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CHAPTER 1
A BRIEF REVIEW ON GREEN CHEMISTRY
1.1 Introduction
Over the past few years, the chemistry community has been mobilized to
develop new chemistries that are less hazardous to human health and the environment.
This new approach has received extensive attention and goes by many names
including Green Chemistry, Environmentally Benign Chemistry, Clean Chemistry,
Atom Economy and Benign by Design Chemistry. Under all of these different
designations there is a movement toward pursuing chemistry with the knowledge that
the consequences of chemistry do not stop with the properties of the target molecule or
the efficacy of a particular reagent.
One obvious but important point- nothing is benign. All substances and all
activity have some impact just by their being. What is being discussed when the term
benign by design or environmentally benign chemistry is used is simply an ideal.
Striving to make chemistry more benign wherever possible is merely a goal. Much like
the goal of "zero defects" that was espoused by the manufacturing sector, benign
chemistry is merely a statement of aiming for perfection.
While it has already been mentioned that nothing is truly environmentally
benign, there are substances that are known to be more toxic to humans and more
harmful to the environment than others. By using the extensive data available on
human health effects and ecological impacts for a wide variety of individual chemicals
and chemical classes, chemists can make informed choices as to which chemicals
would be more favourable to use in a particular synthesis or process. Simply stated,
Green Chemistry is the use of chemistry techniques and methodologies that reduce or
2
1.2 Definition
The term Green Chemistry is defined as -“The invention, design and
application of chemical products and processes to reduce or to eliminate the use and
generation of hazardous substances”.18
While this short definition appears straightforward, it marks a significant
departure from the manner in which environmental issues have been considered or
ignored in the up-front design of the molecules and molecular transformations that are
at the heart of the chemical enterprise. Looking at the definition of Green Chemistry,
the first thing one sees is the concept of invention and design. By requiring that the
4
impacts of chemical products and chemical processes are included as design criteria,
the definition of Green Chemistry inextricably links hazard considerations to
performance criteria.
Another aspect of the definition of Green Chemistry is found in the phrase “use
and generation”. Rather than focusing only on those undesirable substances that might
be inadvertently produced in a process; Green Chemistry also includes all substances
that are part of the process. Therefore, Green Chemistry is a tool not only for
minimizing the negative impact of those procedures aimed at optimizing efficiency,
although clearly both impact minimization and process optimization are legitimate and
complementary objectives of the subject.
Finally, the definition of Green Chemistry includes the term “hazardous”. It is
important to note that Green Chemistry is a way of dealing with risk reduction and
pollution prevention by addressing the intrinsic hazards of the substances rather than
those circumstances and conditions of their use that might increase their risk.
The definition of Green Chemistry also illustrates another important point
about the use of the term “hazard”. This term is not restricted to physical hazards such
as explosiveness, flammability, and corrodibility, but certainly also includes acute and
chronic toxicity, carcinogenicity, and ecological toxicity. Furthermore, for the
purposes of this definition, hazards must include global threats such as global
warming, stratospheric ozone depletion, resource depletion and bioaccumulation, and
persistent chemicals. To include this broad perspective is both philosophically and
pragmatically consistent. It would certainly be unreasonable to address only some
subset of hazards while ignoring or not addressing others. But more importantly,
intrinsically hazardous properties constitute those issues that can be addressed through
the proper design or redesign of chemistry and chemicals.
Green Chemistry definitions change based upon focus. Green Chemistry is
often described within the context of new technologies But Green Chemistry is not
beholden to ionic liquids,19 microwave chemistry,20 supercritical fluids,21
biotransformations,22 fluorous phase chemistry,23 or any other new technology. Green
Chemistry is outside of techniques used but rather resides within the intent and the
result of technical application.
Some view Green Chemistry as something process chemists do already.....
Good process chemistry. While often enabling “greener” synthesis, good process
chemistry is not equivalent to Green Chemistry. A robust, efficiency, and cost-
5
process environmental profile and reduce risk related to working with a toxic reagent
while maintaining or improving synthetic efficiency. Some believe an environmental
priority will add time and cost. Just the opposite, time and cost are reduced by
incorporating higher synthetic efficiency the first time, and new methods can be
applied toward parallel and future endeavours to enhance overall productivity.
