THE FIRST Pee tata has GUIDE TO AFRICAN INSECTS WITH FULL-COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHS Cela 53 Ars) | 3) MIKE PICKER areola eR Y ALAN WEAVING OF SOUTH AFRICAINTRODUCTION INSECT ORDERS Collembola: springtails Diplura: diplurans ‘Thysanura: silverfish Archaeognatha: bristletails Ephemeroptera: mayflies Odonata: damselflies & dragonflies Blattodea: cockroaches Isoptera: termites Mantodea: mantids Dermaptera: earwigs Embiidina (Embioptera): embiids or web-spinners Plecoptera: stoneflies Orthoptera: crickets, katydids, grasshoppers & locusts Phasmatodea: stick insects Psocoptera: psocids or booklice Phthiraptera: lice Hemiptera: bugs Thysanoptera: thrips Megaloptera: dobsontlies & alderflies Neuroptera: lacewings, antlions & their kin Coleoptera: beetles Strepsiptera: stylopids Mecoptera: hangingflies Diptera: flies Siphonaptera: fleas Trichoptera: caddisflies Lepidoptera: moths and butterflies Hymenoptera: sawflies, wasps, bees & ants Mantophasmatodea: heelwalkers, gladiators INSECT PHOTOGRAPHY GLOSSARY FURTHER READING ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS INDEXES 20 24 24 26 Bsus 72 74 108 2 114 116 170 172 174 186 260 262 264 308 310 314 392 428 430 431 432 433 434NOILINGO Insects are, by far, the most diverse group of organisms on earth, and must intrigue anyone with the slightest interest in the natural world. The total number of named insect species lies between 800 000 and 1 000 000, which is about 55 percent of all known species on earth and several times the total number of vascular plants (260 000) or vertebrates (50 000). It may be surprising that the number of insect species cannot he | given with greater precision. The reason for this is that the number of species is constantly changing as many thousands of new names are added to the list each year. In any event, the number of described species is a mere fraction of the real number. Although estimates vary widely, the total number probably exceeds 6 000 000 species. It is a sobering thought that - given current rates of habitat destruction — millions of these species are likely to become extinct long before they are named. THE IMPORTANCE OF INSECTS Insects are of enormous importance to the functioning of natural ecosystems and to the lives of humans. They are the most abundant macroscopic organisms in most terrestrial and freshwater habitats. Surprisingly, however, they are almost completely absent from the sea, where they are largely replaced by crustaceans. In many ecosystems, insects are the dominant grazers — locusts and harvester termites perhaps the best-known examples - and play a crucial role in the decomposition of plant and animal wastes. Predatory or parasitic insects control the density and population structures of many other life forms. Smaller organisms may fall prey to dragonflies, robber flies, predatory bugs, ladybirds and the like. Larger life-forms, such as birds and mammals, may be infected by diseases carried by tsetse flies, mosquitoes and other insects. Parasitic insects (parasitoids) infect the larvae of other insect species, induding important pest species, and may thus play a valuable role in regulating pest populations. Insects are also primary plant pollina- tors, and are instrumental thus in the completion of the life cycle of many species of plants, They also help to direct the evolution of flowers, since flowers compete with one another to attract pollinators. Picasso Bug, a specialized plant feederInsects play both negative and positive roles in the lives of humans, the most harmful being the transmission of diseases such as bubonic plague, sleeping sickness and malaria. Plague — which is transmitted through the bite of infected rat fleas — was responsible for the death of more than 75.000 000 people during the ‘black death’ epidemic in Eurasia in the 14th century, Malaria, which is said to have killed more people than all the wars in history, is transmitted in the saliva of female Anopheles mosquitoes. Despite intense mosquito con- trol programmes, the disease infects three to five million people every year, more than two million of whom die. Indeed, malaria appears to be on the increase, and malarial parasites show growing resistance to the drugs used in the treatment of malaria. Gotden FUR Chafers Insects can cause widespread damage to agricultural crops. feeding on aguava _— Associated with this are the massive costs incurred in the manufacture and application of insecticides, as well as the negative ecological impact these chemicals have on non-target species, including humans. Manufactured products are attacked by numerous species, including termites and borer beetles, which cause extensive damage to wooden structures and can destroy entire buildings. Clothes moths and. silverfish damage woollen and paper products, and a variety of cockroaches, beetles and moths infest and contaminate stored food products. Of course, not all insects are pests. Indeed, the majority are harmless, and many are beneficial. Many insects that are predators or parasites of pest species are deliberately cultured by Tsetse fly humans and used as biological control agents. Yet other species produce products that form the basis for large and profitable industries. Silk and honey are the most valuable of such products, but insects generate other useful substances, including bees’ wax, food dyes, shellac and the poisons used by Bushmen to tip their arrows, A number of insects, including termites, stink bugs, locusts, beetle grubs and ants, are edible and are even regarded as delicacies. Mopane worms are a well-known local example and the basis of a substantial commercial enterprise. Another, somewhat unusual, use of insects is in forensic entomology, where the different species of insects (mostly flies) present on a corpse, and the ages of their maggots, can be used to pinpoint date and time of death. This information is often crucial in murder investigations. The role of insects as pollinators is undoubtedly their greatest economic service to humans. The successful cultivation of a wide variety of fruit and vegetable crops depends on pollination by insects, mostly by bees. but other species as well. The value of these services is enormous. For example, the deciduous fruit industry in the Western Cape, which is entirely dependent on bees as pollinators, generates an The family of owlet moths annual income of over R1 billion and employs 80 000 people. includes many economically Finally, insects are fascinating creatures of great beauty. By important pests. examining the insect world, we can observe a wide range of life history patterns, modes of locomotion, feeding habits and survival strategies. This can be done, moreover, without expensive trips to exotic locations, since even the smallest piece of natural bush or suburban garden harbours a wealth of insect life 5THE INSECT BODY The defining characteristics of insects are a single pair of antennae, 3 pairs of legs, and a body divided into a distinct head, thorax and abdomen. Insects are the only invertebrates to have evolved wings, although these are present only in adults and have been secondarily lost in many specialized groups (for information on the differences between insects and related groups, see pages 16-17) The body of an insect is encased in a hardened exoskeleton made up of separate plates named tergites (those on top) and sternites (those below). These are joined together by sections of softer tissue to allow for movement, much like a suit of armour. The exoskeleton provides a sturdy framework to which the muscles can attach internally and provides effective protection against predators and other dangers on the outside. Being external, the skeleton can be moulded into a bewildering variety of shapes and textures. The external skeleton of insects accounts largely for their great success in surviving and evolving into the most diverse group, by far, of organisms on earth. The only real restriction of the exoskeleton is on growth, but this is overcome by moulting. ANTENNA HIND LEG. HEAD _ THORAX FORE WING PRONOTUM FORE LEG ABDOMEN MID LEG Migratory locust, showing the major body divisions of all insects Head The head of an insect is made up of 6 fused segments on which are carried the mouthparts, eyes and a single pair of antennae. The form of each of these structures is extremely variable and can be a useful aid to identification. ‘ANTENNA. COMPOUND EYEEYES Most insects have a single pair of prominent compound eyes, each made up of a large number of independent sensory structures or ommatidia, which are visible as separate hexagonal facets on the surface of the eye. The eyes may be so large that they meet in the middle of the head or they may be reduced to a few facets. In rare instances, they may be completely absent. In addition to the compound eyes, most juvenile and many adult insects have up to 3 simple or single-lensed dorsal eyes called ocelli. MOUTHPARTS: Most insects have chewing mouthparts, consisting of (from front to back) an upper lip or labrum, a pair of prominent jaw-like mandibles, a pair of maxillae and a lower lip or labium. Long stalk- like sensory organs, palps, are attached to the mavillae and labium, ¢ —<—_—__ MANDIBLES —_—_____» e <— MAXILLAE —> MAXILLARY PALP———— ee. — LABRUM <—$______—_ LABIAL PALP ___.