s a very depressed area and almost 20% of young adults are ....................... . EMPLOY
5. David was tired and suffering from ........................ WORK
6. Jill ....................... with people who have nothing in life. SYMPATHY
7. His ....................... with the children meant that he really played with them. PATIENT
8. You’ve recently produced very ....................... work; what’s wrong with you? SATISFY
9. The goal of most research is the ......................... of the quality of our later years. IMPROVE
10. The......................... of Alzheimer’s disease and arthritis would improve old people’s life. PREVENT

28
11. Scientists hope that the .................... of the life span will increase life .................... EXTEND/EXPECT
12. A cold is often ...................... but its ........................... into pneumonia could kill. HARM/DEVELOP
13. The ......................... rate among Africans has increased as a result of the spread of Aids. DIE
14. The ............................ profession feels ............................ as they are ............................ to treat the
............................ illness that started in Hong Kong and has so far killed at least sixteen people.
MEDICINE/POWER/ABLE/RESPIRATION

If Clauses

If ... present, ... present

If ... present, ... future OR Future ... if ... present
If ... past, ... conditional OR Conditional ... if ... past
If … past perfect, …. conditional perfect OR Conditional perfect ... if … past perfect

Write the verbs in the correct tenses.

1. If you heat ice, it .............................. (melt).
2. Living organisms .............................. (die) if they don't get enough water.
3. If you play the music too loud, you .............................. (wake) up the neighbours.
4. I .............................. (go) with you if my father lends me money.
5. You .................................. (feel) better if you did more exercise.
6. If you speak in class, you .............................. (not hear) what the teacher says.
7. If you tell me what you want, I ............................... (buy) it for you.
8. The pain .............................. (become) less if you take an aspirin.
9. If I .............................. too much coffee, I get a headache.
10. The doctor .............................. (not prescribe) antibiotics if his patients have the flu.
11. If the North Pole melted, the water .............................. (flood) many cities.
12. If my train isn’t late, I ............................. (be) in Paris by 6 p.m.
13. If my train isn’t late, I ............................. (be) in Paris by 6 p.m.
14. If people walked more, they ......................... (be) healthier and there ......................... (be) less pollution.
15. Vegetarians believe that if nobody ............................ (eat) meat, everyone would live longer and there
............................ (not be) so many diseases.
16. What (you/do) ..............................if you were fired and if you (have) ........................... no job?

The Passive Voice

Write these sentences in the passive voice.
1. Work carried out in the USA has influenced the development of the serum.
2. They injected the patient with morphine.
3. The doctor is using a bronchoscope to inspect the inside of the lungs.
4. The police arrested him for misuse of drugs.
5. They are going to refer the patient to a consultant.
6. They had found traces of the drug in the blood sample.
7. A blood clot blocked the artery.
8. Refuse from the factories contaminated supplies of drinking water.
9. They can treat a high proportion of cancers by surgery.
10. If gangrene sets in, they will have to amputate his toes.
11. His doctor has banned him from drinking alcohol.
12. Therapists sometimes hypnotize their patients.
13. That hospital is developing a new procedure for dealing with Parkinson’s disease.
14. You should heat the solution to 25º.

29
15. Flu complications kill hundreds of people every year.
16. The fever caused sweating.
17. British doctors don’t usually prescribe rimantadine to patients with flu.
18. Type C influenza does not cause epidemics.
19. The Spanish flu pandemic of 1915 killed about 40 million people.
20. The doctor caught the infection from a patient.
21. Malaria is going to kill over one million people this year.
22. Authorities are going to investigate the death of the Member of Parliament.
23. Scientists are analysing specimens from victims with SARS.
24. Scientists in Hong Kong have claimed a key breakthrough against SARS.
25. The WHO has described bird flu as a ‘worldwide health threat’.
26. A hospital worker had also contracted the atypical pneumonia which is frightening many people.
27. Bed-rest should relieve the aches and pains.
28. You can take aspirin for the headache.
29. The new drug may reduce symptoms and the length of time a person suffers fever.
30. Patients should increase the amount of juices, water and hot drinks they take.
31. Malaria will have killed about 180 children while we’re having this lesson.
32. Vaccinations can give protection against pneumococcal infection.