Green Chemistry is defined as environmentally benign chemical synthesis.
Green Chemistry may also be defined as the invention, design, and application of
chemical products and processes to reduce or eliminate the use and generation of
hazardous substances. The synthetic schemes are designed in such a way that there is
least pollution to the environment. As on today, maximum pollution to the
environment is caused by numerous chemical industries. The cost involved in disposal
of the waste products is also enormous. Therefore, attempts have been made to design
synthesis for manufacturing processes in such a way that the waste products are
minima, they have no effect on the environment and their disposal is convenient. For
carrying out reactions it is necessary that the starting materials, solvents and catalysts
should be carefully chosen. For example, use of benzene as a solvent must be avoided
at any cost since it is carcinogenic in nature. If possible, it is best to carry out reactions
in the aqueous phase. With this view in mind, synthetic methods should be designed in
such a way that the starting materials are consumed to the maximum extent in the final
product. The reaction should not generate any toxic by-products.
Since its birth over a decade ago, the field of Green Chemistry has seen rapid
expansion, with numerous innovative scientific breakthroughs associated with the
production and utilization of chemical products.26 The concept and ideal of Green
Chemistry now goes beyond chemistry and touches subjects ranging from energy to
societal sustainability. The key notion of Green Chemistry is ‘‘efficiency’’, including
material efficiency, energy efficiency, man-power efficiency, and property efficiency
(e.g., desired function vs toxicity). Any ‘‘wastes’’ aside from these efficiencies are to
be addressed through innovative Green Chemistry means. ‘‘Atom-economy’’27 and
minimization of auxiliary chemicals, such as protecting groups and solvents, form the
pillar of material efficiency in chemical productions.
Green Chemistry is an approach to the design, manufacture and use of
chemical products to intentionally reduce or eliminate chemical hazards.28 Goal of
Green Chemistry is to create better, safer chemicals while choosing the safest, most
efficient ways to synthesize them and to reduce wastes. Chemicals are typically
7
created with the expectation that any chemical hazards can somehow be controlled or
managed by establishing “safe” concentrations and exposure limits.
carbon dioxide (supercritical CO2), ionic liquid water. Even reactions have been
conducted in solid state. For example the condensation reaction of orthoesters with o-
phenylenediamines in presence of KSF clay under solvent free conditions using
microwave.
Many solvents used in traditional organic synthesis are highly toxic. The Green
Chemistry approach to the selection of solvents has resulted in several strategies. One
method that has been developed is to use supercritical carbon dioxide as a solvent
.Supercritical carbon dioxide is formed under conditions of high pressure in which the
gas and the liquid phases of carbon dioxide combine to a single –phase compressible
fluid that becomes an environmentally benign solvent (temperature 31oC, 7280 kPa, or
72 atmospheres). Supercritical CO2 has remarkable properties .It behaves as a material
whose properties are intermediate between those of a solid and those of a liquid .The
properties cab be controlled by manipulating temperature and pressure .Supercritical
CO2 is environmentally benign because of its low toxicity and easy recyclability.
Carbon dioxide is not added to the atmosphere; rather, it is removed from the
atmosphere for use in chemical processes. It is used as a medium to carry out a large
number of reactions that would otherwise have many negative environmental
consequences. It is even possible to perform stereoselective synthesis in supercritical
CO2.
Some reactions can be carried out in ordinary water, the most green solvent
possible. Recently, there has been much success in using near-critical water at higher
temperatures where water behaves more like an organic solvent .Eckert and Liotta
were able to run Friedel-Crafts reactions in near –critical water without the need for
the acid catalyst AlCl3, which is normally used in large amounts in these reactions. In
the past 5 years, many new ionic liquids have been developed with a broad range of
properties. By selecting the appropriate ionic liquid, it is now possible to carry out
many types of organic reactions in these solvents. In some reactions, a well –designed
ionic solvent can lead to better yields under milder conditions than is possible with
traditional solvents.