§ SARUM However, this basic set of appendages has become greatly modified in certain orders. In bugs (Hemiptera), mouthparts have become fused into a tubular piercing-and-sucking structure called a rostrum, In butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), mandibles have disappeared and the maxillae have developed into an elongate coiled proboscis, used to suck up liquids. A third major modification occurs in flies (Diptera), where the mouthparts have become fused into either a blunt suction-pad like structure to mop up liquids or (in mosquitoes) an elongate piercing tube. Modified mouthparts in a bug (left), a fly (centre) and a butterfly (right)ANTENNAE These are elongate, segmented structures involved in both smell and touch. Their size and shape are extremely variable and are important aids to identification. Some of the recognized antennal shapes are shown below. aaa CAPITATE FILIFORM. SERRATE ye MONILIFORM PECTINATE é LAMELLATE GENICULATE : ? Thorax This is made up of 3 segments, termed (from front to back) the prothorax, meso- thorax and metathorax. To each of these segments is attached one of the 3 pairs of jointed legs The last 2 thoracic segments also bear the wings, when present. ARISTATE PLUMOSE Terms used to describe different types of antennae LEGS The legs of insects are divided into 5 main segments. The basal joint, or coxa, often looks as if it is part of the thorax and is followed by the tiny trochanter, which is easily overlooked. As a result, the third segment, the femur, is the first conspicuous segment and usually the bulkiest. Beyond this lies the elongate, thin tibia and the ‘foot’ or tarsus, which is made up of up to 5 segments and usually ends in a pair of claws. Insect legs are very variable in length and shape and may be specialized to perform various functions, including running, swimming, digging, clinging and capturing prey. TROCHANTER TARSUSWINGS Most adult insects have 2 pairs of wings, but one or both pairs may be reduced or absent. Wings are always absent in the primitive wingless or apterous orders, such as collembolans and silverfish and have been secondarily lost in other, often parasitic, groups such as fleas, lice, and many of the bugs. One of the pairs of wings may also be modified. For example, in flies the hind wings are transformed into balancing organs or halteres, and in beetles the fore wings are modified into tough covers or elytra, which protect the flying wings. The position, size and pattern ‘of supporting veins in the wings are very important features in insect classification, but because of the complexity of the system used to name these veins, and even the cells between them, use of these Butterflies have two characters is avoided in this guide similarsized pairs of wherever possible. wings. In flies (top) the second pair is greatly reduced. Abdomen The abdomen of an insect is usually made up of 11 relatively soft segments and contains most of the digestive and reproductive organs. The only appendages are usually the terminal ovipositor of females (which can be very long and conspicuous in some wasps and crickets] and the complicated copulatory structures of male insects. In some groups, such as silverfish (Thysanura), mayflies (Ephemeroptera) and stonetlies (Plecoptera), the tenth segment bears 2 or 3 long, thin, segmented appendages called cerci. In earwigs (Dermaptera) and some diplurans (Diplura), these are modified into stout pincers. LIFE HISTORY Because the bodies of insects are enclosed within a rigid exoskeleton, the only way they can grow is by moulting (shedding their hard outer covering). A new layer of exoskeleton then expands and hardens. Insects thus grow in a series of discrete ‘steps’, or instars. The number of instars in the life cycle varies from group to group, but is normally between 4 and 8. It is only in the last, adult, instar that an insect is normally capable of reproduction and flight. Adult insects, apart from fish- moths and bristletails, do not grow or moult. Size differences between adults of the same species are attributed to differences in food availability in the larval stages. The life histories of insects can follow two very different patterns. In the more primitive (hemimetabolous insects) groups, the eggs hatch into nymphs, which resemble adults in both body form and habits, but are initially wingless. As they grow through successive moults, the nymphs gradually develop wing buds on the outside of their bodies, but these become functional and expand to their full size only after the last moult. These exopterygotes (exo = outside; pterygota = wings) include cockroaches, grasshoppers, mantids and bugs. The life cyle of the Green Stinkbug (Nezara viridula) is given as an example on the next page. 9NEZARA MATING NEZARA EGGS NEZARA NYMPHS HATCHING NEZARA NYMPH The nymphs resemble adults in the life cycle of hemimetabolous insects such as the Green Stinkbug Nezara viridula. In the more advanced (holometabolous) insect orders, the eggs hatch into caterpillars or grub- like larvae, which are quite unlike the adults in both habits and appearance. These enter a separate, immobile pupal stage, during which the entire body is reorganized into the adult form. This endopterygote (endo = inside; pterygota = wings) type of life history is typified by butterflies, beetles and flies. The advantage of this system is that the juvenile stages can specialize for rapid feeding and growth, and usually consume completely different resources from those used by the adults. ACRAEA MATING ACRAEA EGGS ACRAEA PUPA CATERPILLAR PUPATING In holometabolous insects such as the Garden Acraea Acraea horta, the larva is unlike the adult butterfly. 10INSECT CLASSIFICATION All animal species are classified into major groupings called phyla, each of which shares a unique body plan. For example, mammals, birds and reptiles all fall within the phylum Chordata (animals with backbones). Insects were formerly classified within the large phylum Arthropoda, members of which were characterized by a hard, jointed external skeleton. This group has recently been split, however, into several new phyla. Insects now form the class Insecta. The superclass Hexapoda (meaning six-footed ones), includes insects and their close relatives. Phyla are broken down into classes, orders, families and genera (as well as a number of other, less frequently used groupings), each of which consists of more and more closely related species. Within the superclass Hexapoda, there are 33 orders, 30 of which occur in South Africa. Orders, in turn, are subdivided into families (the names of which always end with the suffix “idae’) and genera. An order may contain any number of families, from one to over a hundred, and a family, likewise, any number of genera. Individual species are ultimately identified by a unique combination of two names, termed a binomial. The first of these is the genus name and the second name that of the component species. Few insect species have common names. Although common names may be familiar to many readers, they are not a reliable means of identification. Often, the same common name is applied to a whole group of insects and, indeed, the same name is sometimes used to describe entirely different species in different geographical areas. A pictorial guide to help readers assign specimens to the correct order is given inside the front and back covers of this book. The Meadow Katydid Conocephalus caudalis of the family Tettigonidae in the order OrthopteraDISTRIBUTION PATTERNS ‘Some insect species have very wide natural distributions. ‘occur all over South Africa, extend- ing into the rest of Africa and even further afield. Some been introduced to the region from distant lands, either accidentally or as biocontrol agents. Most insect species, however, have relatively restricted ranges, often associated with a particular habitat and vegetation type. Hence the distribution of vegetation types is a good proxy for insect distribution patterns. The vegetation types of South Africa can be divided broadly into 5 major types. in the species. descriptions in this guide, these vegetation types are used to describe an insect's preferred habitat. Many insects are associated with bushveld. Such species have a very wide distribution, extending across the northern parts of South Africa and down the east coast. They are generally subtropical species whose presence in South Africa reflects a southern extension of a range that is primarily Afrotropical. The insect fauna of this region is diverse and contains many spectacular species. The more arid karoo, divided into nama karoo and succulent karoo (Namaqualand), has unique insect assemblages, with an above-average representation of beetles, grasshoppers, flies, ‘wasps and lacewings, many emerging for brief periods in spring. Grasslands of the Free State, much of Mpumalanga, Gauteng, Lesotho and the Eastern Cape have a distinctive insect fauna including many grass mimics. Various termite species dominate these landscapes. The few surviving forested regions in South Africa support rich butterfly and other insect communities. The fynbos regions of the Western Cape, Cederberg and southern Cape have a unique assem- blage of insects of considerable evolutionary interest. Many of these are found only at the southern tip of Africa and southern parts of the various continents that were joined 150 million years ago to form the supercontinent, Gondwanaland. These groups have their closest relatives in New Zealand, ‘Australia, South America and Madagascar. Their present-day distribution reflects a long history of passive migration on the slowly separating subcontinents of Gondwanaland. Some of these also ‘occur in the Drakensberg mountains of KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga. Stream insects respond to water alkalinity. The nutrient-poor, acidic waters of the south- western Cape are stained brown by humic compounds and support a distinctive insect fauna. Further inland, the neutral to alkaline turbid waters carry ve sediment load. They too have their own distinctive aquatic insect fauna. BD kare BD tases BB owtand forest Wh Woniane forest 12 eHHBIA aBTOPCKUN NpaBoMCOLLECTING INSECTS The main aim of this