Rephrasing Exercises (passive voice and if clauses)

1. The WHO has described the illness as a ‘worldwide health threat’.
The illness ...........................................................................................................................................
2. Someone must have left the door open. The door ................................................................................
3. Ms Baverstock was leading a workshop for young people.
A workshop ............................................................................................................................................
4. The plumber is fitting the bathroom with new pipes. The bathroom .....................................................
5. You should make your suggestions in writing to the personnel manager.
Your suggestions ....................................................................................................................................
6. The Department of Education is going to make an important financial contribution to the project.
An important ..........................................................................................................................................
7. Authorities are going to investigate the cause of the outbreak of Legionnaires disease.
The cause ...............................................................................................................................................
8. Everyone knows that smoking causes many health problems. Many health ....................................
9. You press this button to stop the machine. If ........................................................................................
10. You have a headache. Take a painkiller. If ..............................................................................................
11. He didn’t get the job because he didn’t apply for it. If ............................................................................
12. Do your work so that you can relax. If ..................................................................................................
13. You work a lot so you’re tired. If you .............................................................................................
14. I don’t want to take those pills because they are too strong.
But if they ...........................................................................................................................................
15. You really shouldn’t work so hard, you know. If I ..................................................................................
16. If you want my advice, I’d think twice about buying a car like that.
If I ........................................................................................................................................

30
Knowing and understanding medical terminology is an
invaluable tool in the healthcare industry. The
professional health-care team includes physicians,
nurses, therapists, technicians, dieticians, medical
office managers, medical assistants, office assistants,
and other healthcare support staff. This section will
help you learn the fundamentals of word building
needed to understand the basic medical terminology
required for use in medical offices, hospitals, and the healthcare industry.

Abbreviations and acronyms are commonly used by medical professionals. However, unless you have a
medical background, the abbreviations that are used can often be confusing. Prescriptions are often
written with Latin abbreviations. If the directions on your prescription seem confusing, ask your doctor or
pharmacist to explain. Keep asking questions until you fully understand how to take the medication.
Medical secretaries, office assistants, and medical transcriptionists must also be familiar with the
abbreviations and acronyms used in their profession. As a general rule, each hospital or large medical
establishment has its own list of approved abbreviations for reports and medical records. Progress notes
done in a physician's office tend to be less formal and the use of abbreviations is a matter of personal
preference.

Knowing and understanding the suffixes and prefixes used in the healthcare industry is important since
they are the foundation of medical terms. The majority of medical terms in current use are composed of
Greek and Latin word parts. Many of these terms are the same words used by Hippocrates and Aristotle
over 2000 years ago. Understanding medical prefixes and suffixes helps you build a strong medical
vocabulary. This knowledge will help you with medical reports, office chart notes, history and physical
examinations, consultations, letters, memos, admission notes, emergency medicine reports, operative
reports, discharge summaries, x-rays, pathology reports, and many laboratory tests and diagnostic studies.

What do the following medical abbreviations and acronyms stand for? Check the ones you don’t know
in the list on the following pages, or in a dictionary.
1- A&E ……………………….................. 2 - PMA ………………………..................
3 - AIDS ……………………….................. 4 - PMT ………………………..................
5 - BMR ………………………................. 6 - RQ ………………………..................
7 - CAT ……………………….................. 8 - RSI ………………………..................
9 - CHD ……………………….................. 10 - SAD ……………………..…...............
11 - D&V .………………………………..... 12 - ICU ………………………..................