Another approach to making organic chemistry greener involves the way in
which a reaction is carried out ,rather than in the selection of starting material,
reagents, or solvents. Microwave technology can be used in some reactions to provide
the heat energy required to make the transformation go to completion .With
microwave technology ,reactions can take place with less toxic reagents and in a
10
shorter time, with fewer side reactions, all goals of Green Chemistry. Microwave
technology has also been used to create supercritical water that behaves more like an
organic solvent and could replace more toxic solvents in carrying out organic
reactions.
Another Green Chemistry approach is the use of a catalyst which facilitates
transformations without the catalyst being consumed in the reaction and without being
incorporated in the final product. Therefore, use of catalyst should be preferred
whenever possible.
6. Energy requirements should be recognized for their environmental and
economic impacts and should be minimized.
Energy generation, as we know has a major environmental effect. The
requirement of energy can be kept to a base minimum in certain cases by the use of a
catalyst. For example in conversion of benzyl chloride into benzyl cyanide if we use
phase transfer catalyst, the conversion goes to completion in a very short time.
C6H5CH2Cl + aq KCN C6H5CH2CN + KCl
Benzyl chloride
Benzyl cyanide
and natural gas can easily be converted into acetylene by partial combustion.
Acetylene is a potential source of number of chemicals such as ethyl alcohol,
acetaldehyde, vinyl acetate etc.
8. Unnecessary derivatization (blocking group, protection, deportation,
temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be avoided
whenever possible.
A commonly used technique in organic synthesis is the use of protecting or
blocking group. These groups are used to protect a sensitive moiety from the
conditions of the reaction, which may make the reaction to go in an unwanted way if it
is left unprotected. This procedure adds to the problem of waste disposal.
9. Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible are superior to stoichiometric
reagents.
The catalyst as we know facilitates transformation without being consumed or
without being incorporated into the final product. Catalysts are selective in their action
in that the degree of reaction that takes place is controlled, e.g. mono addition v/s
multiple addition. A typical example is that reduction of triple bond to a double bond
or single bond.
5% Pd-C or 5% Pd-BaSO4
CH CH
Alkenes
HC CH
Alkynes
CH2 CH2
PtO2 or Raney Ni
Alkanes
In addition to the benefits of yield and atom economy, the catalysts are helpful in
reducing consumption of energy. Catalysts carry out thousands of transformation
before being exhausted.
10. Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they
do not persist in the environment and break down into innocuous degradation
products.
It is extremely important that the products designed to be synthesized should be
biodegradable. They should not be persistent chemicals or persistent bio accumulators.
It is now possible to place functional groups in a molecule that will facilitate its
12
pollution, lower expenses, and easier procedures are the main reasons for the recent
increase in the popularity of solvent-free reactions.
While an obvious approach to chemical synthesis, there are many problems
associated with this approach, the chief of which is the role of diffusion/interactions
between reactants. Further, it is never clear that the reactions in the solid state will
generate the same products as those found in the presence of solvents.37 Generally,
Michael additions are conducted in a suitable solvent in the presence of a strong base
either at room temperature or at elevated temperatures.38 Due to the presence of the
strong base, side reactions such as multiple condensations, polymerizations,
rearrangements and retro-Michael additions are common. These undesirable side
reactions decreases the yields of the target adduct and render their purification
difficult. Better results can be obtained by employing weaker bases such as piperidine,
quaternary ammonium hydroxide, tertiary amines etc.39 There have been some reports
on Michael reactions catalyzed by potassium carbonate in organic solvents,40 and
water in the presence of surfactants41 or phase-transfer catalysts.42 To a large extent,
mild bases restrain the formation of side products, thus improving the yield of the
desired Michael adducts. Recently, non-conventional procedures like conducting the
reaction on the surface of a dry medium43 or under microwave irradiation44 were found
to facilitate the Michael reaction. For the purposes of eco-friendly “Green Chemistry”,
a reaction should ideally, be conducted under solvent-free conditions with minimal or
no side-product formation and with utmost atom-economy.45 Even though microwave-
assisted solvent-free Michael addition reactions on BiCl3 or CdI2,46 EuCl3,47
CeCl3.5H2O,48 and alumina49 surfaces are known. Rao50 and Jothilingam have studied
Michael addition of some active methylene compounds (2a-f) to four Michael
acceptors (1a-f) viz (i) 1, 3-diphenyl-2-propene-1-one (chalcone), (ii) phenyl vinyl
ketone, (iii) 1, 4-diphenyl-2-butene-1,4-dione (dibenzoylethylene), and (iv) methyl
vinyl ketone on potassium carbonate surface under microwave irradiation (Scheme 1).