guide is to encourage readers to learn about and appreciate live insects in their natural habitats. However, some focused collecting and preservation of insects may be necessary for scientific or educational purposes, or simply to identify species too small or elusive to be examined in the wild. In light of the widespread and largely unregulated use of insecticides in South Africa, it is surprising that the collection of insects requires a permit in all provinces. This is especially true of areas that fall under the control of South African National Parks, provincial or local nature conser- vation bodies and the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. A few insect species, mostly butterflies, are also completely protected Limited collecting from private property or disturbed sites is unlikely to be questioned, but you should nevertheless check this with the appropriate nature conservation body in your region. If you do decide to make a collection, you should avoid killing more insects than you really need. One or two specimens of each species, perhaps a male and a female, are sufficient for most purposes. Collections made by amateurs have often made a useful contribution to our knowledge of insects. The following guidelines may be supplemented by comprehensive instructions in books such as that by Uys et al (see Further reading, p. 429). Where to look One of the joys of insect collecting is that you can find a variety of species wherever you are. However, the more different the habitats you explore, the more types of insect you are likely to discover. Moreover, many species are present seasonally or are active only under particular weather conditions or at specific times of day or night. You will come across different species at the same site at different times. Remember that insects span a wide range of sizes and you may miss much of the diversity if you restrict your collecting to larger, more obvious, species. Get in close or search with a mag- nifying glass. A 10x or 20x magnifying hand lens (obtainable from suppliers to watchmakers) is an essential part of an insect collector's equipment. The most obvious places to look for insects are on flowers, fruits and leaves, or on and under the bark of trees. Many species are restricted to partic- ular groups or even species of plants, so search as many plant species as possible. Dung and decomposing plant or animal material also have specific associated faunas, as do other specialized habitats such as deserts, beaches, gravel plains or sait marshes. Searching, under stones also yields a variety of species. Many insects are aquatic, and a search in and around the margins of dams and streams will yield many forms not found elsewhere. There are many other specialized habitats to look in, including wood, fungi, stored products and the bodies or nests of other creatures, many of which host a wide variety of parasitic insects. A number of nocturnal insects are attracted to light, and searching in the vicinity of outside lights, particularly in country areas, can be very productive. Collecting methods The many methods of collecting insects may be broadly divided into 2 categories: active hunting and baiting or trapping. 13ACTIVE HUNTING Visual detection is an effective method, and is the best way to observe insects’ habits and behaviour patterns. Once spotted, many insects can simply be picked up or trapped in a small transparent container. Pill vials and film canisters are ideal, but make a small air hole in the lid if you want to keep your insects alive for any length of time. More elusive species need to be captured with an insect net. This should be at least 30 cm across and made of a fine netting, tough enough to withstand being dragged through vegetation (nylon curtain netting is adequate). The bag of the net should be at least twice as long as its diameter, allowing it to be folded over the frame after each stroke, trapping the insects within it. The rim may be made of metal rod, but where the netting folds over it a strip of heavier re- inforcing material (such as canvas) should be added to reduce wear. A thin wooden broomstick or length of aluminium tubing, about 1 m long, makes a good handle. Hand nets can be used in many different ways. The most productive is sweeping, i.e. system- atically swinging the net from side to side so it brushes through vegetation. This method yields many small, cryptic species, but a thorn bush or two can quickly reduce your net to tatters! Another good method is to hold the net below a branch to catch any insects that may fall when the branch is shaken or hit vigorously with a stick. Nets can also be used to sweep through water or be placed across a stream to catch insects that you dislodge from vegetation or stones upstream. Nets used for beating, or in water, are normally more robust in construction than the usual ‘butterfly net’. BAITING OR TRAPPING Alternatively, insects can be collected with baits or traps. Lures to attract butterflies, moths, flies and beetles may be as simple as fermenting fruit, carrion or dung — or even a captive female, which can be used to attract potential mates. Fruit baits of ripe bananas mixed with sugar and a little beer are the most successful while pan traps, comprising any yellow, red or orange container filled with water, will lure and trap a variety of pollinators. Light traps are particularly effective in attracting nocturnal flying insects. A simple version can be made by suspending a bright light, preferably one rich in ultra-violet radiation (such as a mercury vapour lamp), in front of a white sheet which extends onto the ground (where insects striking it can be seen easily). Caravan lights using a ‘black’ tube are particularly good traps. Light traps work best on warm, still, moonless nights and if placed at a distance from other light sources. A pitfall trap is useful for collecting ground-dwelling insects. It consists of a vertical-sided jar or tin buried with the rim flush with the ground and half-filled with water laced with a few drops of detergent or preservative. Killing and preserving insects a Any specimens you wish to retain for a collection must first be humanely killed. This is best done by freezing them for at least an hour or placing them in a killing jar. To make a killing jar, place a layer of cotton wool at the bottom of a small, wide-mouthed jar, then pour over it a 10-20 mm layer of sloppy plaster of Paris. Before the plaster hardens completely, make a few small holes through it with a narrow rod, so that the killing fluid can penetrate through to the cotton wool. When the plaster has set and dried, pour enough ethyl acetate over it to moisten the cotton wool and plaster thoroughly. Place some crumpled tissue into the jar toprevent the insects damaging themselves, and close the lid firmly. To kill your specimens, put them into the jar one, or a few, at a time and leave for at least 30 minutes. It is best to kill the insects a few at a time to avoid their damaging one another. The ethyl acetate, which is harmless to humans, will evaporate after a few days and must be replaced. Most insects can be preserved by simply drying them in air (once they are dead) after pinning, setting and labelling them. However, soft-bodied insects such as termites, aphids and most aquatic insects, and larval forms such as caterpillars, should be preserved in vials filled with 70 percent alcohol. Frozen or dried insects can be stored for long periods before they are set and mounted Mounting and labelling Proper stainless steel entomological pins should be used for pinning insects as ordinary pins are too thick and short and tend to rust. The pin is placed vertically through the thorax, slightly to the right of centre. Larger insects, especially butterflies and moths, are then ‘set’ with the wings and legs spread to display important identifying features. Most insects are set by arranging the limbs neatly and holding them in place with pins until they have dried. For butterflies, moths, dragonflies and lacewings, setting boards are used. These are cork or polystyrene boards with a groove along the centre, into which the insect’s body is recessed. The wings can then be positioned horizontally and held in place with thin strips of plastic or paper, secured with additional pins. Insects too small to be pinned directly are either glued with alkaline wood glue onto the apex of a small triangular piece of white card (pointing) or attached to a small rectangle of card, polystyrene or similar material with a special miniature headless pin called a minuten. These cards or blocks are then mounted onto conventional pins. HOW TO LABEL If your insect collection is to have any scientific or reference value, it is essential that each specimen is labelled with the exact location and date of collection, the name of the collector and, if possible, the identification of the specimen, Notes on habitat, behaviour, abundance, diet and the like are also useful. Labels may be neatly written by hand with a fine black ink pen, but are best generated in standardized form with a computer, printed at a small font size. The small rectangular label should be impaled on the pin below the specimen or placed in a vial with an alcohol-preserved specimen. DISPLAYING AND CURATING Pinned insects are fragile and prone to attack by pests, such as museum beetles. They thus need to be stored or displayed ina sealed flat drawer or box lined with cork or high-density polystyrene with a tight-fitting glass lid. An insect repellent such as naphthalene (‘mothballs) placed in each drawer will protect the specimens against museum beetles. Specimens must be arranged in rows, with related species together. Modern museum collections often use unit tray systems, in which