31
13 – DOA ………………………................. 14 - STD ………………………..................
15 – GP ……………………….................. 16 - TB ………………………..................
17 - HAV ……………………….................. 18 - TBI ………………………..................
19 - HIV ……………………….................. 20 - UV ………………………..................
21 - MD ……………………….................. 22 - VDH ………………………..................
23 - OTC ……………………….................. 24 - WHO ………………………..................
25 - PM ……………………….................. Wyatt, R. (2006). Check Your English Vocabulary for Medicine: All You Need
to Improve Your Vocabulary. London, A&C Black Publishers Ltd (p 30)

Why don’t you enrich the glossary on the following pages by adding any new abbreviations,
acronyms, prefixes, or suffixes which appear?

Medical abbreviations and acronyms

A
a.a. - of each AIDS - Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
a.m. - morning al - left ear
ABCs - airway, breathing, and circulation amb - ambulatory
ac - before meal amp - ampule
accels - accelerations amt - amount
ACLS - advanced cardiac life support angio - angiogram
ACOG - American College of Obstetrics and ante - before
Gynecology AP - anterior posterior
ad - right ear aq - water
ad lib. - as desired ARC - Aids related complex
ADH - antidiuretic hormone ARDS - adult respiratory disease syndrome
ADL - activities of daily living as - left ear (auris sinistra)
Adm - admitted; admission ASA - Aspirin
admit - admission A-V - arterio-venous
ADT - admission, discharge, and transfer au - each ear
AFV - amniotic fluid volume AV – arteriovenous
agit - shake or stir

B
BBT - basal body temperature bis. - second
BCP - birth control pill bp - blood pressure
bib - drink BPP - biophysical profile
bid - twice daily BRP - bathroom privileges

C
C - cup or Celsius chol – cholesterol
c/o - complaint of CLL - chronic lymphocytic leukemia
Ca - calcium; cancer CNS - central nervous system
CABS - coronary artery bypass surgery COPD - chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
CAD - coronary artery disease CPR - cardiopulmonary resuscitation
cap(s) - capsule CRF - chronic renal failure
CBR - complete bed rest C-spine - cervical spine
cc - cubic centimeter cm - centimeter
CCU - coronary care unit CST - contraction stress test
CDC - Centers for Disease Control CVA - cerebrovascular accident
chemo - chemotherapy CXR - chest x-ray

32
 D
D&C - dilation and curretage DO - doctor of osteopathy
D/C is - discontinue DOA - dead on arrival
DEA - Drug Enforcement Administration doc - doctor
detox - detoxification DON - director of nursing
diag - diagnosis DVT - deep venous thrombosis
disch - discharge Dx – diagnosis
dl – decilitre

E
e.g. - "for example" (exempli gratia) ENT - ear, nose, and throat
EDC - estimated date of confinement ER - emergency room
EDD - estimated date of delivery et all - "and others" (et aliae)
EEG - electroencephalogram etc. - "and so on" (et cetera)
EKG - electrocardiogram Etoh - alcohol
EMG - electromyogram; emergency exam - examination
EMS - emergency medical service exp - expired
endo – endoscopy ext – extract

F
F - Fahrenheit FDA - Food and Drug Administration
F/U - follow-up feeds - feedings
FA - fatty acids FHR - fetal heart rate
FB - foreign body flu – influenza
FD - fatal dose

G
gal - gallon gtt - drops; glucose tolerance test (if capitalized)
GCT - glucose challenge test GU - genitourinary
gm - gram gyn – gynecology
grad - "by degrees" (gradatim)
grav - pregnancy (gravita)

H
H - hour HIV - human immunodeficiency virus
h.s. - hours of sleep hr - hour
H20 - water hs - bed time
Hb - hemoglobin Ht - height
hep-B - hepatitis B HTN - hypertension
hep-C - hepatitis C Hx – history

I–K
I&D - incision and drainage IDDM - insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
I. D. - identification IM - intramuscular
I. U. - international units inj - injection
i.e. - "that is" (id est) IUD - intrauterine device
I's & O's - inputs and outputs IUP - intrauterine pregnancy
IBW - ideal body weight IV - intravenous
ICT - inflammation of the connective tissue K - potassium
ICU - intensive care unit kg - kilogram
ID - the same (idem); intradermal KS - Kaposi's sarcoma