14
O R2
O
X
K2CO3,MW,450 W, X
+ R1
R1 R2 2-10 MIN.,52-97%.
Y Y
1a-f 2a-f 3a-f
1a:R1=R2=C6H6 2a:X=Y=COOEt
1b:R1=4ClC6H4,R2=C6H5 2b:X=COOEt,Y=CN
1c:R1= 4-CH3C6H4,R2=C6H5 2c:X=CO(CH2)4,Y=H
1d:R1=C6H5,R2=COC6H5 2d:X=COOEt,Y=COC6H5
2e:X=CO(CH2)5,Y=H
1e:R1=C6H5,R2=H
2f:X=COC6H5,Y=H
1f:R1=CH3,R2=H
Scheme 1
OTMS OH O
R2
O R2
+ 1.DBU/neat,R.T.,24
R1 OMe
1 R2 2.1M HCl/THF
R H OMe
R2
6 5 7
R1 =2-NO2C6H4, R2=CH3
R1 =2-NO2C6H4, R2=H
R1 =4-ClC6H4, R2=H
R1 =C6H5 ,R2=H
Scheme 2
mol% of the catalyst (zirconium chloride) yielded the 1, 4-Michael adduct along with
the aldol product (Scheme 3).
R1 O O R1 O
H
+ ZnCl4
R3 R2 R4 20 mol% R3 R2 R4
R5 10 R 5
8 9
Scheme 3
Goswami and Das53 reported a series of conjugated dienones and enones which
were synthesized by a reaction of both conjugated and simple aldehydes, respectively,
with 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds (11) and aldehydes (12) under solvent-free
conditions at room temperature in the presence of 10 mol % of L-proline as catalyst.
All the products were obtained selectively as E-isomers with the exception of allyl
acetoacetate which gave a mixture of both E and Z isomers with an E-isomer in the
predominant form (Scheme 4).
O O
O O R2
L-proline
R2
R1
R1 13a
+ OR
CHO
R1= Me,b=Ph R3
R3
R3
R3 O
11
L-proline O O
12 R1
13b
R2=OMe,OEt,OCMe3 ,Me,Ph,OCH2-CH=CH2
R3= H,Me
Scheme 4
selectivity underlying such reaction, simpler procedure, equipment, time and energy
saving as well as environmental friendliness MCRs are gaining much importance in
both academia and industry.54-57 1, 4-Dihydropyridines (1, 4-DHPs) and their
derivatives are important class of bioactive molecules in the field of drug and
pharmaceuticals. These compounds are well known as calcium channel modulators
and have emerged as one of the most important classes of drugs for the treatment of
hypertension.58 1,4-Dihydropyridine derivatives possess a variety of biological
activities such as HIV protease inhibition,59,60 MDR reversal,61-63 adioprotection,64
vasodilator,65 antitumour, bronchodilator and hepatoprotective activity.66
The catalytic property of small organic molecules like cinchona alkaloids and
amino acids have been shown as quite promising and highly efficient organocatalysts
for multi-component reactions.67-70 Recently, Atul Kumar71 and Ram Awatar Maurya
reported an organocatalysed multi-component reaction of an aldehyde (14),
acetoacetate ester (15), cyclic 1,3-diketone (16) and ammonium acetate to form
72
polyhydroquinoline derivatives (17). Thus, they use the organocatalysts for the
multi-component reaction of acetoacetate ester, cinnamaldehyde and anilines to yield
N-aryl 5-unsubstituted or 5,6-unsubstituted 1,4-dihydropyridines (Scheme 5). The
reaction is generally very fast and the products are obtained in high yield. The
catalytic activity of small organic molecules like amino acids (acidic, basic and
neutral), ephedrine and cinchona alkaloids was studied.