the drawers are filled with small card boxes each containing insects of a single species. This allows the collection to be expanded or rearranged without having to handle individual specimens.INSECT RELATIVES | Insects are the only invertebrates with 3 pairs of legs, bodies divided into a separate head, thorax and abdomen, and wings (although wings have not evolved in a few primitive groups and have been secondarily lost in some advanced ones). Anyone collecting insects will, however, come across related groups. This section is intended to help the reader identify the most common of these. Order Araneae spiders Body divided into a fused head and thorax (cephalothorax) and a generally unsegmented abdomen, the two separated by a narrow constriction. There are no antennae, usually 8 eyes, a pair of chelicerae (fangs), a pair of pedipalps and 4 pairs of legs. The abdomen ends in a group of silk- producing spinnerets, but has no other appendages. Spiders are an abundant and diverse group noted for their ability to construct silk webs, snares, shelters and egg sacs. All are predatory and some are venomous. Order Opiliones Harvestmen Similar to spiders, but with no constriction between the fused head and thorax and the abdomen, which is short, broad and segmented. A tubercle in the centre of the thorax has a single eye on either side. There are no antennae, and appendages consist of a pair of small slender chelicerae (fangs), a pair of short, leg-like pedipalps and 4 pairs of very elongate slender legs. Harvest men are abundant in moist vegetation, forest litter and caves. Most feed on small arthropods or snails, some on dead plant or animal matter. Order Scorpiones scorPions ‘An ancient group of relatively large species, easily identified by the greatly enlarged, pincer-like pedipalps and elongate, jointed abdomen, which ends in a swollen sting. Antennae are absent and the mouthparts are formed by small pincer-like chelicerae (fangs). There is a central pair of dorsal eyes and 2-5 smaller lateral pairs of eyes. There are 4 pairs of walking legs. Scorpions are widespread and abundant in arid areas. They hide by day, emerging at night to feed on insects and other invertebrates, which are caught with the pedipalps and paralyzed by the sting. The neurotoxic venom can be dangerous to humans. ‘Acari’ (7 orders) ticks & mites A highly diverse group once placed in the single order Acari, but now divided among 7 orders, The group is best recognized by the apparent lack of body divisions. Antennae are absent, there are 4 pairs of walking legs, and the chelicerae (fangs) and pedipalps are usually inconspicuous. Ticks are external blood-sucking parasites. Mites are usually minute and occur in most habitats. Some are parasitic, others may be free-living carnivores that scavenge or pierce and suck out the contents of plant cells. Many species are of great economic and medical importance. 16Order Amblypygi witirscorPions specialized group of strange, flattened, spider-like creatures with no antennae, long, slender legs and enormously enlarged spiny pedipalps which they hold flexed in front of the body, The first of the 4 pairs of walking legs are modified into elongate. whip-like feelers. Whipscorpions are secretive animals, usually found under bark or boulders in subtropical forests or arid zones, At night they move about smoothly with a crab-like gait, feeling for insect prey with their elongate first pair of legs, and capturing prey with their pedipalps. Despite their fearsome appearance they are harmless to humans. Order Solpugida (Solifugae) sunspivers Easily recognized by enormous chelicerae (fangs), projecting from the front of the body as a pair of vertically articulating pincers Antennae are absent and there are 4 pairs of walking legs. The elongate sensory pedipalps resemble a fifth pair of legs, but are not used for walking. Sunspiders are usually diurnal predators, locating insect prey with the sensory pedipalps, then capturing and tearing their prey apart with their powerful fangs. They are not dangerous, but can inflict a painful bite. Superclass Myriapoda cenripepes & MILLIPEDES Easily recognized by their elongate body form, lack of separate thorax and abdomen. and the presence of walking legs on each body segment (except the first and the last ‘one or two). Centipedes are usually flattened and have 1 pair of legs per segment. those of the first segment being modified into poison fangs. Millipedes are cylindrical and made up of ‘diplosegments, each representing 2 fused body segments and ‘ hence bearing 2 pairs of legs. Centipedes and millipedes are widespread and common. Centipedes are active predators. Millipedes are slow moving and feed on decomposing plant material Class Crustacea crass, SHRIMPS, WOODLICE, ETC Crustaceans are abundant and diverse in marine and fresh water systems, but relatively rare on land. They have 2 pairs of antennae, and a variable number of legs. Woodlice (Isopoda) and landhoppers (Amphipoda) have 7 pairs of walking legs, but the bodies of isopods are flattened while those of amphipods are compressed sideways. Woodlice and landhoppers are both confined to moist habitats such as leaf litter and ‘compost heaps, where they scavenge on dead plant and animal material. The eggs are brooded in a marsupium under the body of the female and hatch into young that resemble small adults. 17HOW TO USE THIS BOOK This guide is designed for use in South Africa, but will be useful to readers throughout the southern African region and beyond since many of the species featured have distribution ranges that extend into equatorial Africa. About 50 000 named insect species are known from southern Africa, and this large number probably represents less than half the actual total number present. It is impossible to include more than a representative sub-sample of species in a guide book of this nature. We have concentrated, thus, on providing information on every insect order found in the region, and as many as possible of their component families. Within these we have featured species likely to be encountered by readers. The species induded tend to be those that are abundant, widespread, economically or ecologically important, conspicuous, large or unusual. Do not be surprised if you are unable to find entries that exactly match the species you have collected. You can still learn much about their biology by identifying them to order and family and reading the general text about the group. The species within a family often have the same biology and behaviour patterns. This guide has drawn not only on the accumulated knowledge of the authors, but has relied heavily on the knowledge of numerous specialists. Given the extraordinary number and diversity of insect species and their vast importance to human life, the need for a detailed and accessible insect guide has long been apparent. We hope that in supplying this need we will open the fascinating world of insects to you. a fond 5 za a a a 5 iS] be a 2 S a A So = 70 = 18Number key ORDER Features shared by all members of the order. Notes are included on the biology, size range, habitat and number of component species. FAMILY. Features that identify the family and the biology of its members. Although species may often be identified directly from the photographs, the family entry provides additional information. For some less-known groups, or those containing many cryptic species, identification is provided only to family level. SPECIES OR GENUS Notes on approximate size, habitat and biology of the species or genus that is depicted. An entry to genus only usually indicates that the genus contains a number of very similar species. NUMBERING SYSTEM The species or group entries on each page are numbered sequentially to match the photographs on the opposite page. Related species or larval stages are indicated by the addition of a number, e.g. 3A. MAPS These give an indication of the range of each species or group featured. The distribu- tions of many insects are poorly known, but as distribution is an important aid to iden- tification, maps are provided that give at least a broad indication of where the insect is likely to occur. In general, the maps are not intended to convey the precise and total distribution, although most have been drawn from the existing museum and literature records for that species. Identifications should not be dismissed if they fall outside of the range indicated; the specimen may be a new record for the area and should be passed on to an entomologist or museum. SIZE The sizes given, unless otherwise stated, are wingspans or adult body lengths, excluding antennae and other appendages. A certain amount of variation around these adult lengths is to be expected. Usually, the given length is that of the specimen photographed, but size range is given where the adult size is known to be very variable. PHOTOGRAPHS Wherever possible, these were taken under natural conditions and show the insect in its normal posture and typical habitat. Note that the insects are usually magnified to appear at similar sizes on the page. Small species have thus been enlarged far more than bigger ones. Since size is an important identification feature, it is important to check the actu- al size of species in the text entries. 