L
L - liter LMP - last menstrual period
labs - laboratory studies LOC - loss of consciousness

33
lac - laceration LPN - licensed practical nurse
LFTs - liver function tests Lt – left
liq – liquid

M
MA - mental age min - minutes
MD - medical doctor ml - milliliter
med - medicine MLD - minimum lethal dose
med onc -: medical oncology mm - millimeter
mg - milligram mn - midnight
MI - myocardial infarction MRI - magnetic resonance imaging
micro - microscopic MTD - maximum tolerated dose
mid noc – midnight MVI – multivitamin

N
Na - sodium; nursing assistant NLM - National Library of Medicine
neg - negative noct - at night
NG - nasogastric NPO - nothing by mouth (non per os)
nil - none NSVD - normal spontaneous vaginal delivery
NKA - no known allergies
NKDA - no known drug allergies

O
O2 - oxygen OR - operation room
OB - obstetrics OS - left eye
OCP - oral contraceptive pill osteo - osteoporosis
OD - right eye or overdose OT - occupational therapy
oint - ointment OTC - over-the-counter
OL - left eye oz – ounce
OOB - out of bed

P
PA - percussion and auscultation PID - pelvic inflammatory disease
P.A. - physician's assistant. PL - placebo
p. r. - per rectum plt - platelet
p.m. - after noon PMI - patient medication instructions
pacer - pacemaker PMS - prementrual syndrome
PALS - pediatric advanced life support PO - orally or by mouth (per os)
PAP - papanicolou POD - postoperative day
path - pathology postop - postoperative
pc - after meals preemie - premature infant
PCA - patient controlled analgesia preop - preoperative
PE - physical exam; pulmonary embolism prepped - prepared
PEDS - pediatrics prn - as needed
pen - penicillin pt - pint; patient
per - by PUD - peptic ulcer disease
per os - by mouth PVC - premature ventricular contraction
PFTs - pulmonary function tests

Q
q - every (quaque) qm - every morning
qd - every day (quaque die) qn is- every night
qh - every hour (quaque hora) qod - every other day
qhs - at every bed time qs - quantity sufficient (quantum sufficat or satis)
qid - 4 times a day (quarter in die) quads – quadríceps
ql - as much as desired (quantum libet)

34
 R
R - rectal REM - rapid eye movement
R/O - rule out retic - reticulocyte count
RA - rheumatoid arthritis RF - renal failure
rad onc - radiation oncology RFI - renal failure index
RBC - red blood cell RN - registered nurse
RDA - recommended daily allowance ROM - range of motion
rehab – rehabilitation Rx – prescription

S
SC - subcutaneous ss - one-half
Sig - give the following directions stat - immediately
SOB - shortness of breath STD - sexually transmitted disease
sol - solution sub-q - sub cutaneous
sono – sonogram surg – surgery
spec – specimen

T
tabs - tablets TO - telephone order
Tb - tuberculosis tox - toxicology
tbs - tablespoon (15ml) toxo - toxoplasmosis
TBSA - total body surface area TPR - temperature, pulse, respirations
temp - temperature T-spine - thoracic spine
tid - three times a day tsp - teaspoon (5ml)
T-max - temperature maximum tus – cough
TNTC - too numerous to mention

U
U - unit ug - micrograms
U/S - ultrasound ung - ointment
UA - urine analysis UV – ultraviolet

V
vag-hys - vaginal hysterectomy vitals - vital signs
VBAC - vaginal birth after c-section VO - verbal order
VC - vital capacity VS - vital signs
ves – bladder

W –Z
W/O - water in oil WHO - World Health Organisation
WBC - white blood count; white blood cell wt - weight
wks – weeks x – times

Prefixes

The table on the next page presents the most common prefixes used in medicine.
Add any further examples.