R
O NH2
R1 O
R3 Organocatalyst
( 10 mol % ) R2
+ R6
+
r.t.solvent free
R1 1 hr
R4
O N
R2
R5
R3
15 16
CHO
Organocatalyst = (-)-Cinchonidine
14 (-)-Ephedrine R4
L-Proline
L-Lysine R5
L-Histidine
L-Glutamic acid
L-Pipecolic acid 17
Scheme 5
Scheme 6
Ranu et al.81 reported a convenient and efficient procedure for the synthesis of
quinolines and dihydroquinolines (23a, 23b) by a simple one-pot reaction of anilines
(21a, 21b) with alkyl vinyl ketones (22a, 22b) on the surface of silica gel
impregnated with indium(III) chloride under microwave irradiation without any
solvent (Scheme 7).
O R3
R2
R2
R3 InCl3/SiO2
R
R +
MW
R1 N
R1
NH2
21a 22a 23a
O R3
InCl3/SiO2
R R
+
MW
N
NH2 H
Scheme 7
be 82–93%. Without use of the catalyst, no reaction progress was observed. The
reusability of the catalyst was also checked and found up to seven cycles (Scheme 8).
O O
O O
MW/120oC
Zn[l-proline]2 Me
Me
R-NHNH2
5-10 min N N
82-93% R
OH O
25 26
Scheme 8
CHO R2
R2 Piperidine
+
CO2Et MW
R OH R O O
R1 R1
28 27 29
Scheme 9
Ballini et al.85 reported the Conjugate addition of both linear and cyclic α-nitro
ketones (30) to conjugated enones (31) under heterogenous, solvent-free and mild
acidic conditions by mixing at room temperature stoichiometric amounts of substrates
with silica (silica/substrate = 350 mg mmol-1) and leaving the mixture at room
temperature for the suitable reaction time giving good yields of 2-nitro-1,5-
diones(32) and it is worthy to note that no products arising from the cleavage of a-
nitro cycloalkanones were observed under these reaction conditions (Scheme 10).
19
O
R'' O O
R' SiO2
R +
neat, r.t. R R''
O
NO2 NO2
R'
30 31 32
Scheme 10
10 min. (Scheme 11). Rather, the reaction under microwave irradiation is very clean
and no by-products have been detected. Therefore, the workup procedure involves
only a simple filtration of the precipitation followed by washing with water. In all
instances, the products can be obtained in purity higher than 98% as indicated by GC-
MS and 1H NMR analysis.
OH X O
K2CO3/DMSO
R1 + R2 R1 R2
MW,5-10 min,
74-98%
33 34 35
R1 = Cl, OMe, CF3, NO2, CN; R2 = CN, NO2; X= F, Cl, Br
Scheme 11
N N
MW X-R-X MW
R-X
X X
X
N N N N
N N R R
R
36
37
Scheme 12
O OH
K10-K HO
O H
+ MWI
HO O
O OH
-H2O
O O
O O O
O
MDP
38
Scheme 13
23
R
R2 O
S
R1 R OR1
42 S iv 41
iii
MW MW
S
S
H3CO P P OCH3
S
S
LAWESSON'S REAGENT
43
MW MW
ii S
i
X 39
40
R2 O R
O
i= iv =
R1
O
O
ii = O iii =
X R OR1
X= O, NH
Scheme 14
24
N O N O
O O
N N N N
48
47
OH HO
TMSO OH O
CHO Fe-salt (n mol%)
47 or 48 (n mol%)
+ solvent
0oC/5h
44 45 46
Scheme 15
NO2 R2
NO2
NaOH, 0.025 M R
R3 R3
+
R R1 CTACl, r.t.
R1 R2 O
O
47 48 49
Scheme 16
O
OH O
pyrrolidine, rt
RCHO + CH3COCH3 +
50 51 H2O R
R
52a 52b
R= O S NH
N
N
a b c d e
N N
H
f COOEt
g
Scheme 17
CHO OH O O
R2 O R4 R4
pyrrolidine,30 mol%
+ +
water
R4 R3 R1 R2 R1 R2
51 R3
R1 R3
54a 54b
53
R1 = NO2; R2 =R4 =H
R1 = H; R2 =NO2; R3=R4 = H
R1 = Cl; R2 =R3=R4 = H
R1 = H; R2 =Cl; R3 =R4 = H
R1 =R2 =R3 =R4 =H
R1 =OCH3; R2 = R3 = R4 = H
R1 = OCH3; R2 =H; R3=R4= OCH3
R1 = N(CH3)2; R2 =R3=R4 =H
R1 = OH; R3 =NO2; R2=R4 =H
Scheme 18
28
O OH
O
O R
10 mol% Cat.