19CLASS & ORDER COLLEMBOLA — Minute, soft-bodied, wingless hexapods with cylindrical yy or globular bodies and a characteristic forked springing organ (furcula), folded beneath the abdomen. Although collembolans are only distantly related to true insects, they are usually included in insect identification guides. Most are white or grey and only 1-3 mm long. Mouthparts are of the biting type, but are hidden in head folds, and antennae have only 4 segments, the last of which may have rings that resemble additional segments. Eyes are simple or absent. The thorax lacks any sign of wings and the abdomen has only 6 segments, as opposed to 11 in true insects. The first abdominal segment bears a prominent ‘ventral tube’ — a unique organ used for adhesion and water balance. The limbs of the fourth abdominal segment are often adapted into a springing organ (furcula) which is folded forwards under the body and clipped in place by modified appendages of the third abdominal segment. When spring- tails are disturbed, blood is forced into the furcula, driving it downwards and backwards to strike the ground and hurl the animal into the air. Springtails are found in soil or leaf litter, floating on the surface of pools or in other moist, sheltered habitats. Immature stages look and behave much like adults. They are a diverse and cosmo- politan group of more than 6 000 species, fewer than 100 of which are known from the region. 1 Superfamily Poduroidea Identification: Body elongate and cylindrical, with relatively short limbs and anten- nae. First thoracic segment similar in size to second and third, and clearly visible | from above. Body surface generally granular. The slate-coloured Anurida maritima (1A) = | is probably the best known species. Biology: A. maritima is carnivorous, scavenging on dead or dying animals such as barnacles and beach hoppers, and retreating during high tide into crevices or the shells of dead barnacles, where a trapped air bubble affords shelter. Eggs are laid in loose aggregations in rock crevices. Habitat: Common in soil and leaf litter and in habitats such as compost heaps, where several species may occur in mixed populations. Many species live on or near water. ‘A. maritima is commonly found floating in clusters on the surface of rock pools at the seashore. 2 Superfamily Entomobryoidea Identification: Relatively large, elongate and cylindrical, with longer legs and antennae than Poduroidea (above) and large furcula (2A). First thoracic segment much reduced and often invisible from above. Body surface usually covered with hairs or scales. Pa” Biology: Varied. Most species feed on decomposing plant and animal material and associated microorganisms. Habitat: Diverse group found in a wide range of habitats, in or on soil, leaf litter, vegetation, caves and the nests of ants and termites. 3 Family Sminthuridae Globular springtails —Zy] Mentification: Short and globular, with little sign of segmentation, thorax and _ 46226 | abdomen appearing as a single unit. Antennae long and bent or elbowed between Uo third and fourth segments. Biology: Among the most athletic of collembolans, some < species able to jump up to 30 cm, Certain species, e.g. Sminthurus viridis which feeds on luceme in the Western Cape, may damage crops. Habitat: Most species live in the upper layers of leaf litter, on grasses or in other low vegetation. The unnamed species shown here is common under rocks along stream margins 20 cOLLEMBOLA e springtails Poduroidea,CLASS & ORDER DIPLURA Narrow-bodied, small to medium-sized, largely Ls unpigmented, blind and wingless hexapods. The Dom abdomen ending in a pair of long, slender and = segmented or, sometimes, pincer-like ‘tails’ (cerci). Like collembolans, diplurans (or two-pronged bristletails) are not true insects. However, they are usually included in identification guides as they are easily confused with silverfish and bristletails (next page). Most species are delicate, soft-bodied and pale in colour. Mouthparts are partially sunk into the head, which lacks both compound and simple eyes (ocelli). Antennae are elongate, mobile and made up ‘of conspicuous bead-like segments. Thoracic segments are clearly visible and lack any sign of wings. The abdomen is slender and has 10 segments, usually more or less parallel-sided. The form of the cerci differs in the various families, being either long, slender and segmented or stout and pincer-like. Diplurans live concealed under stones, in soil, rotting vegetation and logs or in other dark, moist places. Eggs are laid in soil or rotting vegetation. Development is direct and juveniles resemble adults in both habits and appearance. Little is known about their biology. About 800 species are known, fewer than 50 of which occur in the region. 1 Family Campodeidae Identification: Small (body length 3-4 mm). Characterized by the form of the cerci, which are elongate, conspicuously jointed and sometimes longer than the abdomen from which they project. The most common genera are Anisocampa and Campodea. The species shown here is an Anisocampa (body length 3 mm) taken from leaf litter on Table Mountain. Biology: Herbivorous. Habitat: Under stones or among leaves and plant debris in damp coastal forests and mountains, particularly in the Cape. Common, but most species are so small they are easily overlooked 2 Family Japygidae | Identification: Relatively large (body length 10-20 mm) and elongate, cerci forming | stout, hardened, pincer-like structures at end of abdomen, reminiscent of the forceps | of earwigs. The species shown here is a Japyx (body length 18 mm) taken from leaf ew _| itter in the Knysna forests. About 19 species are known from the region, mostly of the genus Japyx. Biology: Carnivorous, capturing other small arthropods either with the mouthparts or by grasping them with the pincer-like cerci. Eggs are laid in soil and guarded by the female, Habitat: In soil, damp leaves, rotting compost and logs or under stones in the moist coastal and the damper eastern parts of the region. 22 = DIPLURA © diplurans Campodeidae, JapygidaeORDER THYSANURA Primitive, wingless insects with soft, spindle-shaped, flattened bodies, eyes well-separated (or absent), and 3 long, equal, segmented, terminal appendages. Silverfish have a gleaming, metallic appearance and a greasy feel caused by the tiny overlapping scales that cover the bodies of most species and rub off easily when touched. Most are nocturnal and rely on their antennae and long terminal appendages to feel their way. They have a simple life cycle, the young. resembling small adults, and are well known for their ability to absorb water vapour from the atmos- phere and hence survive without drinking. The most familiar silverfish are introduced domestic species, but there are also indigenous species that live in leaf litter or in the nests of ants or termites. There are 370 known species, of which 40 occur in the region. STIVLITLSINE BY HSI 1 Family Lepismatidae Silverfish Identification: Small to fairly large (body length 4-15 mm), characterized by small compound eyes and no simple eyes. Body covered with closely fiting scales. jology: Food consists of dry organic matter, some species possessing enzymes capa- ble of digesting cellulose. Those species that live in ant nests are assumed to scavenge from their hosts. Habitat: Domestic species such as the pale Ctenolepisma longicoudata (1), which was introduced to South Africa trom Europe over a hundred years ago, are the most commonly encountered, often in old books and papers. Indigenous species, such as the widespread C. grandipalpis (1A), are found under stones and leaves. Ant-loving (myrmecophilous) species, including Afrolepisma (1B), are restricted to the nests of ants and termites. 2 Family Nicoletiidae ga | Wdentification: Small (body length 3-5 mm), completely eyeless and lacking body scales, but may be covered in fine hairs, especially on the head. Most species are golden yellow and teardrop-shaped, with rounded compact thorax and tapering abdomen, Short abdominal appendages. The few species that live outside of ant and termite nests are more slender, with elongate abdominal appendages. Biology: Ant-ioving species are assumed to scavenge from their hosts. May be parthenogenetic since males are rarely found in collections. Habitat: Most species restricted to ant or termite nests. Free-living species live on the forest floor or in caves. ORDER ARCHAEOGNATHA Closely resembling silverfish, but distinguishable by arched tio thorax and large compound eyes that meet in middle of head. Central abdominal appendage much longer than lateral ones. When disturbed, bristletails can jump high in the air by snapping the abdomen downwards. They are less tolerant of dry conditions than silverfish. Most are found in leaf litter or under bark and rocks in moist habitats. There are about 350 known species, of which 20 occur in the region. 3 Family Meinertellidae Bristletails Sg] ~SsMentification: Machiloides (shown here) is the most common genus. The only family | of bristletails in the region. Biology: Nocturnal, although some species crawl about actively during the day. Feed on algae. lichens and dead organic matter. Reach | | maturity in about 2 years and live approximately 3 years. Habitat: Under stones or logs, especially in indigenous forests in southern and eastern parts of the region. Some long-appendaged species (3A) are restricted to caves. Lepismatidae, icoletiidae, | 24 > THYSANURA & ARCHAEOGNATHA e silverfish & bristletails weiner iliacORDER EPHEMEROPTERA Delicate, water-associated insects that hold their wings rigidly upright when at rest. Hind wings are much reduced or absent. in adults and nymphs, 2 or 3 long, jointed caudal filaments (cerci) extend from the tip of the abdomen. J) Adult mayflies are normally found near water. They have short antennae and large compound eyes, those of males sometimes divided into distinct upper and lower sections. Their legs are slender and weak; in males, particularly, the first pairs the longest, and is modified for grasping females inflight. The second pair of wings is much smaller than the first or may be absent. Nymphs are aquatic and breathe by means of tracheal gills on the side of the abdomen. Adults live only a few days or a few hours. They lack functional mouthparts and are unable to feed. Uniquely among insects, they moult a second time after attaining the winged state. The dull subimago (known as a ‘dunn’) emerges from the nymph and, after a few hours, moults again into a shinier, clear-winged adult, termed a ‘spinner’, Mating swarms of adults often gather over streams. Identification beyond family is difficult and is based mostly on wing venation and male genitalia. Mayfly nymphs are more commonly encountered than adults and are important components of the invertebrate fauna of streams and rivers. Of the 2 500 known species, about 100 occur in the region. 