35
 Prefix Meaning Example
atrio- atrium of the heart atrioseptopexy, a surgical procedure to repair septal defects of the atrium
a- not / without arrhythmia (not rhythmic), a condition of an abnormal heartbeat
adipo- fat adipose tissue, or fatty tissue
aero- air / gas aerodontalgia, a sudden pain in a tooth caused by a change in surrounding
air pressure
alge- pain algesthesia (hypersensitivity to pain)

an- lacking in / anemia (lack of blood), a condition of having too few red blood cells
without
andr- male androgen, a group of hormones that cause male characteristics
angi- blood vessel angiography, a procedure that enables blood vessels to be seen on film
anthropo- man / anthropology, the study of human history
human being
anti- against antisepsis (against, or fighting, infection)
bi- two / twice bilateral (two sided)
bio- life biology, the study of life

cardio- heart cardiomyopathy, disease of the heart

cephalo- head cephalhematoma, an extensive, soft swelling on the scalp of a newborn caused
by bleeding between the cranium and periosteum
costo- ribs costalgia, pain around the chest due to damage to the ribs
cyto- cell cytology, the study of cells
dent- tooth / teeth dentistry, the science or profession concerned with teeth
dermato- skin dermatologist, a doctor trained to treat skin problems

dys- painful / poor dyspepsia (poor digestion)

ecto- outer / external ectodermis, the outer layer of skin

endo- inner / internal endocardium, the inner layer of heart tissue

gero- old / aged gerontology, the study of the process and problems of aging

gyn- female gynecologist, a doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating problems of
the female reproductive tract
hem- blood hemoglobin, an important protein in red blood cells

hepat- the liver hepatitis, a disease that causes inflammation of the liver

histo- tissue histogenesis, the formation and development of the tissues of the body

homeo- alike / same homeometric (without change in size)

hyper- excessive / hyperactivity (excessive activity)

beyond
hypo- beneath / hypodermic (beneath the skin), as in a hypodermic needle
low
hystero- uterus hysterectomy, the surgical removal of the uterus

infra- below infraorbital (below the orbit), as in infraorbital foramen

inter- between intertransverse (between the transverse processes of the vertebrae, as in

intertransverse ligaments, which span these processes)

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 Prefix Meaning Example
intra- within intramuscular injection, an injection within a muscle
kinesi- motion kinesimeter, an instrument used for measuring the extent of movement
kineto- motion kinetogenic (causing or producing motion)
leuko- white leukocyte, a white blood cell
levo- left levoduction, the rotation of one eye to the left
lipo- fat liposuction, the removal of fat by high vacuum pressure
mammo- breasts / mammography, the examination of the breasts by means of x-ray
mammary glands
mast- breasts mastectomy, the surgical removal of the breast

meningo- membranes meningitis, inflammation of the membranes of the brain or spinal cord
covering the brain
and spinal cord
myco- fungus mycodermatitis, a medical term used to describe a non-specific fungal infection
on the skin
myel- bone marrow / - myelatelia, the development of a defect in the spinal cord
spinal cord - myeloblast, an immature bone marrow cell
necro- death necroscopy, another word for autopsy
nephro- kidney nephrogram, the examination of the kidney by x-ray
neur- nerve / neurologist, a physician specializing in the diagnosis and treatment of the
nervous system nervous system
noso- disease nosographic, the description of a disease
onco- tumor oncosis, a condition characterized by the formation of one or more tumors
onycho- nail onychoclasis, the breaking of nails
oo- egg / ovary oocyesis, an ovarian pregnancy
oophor- ovary oophorocystosis, the formation of ovarian cysts
opthalmo- eye ophthalmalgia, pain in the eye
opto- vision / eye optometry, a profession concerned with the examination of the eyes
orchi- testis orchialgia, pain in the testis
osteo- bone osteoporosis (a condition of brittle, porous bones)
pedo- child / foot - pedodontist, a dentist who specializes in the treatment of children
- pedograph, an instrument used for the recording and study of a person's gait
peri- over / surrounding periosteum (the protective, nurturing membrane which surrounds bone)
pharmaco- drugs pharmacology, the science and study of drugs
physio- physical / natural physiopsychic (pertaining to both mind and body)
pod- foot / foot shaped podiatrist, a doctor who specializes in the treatment of the human foot
polio- gray / gray matter poliomyelitis, inflammation of the gray matter of the spinal cord
pyreto- fever pyretotherapy, the treatment of fever
re- back / again reflex (to flex, or move, back, as after a sharp stimulus)
sinistro- left sinistromanual, the medical term for left-handed
sphygmo- pulse sphygmomanometer, an instrument for measuring arterial blood pressure