additive, H2O
R H
50
ee up to 99%
55
51 O
H
N
Catalyst= NH
R'
Scheme 19
SDS 20 mol%
O OH
O
O2N proline 40 mol% NO2
R2 + CHO R1
R1 H2O
51
56
R2
51a:Acetone 56a:p-nitro 57
51b:2-Butanone 56b:m-nitro
51c:Cyclopentanone 56c:o-nitro
51d:Cyclohexanone
51e:Benzylmethylketone
Scheme 20
R1 R1
R2 COOR R2 COOR
sat. aq NaBr, rt
Br H
+ + In
N O N O
R3 S R3 S
59 60
R4 R4
58
rt HCl, MeOH
R1 O
R2
NH
R3
R4
61
Scheme 21
N
H
63
O Ar
O NO2 10 mol% 1,10 mol %
TFA,brine,rt NO2
+
Ar uo to 98% yield
R R
R R 61
51 62
Scheme 22
NO2 NO2
NO2 R R
H2O
+ PhSH
R base +
SPh SPh
61 64
2- anti 2- syn
65a 65b
O O
R1 OH
Cl Cl R1 R2
O O O
In/H2O
Cl
R1 base R2
66
67
Scheme 24
31
for liquid-phase acid catalysis by enabling rapid diffusion of reactants and products
through the pores, thus minimizing consecutive reactions. Liquid-phase Friedel–Crafts
alkylation and acylation reactions154-158 have been reported using aluminosilicate
MCM-41. The advantages of increased pore size are clearly demonstrated in the
alkylation of 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol using cinnamyl alcohol154 MCM-41 has also been
used for the acylation of 2-methoxynapthalene with acetic anhydride.157 A variation of
the MCM family of materials was reported by Pinnavaia et al.159 who developed a
neutral templating method using long-chain alkylamines to form hexagonal
mesoporous molecular sieves (HMS materials). Iron loaded MCM-41 materials are
remarkable for their molecular and electronic diversity and have received much
attention because of their redox properties and unusual activity in alkylation and
oxidation reactions160-162 which is higher compared to conventional mineral
acids,163 Lewis acids,164 ion exchange resins,165 mixed oxides166 and iron supported
zeolites, clay catalysts.167-168 The use of iron loaded mesoporous materials as catalyst
can also eliminate the hurdles like pore size constraint, recyclability, thermal and
hydrothermal stability etc. posed by other support materials. Esther et al.169 reported
the synthesis of benzyl aromatics (70a,70b) by using benzylchloride (69) and
substituted benzene (68) over three different types of catalytic amounts of iron loaded
MCM-41 like Fe/Al-MCM-41; Si/Al=25, Fe/Al-MCM-41; Si/Al=50 and Fe/Al-
MCM-41;Si/Al=100 (Scheme 25).
R1 R2
R1 R1 R3
R2
Cl
Catalyst R4 R4
+ R4 +
Reflux
R3 R2
R3
68 69
Major Minor
70a 70b
Scheme 25
The use of mesoporous supports has enabled supported reagents and catalysts
to be used in reactions of much bulkier substrates than could be considered for
microporous (zeolite) materials.170 The synthesis of pure Lewis or Bronsted solid acids
is a particularly important challenge where some progress has been made. Chemically
modified MTS materials (71) as analogues for sulfonic acids have recently been
reported and show great promise as solid Bronsted acids (Figure 1).171-173 Pure Lewis
34
acids are more difficult to achieve, because Bronsted acidity often arises from Lewis
acid-base complexation (72) (Figure 2).