1 Family Leptophlebiidae Prongills Z >) | Mentification: Bodies of nymphs (Castanophlebia calida shown here) are slightly JK flattened, each gill split into 2 lobes, which may be long and filamentous or leaf-like, we ; depending on the species. First pair of gills is not enlarged to cover posterior pairs. Adults such as the Aprionyx peterseni shown emerging from the subimago stage (1A) have 3 long caudal filaments and may be brown or red. Eyes of males divided into a large upper section made up of large facets and a smaller lower portion made up of smaller facets. Hind wings present, but reduced. One of the largest families in the region, with about 20 known species. Biology: Nymphs shred dead leat material, Habitat: Nymphs usually found clinging to rocks in mountain streams. 2 Family Heptageniidae Flat-head mayflies [gq | MMentification: Nymphs are distinctive (Afronurus harrisoni shown here), with very broad, flattened heads, short antennae (shorter than head) and flattened, leaf-lke gills, with a tuft of filaments beneath, Adults (2A) fairly large (body length 812 mm), yellow to brown, with yellowish wing membrane and 2 caudal filaments. Eyes huge, dorsally contiguous in males, and not divided into separate sections. Hind wings prominent. About 15 species are known from the region. Biology: Nymphs scuttle about crab-like when disturbed. They are thought to feed on fine organic matter, trapped with the mouthparts. Habitat: Nymphs cling to rocks in fast- flowing streams 3 Family Baetidae Small minnow mayflies > ia Identification: Nymphs (Baetis harrisoni shown here) are elongate and spindle- shaped, with antennae longer than head and 6 or 7 pairs of abdominal gills, each consisting of a single oval plate without basal tufts. Adults (3A) small (body length 4-10 mm), yellow to dark brown, with glassy fore wings (sometimes with dark front border), very reduced (or absent) hind wings and 2 caudal filaments. Eyes of males divided into 2 sections, the orange-coloured upper part raised on a stalk or column, The largest mayfly family in the region, with over 45 known species. Biology: Nymphs are thought to feed on algae and detritus scraped from solid surfaces, although a few species are predatory. They swim with a rapid body wriggle resembling tiny fish. Habitat: Common in mountain streams, but also found in low-lying rivers. Related species: Nymphs of the genus Cloeon have double gill plates on each segment of the abdomen. 26 EPHEMEROPTERA @ mayflies Leptopblebiidae, Heptageniidae, Bactidae1 Family Caenidae Caenflies or squaregills | Identification: Nymphs easily identified by the gills, the first pair reduced to small | filaments, second pair expanded into flattened, rectangular flaps which overlap in the | middle of the back and cover posterior pairs. Adults (Caenis sp. shown here) (1A) very small J 10 minute (body length 2-5 mm), white or grey, best recognized by the fore wings, which are fringed with setae posteriorly, with reduced venation and only a single row of cross-veins. Hind wings always absent. Eyes not divided into sections, but large and widely spaced, and larger in males. Abdomen with 3 caudal filaments. There are 5 species known from the region. Biology: Nymphs thought to feed on fine detritus. More tolerant of pollution than other mayily families. Habitat: Nymphs prefer slow-flowing waters, where they colonize mud and plant debris. Widespread in the region 2 Family Polymitarcyidae Pale burrowers Identification: Nymphs (Povilla adusto shown here) are easily identitied by prominent Lf serrated ‘tusks’ projecting from front of the head, and by large flesty gils folded over the Ys back. Adults (2A) are large (body length 9 mm), grey or white, and are best identified by Vea their greatly reduced legs, of which only the first pair is functional in males. Fore wings are divided into small rectangular blocks by a dense network of cross-veins. There are 2 caudal filaments in males and either 2 or 3in females. Only 3 species are known from the region. Biology: Nymphs use their tusks’ and strong legs to burrow into submerged soil or wood and then feed by filtering particles from a stream of water which they pump through the burrow by beating their enlarged gills. Adults live for only a few hours, during which they perform mass mating flights before collapsing and dying, often on the surface of rivers or ponds Habitat: Restricted to more tropical areas, where the nymphs burrow into river banks 3 Family Prosopistomatidae Water specs. Identification: Tiny (body length 3-4 mm), characteristic oval nymphs (shown here) with shield-like carapace that covers gills, wing buds and most of abdomen. Adults very small (body length 5 mm) with reduced legs, especially in females, and no cross-veins on either pair of wings. There are 3 species known from the region. Biology: Some nymphs are carnivorous, feeding on microscopic zooplankton. Adults seldom seen since they emerge at dawn and live for ‘only an hour or so. Habitat: Nymphs found under stones in fast-flowing water, usually in the warmer lower reaches of rivers. The family has recently been discovered in the Olifants River in the Western Cape. 4 Family Tricorythidae Stout crawlers [4 | Identification: Nymphs heavily built and, in the most common genus Tricorythus (shown | here) have distinctive brush-like mouthparts. Adults small (body length 5-8 mm), sooty- coloured, with black eyes in males that are widely spaced and not divided into sections. Hind wings are usually absent, and there are 3 (occasionally 2) elongate caudal filaments. There are 10 species known from the region, Biology: Adults seldom seen since they live only a few hours. Nymphs use their brush-like mouthparts to collect fine deposited or suspended detritus. Habitat: Nymphs found on underside of stones in areas of rapid water flow. 1, Polymitarcyidae, lidae, Tricorythidae 28 EPHEMEROPTERA © mayflies| SIIINOOVYG ¥ $4114 14SWVG ORDER ODONATA Medium to large insects, with a long, slender abdomen, 2 pairs of large clear wings with very complex venation, very large compound eyes and short, bristle-like antennae. Dragonflies (Anisoptera) are large and robust, with broader hind wings than fore wings, both pairs opening flat when at rest. Damselflies (Zygoptera) are smaller and more slender, with equal fore and hind wings held together vertically above the back when at rest. Damselflies and dragonflies are distinguished from antlions (Neuroptera) by their short, bristle-like antennae. They have bristly legs that act as a basket to capture insect prey in flight, and very large eyes that meet in the middle of the head (except in Gomphidae). Dragonfly nymphs are stout and use rectal (internal) gills to breathe; nymphs of damselflies are slender and generally have plate-like tracheal gills at the end of the abdomen. Both groups are aquatic predators which can shoot out the enlarged and very elongated lower lip or ‘labial mask’ to grab prey. The larval stage may last more than a year. Mating in Odonata is unique. Males, which are usually brightly coloured and hold territories, have a secondary reproductive opening on the second and third abdominal segments, to which they transfer sperm from the terminal genital opening. When mating, the male attaches the claspers at the end of his abdomen to the head of the female. To obtain sperm, the female bends her abdomen forwards to reach into the secondary reproductive organ of the male. This looped position is called the tandem wheel. In many species, egg-laying takes place with the male still clasping and guarding the female. The eggs of ‘most dragonflies are scattered over the surface of water; damselflies and the dragonfly family Aeshnidae may lay their eggs inside water plants. About 160 species are known from the region. ZYGOPTERA (DAMSELFLIES) 1 Family Calopterygidae Demoiselles ) Identification: The Glistening Demoiselle Phaon iridipennis shown here) i very large (wingspan 80 mm) and unusual because of the absence both of stalks on the wings and pigmented wing-spot on fore wing border. Wings highly iridescent and clear brown, _| blue-tinted in males, with many cross-veins. Thorax has metallic green reflections, which are bronzy green on abdomen, Legs very long. Nymphs have a very long labial mask, which under magnification shows a deep groove at the end, between the curved ‘jaws’. P.irridipennis is the only species in the region. Biology: Always associated with running water, and prefer to flyin the shade of trees. Perform a fluttering courtship dance. Habitat: Rocky streams in subtropical forest, but also margins of larger rivers in the subtropical bushveld. Range extends to equatorial Africa 2 Family Chlorocyp! Jewels Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 50 mm), stocky, with long wings folded above the broad body when at rest. Brilliant blue or red abdomen in males. The Dancing Jewel Platycypha caligata (2) has a wingspan of 45 mm. Dorsal area of broad abdomen bright = ‘sky blue in males with thin blue dorsal stripe along brownish red thorax. Tibiae in males. very broad and flat, with red outer and white inner surfaces. Females greenish brown. Labial mask of nymphs short, with only a very small notch between curved ‘jaws’ of mask and no fine hairs at base of jaws’. In males of the Boulder jewel P. fitzsimonsi (2A) only the last 4 segments of the abdomen are blue and there is no blue thoracic stripe. A single Chiorocypha species occurs in warmer areas of the region. Biology: P. caligata males court females by displaying the red outer suriace of the expanded tibiae and then vibrating the legs and displaying the white inner surface, at the same time flying around the female in a pendulum-like movement. Adults present October-February. Habitat: Widespread and common in rocky streams and pools, usually at higher altitudes, but also in the lowveld. Also on wood stumps or rocks in forest streams. 