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 Prefix meaning Example
spondylo- vertebra spondylopathy, disease of the vertebral column (spine)

stetho- chest stethoscope, an instrument used to listen to respiratory and cardiac sounds

stomato- mouth stomatologist, a doctor who specializes in diseases of the mouth

thermo- heat thermometer, an instrument used to measure body temperature

thrombo- blood clot thrombin, an enzyme essential to the blood clotting process

traumato- wound / injury traumatology, a branch of surgery concerned with injury

ulo- scar ulodermatitis, an inflammation of the skin that results in the formation of scars
vivi- life / live vivisection, the performance of surgical procedures on live animals, primarily
for research purposes
xeno- strange / foreign xenophthalmia, inflammation of the eye caused by a foreign object

zoo- animal - zoology, the study of animals

- zoonosis, an infectious disease of animals that can be transmitted to humans
zygo- joined / junction zygote, the cell produced by the joining of the sperm and ovum

Suffixes
The table on the next page presents the most common suffixes used in medicine. Add any further examples.

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 Suffix Meaning Example
-algia pain / discomfort neuralgia (pain in the nerves) and analgesic (that which fights pain)

-ary pertaining to pulmonary (pertaining to the lungs)

-cyte Cell leukocyte, a white blood cell

-esthesia feeling / sensation anesthesia, the loss of sensation or feeling

-gen produces / causes antigen, a substance that causes sensitivity when it comes in contact with
the body
-genesis beginning / creation osteogenesis (creation of bone tissue)
-gram chart / record mammogram (an X-ray of the mammary which records its condition)
-ician one who physician, one who practises medicine

-itis Inflammation gastritis (an inflammatory condition of the stomach)

-lysis loosening / nephrolysis (separating the kidney from other body structures)
dissolution /
separating
-megaly great size encephalomegaly (large brain size)
-odynia Pain urodynia, pain on urination
-ologist one who studies and oncologist, a cancer specialist
practises
-ology science / study of histology, the study of tissue

Oma Tumor lymphoma, a tumor of a lymphoid tissues

-orexia Appetite anorexia, the lack of appetite
-otomy an incision into lobotomy (a surgical incision into a lobe of the brain)

-pathy morbid condition/ myopathy, disease of the muscles

disease
-plasia formation / hyperplasia (excessive cell growth)
development /
growth
-plasty surgical rhinoplasty, the reconstruction or reshaping of the nose
reconstruction or
reshaping
-pnea Breathing apnea, an absence of breathing, as in sleep apnea

-rrhage uncontrolled or hemorrhage, an excessive, uncontrolled blood flow

excessive flow
-rrhea fluid discharge diarrhea, the fluid discharged from the anus, usually caused by infection or
malnutrition

-sarcoma malignant tumor rhabdomyosarcoma, a malignant tumor of the striated muscle

-scope an instrument for microscope, an instrument used to view micro-organisms

examining
-scopy Examination bronchoscopy, the examination of the bronchial tubes of the lungs

-tome instrument used to dermatome, an instrument used to cut the skin

cut
-tomy the operation of episiotomy, an incision into the tissue surrounding the opening of the vagina
cutting or making an during a difficult birth
incision
-trophy nourishment / nephrohypertrophy, the enlargement of the kidney
development
(BodyWorks. London: TLC, 1997)

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