( CH2)xSO3H
O
Si Si
O
71
Figure 1 (MTS-sulfonic acids prepared via in situ sol-gel or post grafting)
Mn+
O O H
O
Si Si Si
O O
72
Figure 2 (Bronsted acidity arising from Lewis complexation on a silica surface)
Aluminium chloride is the most widely used of Lewis acids. Silica supported
BF3 is a mild solid acid. In the alkylation of phenols, one advantage of this is that
ethers (73) can be C-alkylated without the rearrangement of the ether to give poly ring
–alkylated products (74, 75), as occurs with unsupported BF3 (Scheme 26).174 Tanabe
and Hattori have made solid superacids based on silica-supported antimony
pentafluoride.175 Antimony trifluride is a milder Lewis acid that still may be capable of
reacting with a hydroxylated surface to form covalent bonds.
OR
CH2CH2R'
Silica
OR - BF3/ROH
catalyst
74
+ R'CH=CH2
OH
Homogenous
73 BF3 catalyst
R CH2CH2R'
75
Leena Rao176 described natural clays can be used as catalysts for organic
reactions. They have both Bronsted and Lewis acidic catalytic sites. They have a
lamellar structure and provide a large surface area for reaction. They can be easily
impregnated with salts used as Lewis acids. ‘Clayzic’ (76) is zinc chloride
impregnated in K 10 montmorillonite clay (Scheme 27).
'clayzic'
76
+ CH2Cl
40o C
' clayzic' O
76
OCH3 + COCl C OCH3
160 o C,5 min
Friedel- Crafts
reaction
Scheme 27
Lewis acids have also been impregnated in clays such as Kaolinite and
montmorillonite clays. Both these clays have surface acidities comparable to
concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids and as such are good solid acids on their own.
The Bronsted acidity of these clays is boosted when there is ionic exchange with high
valent ions such as ferric ions. This is used in performing aromatic chlorinations of
anisole (77) affording products (78, 79), an example of which is given below (Scheme
28).
Cl
K 10 / FeCl3
+
m-chlorobenzoic acid
CH2Cl2 ,25 min
room temperature
Cl
77
78 79
Scheme 28
Ionic liquids are those organic solvent consisting of ions (cations and anions )
which are stable at room temperature ,air, moisture and heat .They are polar(but
consists of poorly coordinating ions ), are immiscible with a number of organic
36
solvents, and provide polar alternatives for biphasic systems. ILs have also been
identified as one of the new classes of solvents that offer opportunities to move away
from traditional chemical processes to new, clean, Green technologies in which waste
streams are minimized with the goals of atom –efficiency and resulting environmental
and cost benefits. Ionic liquids are often portrayed as Green Solvents; however,
‘Greeness’ can only be measured in the context of the overall process. Ionic liquids
have negligible vapour pressure, ease of handling, accelerated reaction rates, potential
for recycling, and compatibility with various organic compounds and organometallic
catalysts.177 Also, the products from reactions conducted in ionic liquids can be easily
extracted using various organic solvents. The ionic liquids based on 1, 3-
dialkylimidazolium is becoming more important for several synthetic applications.
Functionalized ionic liquids (FILs, or task-specific ionic liquids, TSILs) are endowed
with catalytically active groups which are used as reusable homogenous supports,
reagents, and catalysts with green credential.178 Sanzhong et al.179 reported that
functionalized ionic liquids (80-84) with chiral secondary amine groups which were
synthesized using the ‘chiral pool’ strategy with L-prolinol as the starting material
(Scheme 29).180 and could be used to efficiently catalyze the asymmetric aldol addition
reaction of nitrobenzaldehyde (56) with various ketones (51) affording products
(85,86) using FILs (89-84) as reusable catalyst) (Scheme 30).
37
N N Na
OH
(1) Boc2O
N CH2OTos
(2) TosCl N
H
Boc
N N
(1) C4H9Br
N N
N C4H9
(2) NaX N X
Boc
Boc
(1) HCl/ dioxane
Sat. NaHCO3 N N
C4H9 80a : X= Br
N X 80b : X= BF4
80c : X= PF6
H
N N N N OH
C4H9
N X N Br
CH3 R
H H
81a : X= BF4
82a :R= H
81b : X= PF6
82b :R= CH3
N N
C8H17
N N N
C4H9 H Br
N
H Br
83 84
Scheme 29
OH O O
FIL Catalyst ( 20 mol%)
CHO O 80-84
+
+
O2 N O2 N O2 N
56 51 85 86
Scheme 30
38
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