30 oDONATA « damselflies Calopteryeidae. Chlorocyn1 Family Lestidae Spreadwings Identification: Small to largish (wingspan 40-75 mm), recognized by very lang wing-spot, long slender abdomen and large forceps-like appendages at the end of abdomen in males 6 Generally green, but can be yellow-brown, brown or black. Labial mask of nymphs very Lee thin, broadening abruptly towards the end, with terminal jaws’ covered in hairs. There are ‘8 species known from the region. Biology: Rest with wings partially closed over the back and abdomen curled slightly upwards. Most abundant in warmer areas and appear to be adapted to unpredictable rainfall patterns. Eggs survive in slits in reeds or grass stems. Nymphs (14) found in slow-flowing streams and pools, reaching ‘maturity ina few weeks. Habitat: Margins of quiet pools and streams, adults often at some distance from water and frequently on hilltops during the dry winter months. Widespread in Africa and other parts of the world. 2 Family Synlestidae (Chlorolestidae) Malachites Identification: Fairly large (wingspan 50-85 mm), with metallic green bodies and chalk white bands on the wings of males of some species. Rest with wings half closed. Short middle cleft at the end of the labial mask of nymphs, the ‘jaws’ of which lack setae. The White Malachite Chlorolestes umbratus (2A) is the smallest (wingspan 50 mm) member of the family. It is metallic green with a large wing-spot. In fully mature males, wings are banded white and brown and the thorax develops a pale blue waxy bloom. Nymphs (2) are large (body length 35 mm) and slender with long legs, and are mottled light and dark brown or cream, with dark brown stripes. They have 3 paddle-like gills at the end of the abdomen with a dark band running through the centre and rounded tip. There are 9 Chlorolestes and Ecchlorolestes species known from the region. Biology: Chlorolestes umbratus occurs as an adult in August and during most of the summer. C. conspicua uses the serrated ovipositor to lay eggs in rows of 5-6 in tender green shoots of shrubs and trees overhanging streams, the nymphs dropping into the water on hatching. Habitat: Forested, sunlit, stony mountain streams and pools. Nymphs occur on upper surface of rocks and on roots. Other Chiorolestes species occur in the Eastern Cape and the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg. 3 Family Protoneuridae Threadtails Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 35-60 mm), blue or black. Rest with narrow wings held together. The Grey Threadtail Ellatoneura glauca (shown here) is smallish (ivingspan 40 mm), males with pale blue thorax with black lateral stripe, Top of very slender abdomen biack, undersurface white. Females and immature males pale tan, females with pale yellow or white markings on dorsal surface of tip of abdomen. There are 2 species known from the region, Biology: Gregarious. Habitat: Locally common and found in numbers near shady streams and river banks. Range extends to equatorial Africa. 4 Family Platycnemidae Featherlegs Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 65 mm) with a dark brown body and diagnostic lear green or yellow wings held together at rest. The easily recognized Gold-tail Damseltly Allocnemis leucosticta (4) is fairly large (wingspan 50 mm) and slender, with clear brown wings, white wing-spot, orange tip to surface of abdomen and pale blue thorax striped with black. Both sexes very similar. Nymphs (4A) short and robust with long, spindly, banded legs and little patterning on the brown body. The 3 caudal sills are thickened and sausage-lke: the shor labial mask does not reach the middle legs and is cone-shaped in the centre between the ‘jaws’. There are 4 species in the endemic genera Metacnemis and Allocnemis. Biology: As in many other damselfly families, males are held vertically by egg-laying females, which lower most of the abdomen below the water surface to lay in rotten twigs. Habitat: Metacnemis species are found near fast-/lowing rocky streams; Allocnemis near streams in shady moist wooded ravines. Nymphs occur under stones in backwaters of these streams. 32. ODONATA —_ damselflies1 Family Coenagrionidae Pond damsels Very large and widespread family of small to large (wingspan 20-65 mm) damselflies, variable in colour. Adults fly low and fast over the water, and can only be identified accurately by the combination of a short wing-spot, male claspers at the end of the abdomen that are not like forceps, and wings held closed over the back at rest. Confusion with Protoneuridae and Platycnemidae can be resolved by careful examination of wing vein characters. Nymphs (1) have a pronounced cone-shaped bulge between the jaws’. Includes some of the commonest African damselflies. Pseudagrion and Africallagma contain most of the 40-odd species. Pseudagrion resemble Ajricallagma, but are larger and occur more widely in Africa, Asia and Australia. Most species of Pseudagrion are blue, black or red. 2 Ceriagron glabrum Common Pond Damsel aim) Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 46 mm), with pale orange thorax, Abdomen | uniformly red or orange in males, olive brown in females. Biology: Adults make very short flights from low perches just above the water surface. Habitat: Common and widespread Fin streams and pools that have extensive reed beds. Also occurs in Madagascar, Seychelles and, apparently, Australia, 3 Pseudagrion hageni Painted Sprite ———~aga) identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 50 mm), the only member of the genus with an orange and black striped thorax. Head black and red, abdomen dull bronzy green and blue-tipped. Biology: Flies low over water, settling on twigs or lily pads just breaking | the surface of the water. Habitat: Widespread. Common in summer in streams and pools at various altitudes. 4 Pseudagrion sublacteum Riffle Sprite Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 46 mm), half the eye and head bright red, Abdomen dull bronze with a terminal slate blue band. Dull blue bloom on thorax in mature males, upperside of thorax slate-coloured. Biology: Flies low over water and wes settles on short vegetation. Habitat: Fast-flowing rivers and broad streams. Distribution patchy. Range extends to equatorial Africa, 5 Pseudagrion kersteni Kersten’s Sprite l = @a | \dentification: Medium-sized (wingspan 46 mm), with dark brown or blackish wing-spot. | a Adult males with bi-coloured blue and black eyes, broad pale blue and narrower black ne stripes on thorax, and bluish black abdomen. Female greenish or yellowish brown with _ Meee | dark markings. Biology: Flight low and accurate, close to water surface. Habitat: One of the most common damselflies, found near running water, but absent from veis and pans. Occurs in most parts of the Ethiopian region. 6 Ischnura senegalensis March Bluetail Identification: Smallish (wingspan 38 mm), similar to Africallagma, but underside of abdomen is tan, not blue, Males are a more brilliant blue, with the wing-spot divided iy | into blue and white triangles. Most females have a pale green or orange thorax, and a greenish black abdomen. Males vary in size. The only species in the genus, with 3 female forms known. Biology: Adults occur from October-June, often gregariously. Mabitat: Found in almost any stagnant or slow-flowing body of water, often the only damselfly present. Rare in mountain streams, and seems to tolerate saline water. Arguably the most common and widespread damselfly in the region. Range extends to equatorial Africa and India. 34 ODONATA © damselflies1 Africallagma glaucum Swamp Bluet gga) Identification: small (wingspan 34 mm). Mature males sky blue, blue-green or black; | |. females greenish or yelowish (pink when immature). Underside of abdomen of males uniformly sky blue (4. schnura senegalensis, previous page). the pair of zig-zag brown tubes l ! in the abdomen are trachea from the gills. Nymphs often pale green (or else orange to brown), slender and delicate, wit 3 very large, flattened translucent caudal gills with pointed tips. Biology: Flies weakly, cose to water surface, and settles on twigs, reeds and grass. Lays eggs in submerged plants. Habitat: Vis, pools, streams, rivers, even brackish pans, in variety of vegetation types. Widespread and, with J. senegalensis, probably the most common damselfly in the region. Range extends to equatorial Africa ANISOPTERA (DRAGONFLIES) Family Gomphidae Cuubtails Easily recognized, medium to large (wingspan 50-95 mm), with eyes widely separated. Both sexes are usually marked in black and green or black and yellow, often with abdominal striping, with a broad plate-like expansion at the end of the abdomen. Only 2 segments on the tarsi of the fore and mid legs. Nymphs have 4-segmented, short and stubby antennae, the last segment often very small. Nymphs are bottom-dwellers, ‘often buried in mud. Males rest on bare mud patches on stream banks. Females lay eggs by whipping the water surface with the abdomen while in flight. There are 17 species in 10 genera known from the region. 2 Ictinogomphus ferox Common Tigertail "| Identification: The largest (wingspan 90 mm) gomphid in the region. robust, with flaps that face downwards near end of abdomen, Thorax yellowish green with black stripes, abdomen banded black and yellow. The only species in the genus. Biology: Fast and powerful flier, perching on reeds and flying continuously for long periods. Forages in forests and other vegetation surrounding fast-flowing rocky streams. Females lay eggs in shallow pools at stream margins. Adults occur from November—March. Habitat: Prefers fast-flowing rivers, pools and streams with extensive reed beds or rocks. Widespread in warmer parts of the region. Range extends to equatorial Africa. 3 Ceratogomphus pictus Common Thorntail Identification: Large (wingspan 60 mm), In adult males, thorax yellow and pale green | with thin black bands, abdomen yellow dorsally, with black lateral markings. Flanges at end of abdomen in males yellow edged with black. Biology: Rests on mud or stones, taking brief and low flights over the water. Habitat: Common near streams with extensive grassy oF rock cover and on ponds and dams. Widespread. Family Aeshnidae Hawkers. Large (wingspan 80-140 mm), brightly coloured, with very large eyes that meet. Females with well-developed ovipositor, used to insert eggs into aquatic plants. Aeshnids patrol large territories, often along a river or road, and feed on large insects including other dragonflies. Mating occurs on a perch, not in flight. Nymphs are elongate, with a flat and long labial mask. There are 11 species in 5 genera known from the region. 4 Aeshna miniscula Friendly Hawker e Identification: Large (wingspan 80 mm). In males, base of hind wings incised, thorax banded J in brown and yellow-green, abdomen banded in pale yellow and brown. Small blue patch on aS | second abdominal segment in mature specimens. Females with yellower thorax and golden |_ See | _ yellow wings. Large (body length 40 mm), robust, cylindrical, brown nymphs (4A) with labial mask reaching base of first pair of legs, Lateral spines on 3 abdominal segments. Biology: Flies low over water or grass, hovers and settles often. Habitat: Nymphs at bottom of low-altitude ponds in thick bush, forest and, sometimes, mountain streams. Extends to equatorial Africa. Related species: There are 3 species in the genus. 36 oDoNATA © damselflies, dragonflies (theagrialdad, Goimphidads AtshnldaeFS) ae re ale1 Anax imperator Blue Emperor Identification: Very large (wingspan 105 mm), with sky blue abdomen and green thorax. | | Females closely resemble males. Nymphs (1B) very large (body length 55 mm), with flat- | tened head, eyes nearly meeting in the midline, labial mask reaching the base of the last nad pair of legs when folded and lateral spines on 3 abdominal segments. Early-stage nymphs have very broad contrasting bands of cream and black. Biology: Prefers standing water, where females settle ‘on water lilies and curl the ovipositor underneath to pierce plant tissue and insert eggs (1A). Frequently preys ‘on other large dragonflies such as Pantala flavescens (p. 42). Nymphs also attack large prey, including fish and tadpoles. Migratory adults occur from October-june. Habitat: Common near pools, streams and rivers, including brackish waters and organically enriched stagnant bodies of water. Widespread, extending to Europe and Western Asia. Related species: There are 3 species in the genus. A. trists (wingspan 130 mm) is the largest African dragonfly. The massive nymphs of A. speratus (1€) are similar to those of A. imperator but are more boldly marked, and differ in the pattern of spines (the anal pyramid) at the tip of the abdomen Family Libellulidae Skimmers Very widespread, common and familiar group of medium-sized dragonflies (wingspan 34-90 mm), typically red or blue. Full coloration is often attained in mature males only, leading to identification problems. In blue species, a waxy bloom develops gradually. Skimmers bask on rocks or twigs, from which they make short forays to snatch passing insects. Mating occurs on the wing, and males are olten seen leading females over the water, where the females whip their abdomens over the surface to lay eggs. Nymphs have a cupped labial mask, and occur mostly in stagnant waters, There are about 60 species in 26 genera known from the region. 2 2 Notiothemis jonesi Jones’ Forestwatcher ~_») | Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 52 mm), with slender abdomen expanded towards end. Abdomen and thorax banded in black and green, eyes greenish blue. The only species in the genusin the region. Biology: Shy and alert woodland species. Habitat: Bush or forest streams and pools. Range includes Kenya and the DRC (Zaire). 3 Hemistigma albipuncta Piedspot Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 53 mm), slender, the long wing-spot bi-coloured white and black. Blue bloom on body of males, and a black streak along the front of the fore wings (3). Brown spots on wing tips of females (3A). The only species in the genus in . the region. Biology: Flies over small pools and streams, settling frequently. Habitat: Thick ‘bushor forest, often quite far from water. Fairly scarce subtropical species, range extending to equatorial Africa, Possibly the most common dragonfly in the warmer parts of its range. 4 Trithemis arteriosa Red-veined Dropwing Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 58 mm), slender, with distinguishing black | lateral marks at tip of thin abdomen. Adult males (4) red-bodied with red leading wing | veins; immature males and females yellow or dull orange (4A). Nymphs are oval (body ae length 20 mm) with dark brown mottling, spines on top of abdomen and no body hair. jiology: Setiles with wings downwards and forwards on reeds and grasses from which short forays are made for food or, in the case of males, to pursue intruders. Habitat: Numerous in a wide variety of vegetation types in most aquatic habitats, including brackish pans in arid regions. One of the most common dragoniflies in the region, with a very wide range that includes all of Africa and the Mediterranean. Related species: The other 10 species in the genus are red- or yellow-bodied, males developing a dull blue or violet bloom (rarely light blue). Red Crocothemis (next page) are similar, but have a thicker abdomen without black side markings at the tip. 38 ODONATA © dragonflies Acshnidae, Libellulidae1 Trithemis furva Dark Dropwing dm | \dentification: Medium-sized (wingspan 59 mm). Mature males uniformly cobalt blue. Biology: Slow but agile fliers, common in late summer. Habitat: Found at pools, streams and large rivers, range extending to equatorial Africa. Related species: Males may be confused with other shiny deep blue Trithemis species, such as T. dorsalis. 2 Trithemis stictica Jaunty Dropwing gm | Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 52 mm), with yellow- and black-striped abdomen JK | and yellow staining at base of hind wings. Thorax pale blue in mature males, black in gens | females. Biology: Perches in an alert posture with wings held forward and abdomen pe pointing vertically upwards. Habitat: Locally common in well-vegetated forest streams and a variety of open waterbodies. Range extends to equatorial Africa. 3 Trithemis annulata Violet Dropwing gma) Identification: Red with red wing veins, larger (wingspan 60 mm) than T. arteriosa, Purplish tint to thorax and abdomen in mature males. Amber patch on base of hind wings. Biology: Males preter to settle on rocks in the sun, moving to trees as soon as the sun is, ‘obscured by clouds. Habitat: Found near many different forms of waterbody, in a range of vegetation types, including those in semi-arid regions. Widespread but never common. Range includes all of Africa and the Mediterranean. 4 Crocothemis sanguinolenta Small Scarlet a m | Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 52 mm), red, with very broad abdomen, and scarlet wing-spot in males, females yellowish. All 3 members of the genus are robust and red, with broad abdomen triangular in cross section. Nymphs (4A) squat and robust, with labial mask cupped in profile, no body markings and no spines along top of abdomen, which has a tuft of hair at the tip. Biology: Common all through summer, often with C. erythraea. Habitat: Pools and streams. Range extends to equatorial Africa. Related species: C. erythraea is similar, but with a yellowish pterostigma. The genus also occurs in Asia. 5 Acisoma panorpoides Grizzled Pintail 44 Identification: Small (wingspan 48 mm), pale blue-green, with characteristically swollen anterior part of abdomen. Thorax and abdomen marked with variegated black pattern Smoke-coloured wings in older specimens. The only species in the genus. Biology: Adults occur sporadically through the summer until June, and prefer to settle on floating vegetation or water lilies. Habitat: Subtropical pools, slow-flowing streams or quiet banks of streams with thick vegetation, Range extends up Africa to the Mediterranean 6 orthetrum julia Julia Skimmer Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 60 mm), males blue. Males of both subspecies, the eastern 0,j, falsum (6) and the western 0,). capicola (6A), have a pale blue abdomen and slate-coloured thorax; females dark brown with 2 pale thoracic stripes. Nymphs (6B) | with very small eyes, entire body covered in hairs. Biology: Rests with wings well forward and downward. Eggs are scattered just under the surface of water, Habitat: Streams, rivers and pools in bush, woodland or forest and, the case of 0,j. falsum, open areas as well. O/. falsum is very widespread in the region and in equatorial Africa. In the Western Cape, it is replaced by O,. capicola. Related species: O. caffrum is a very common blue species with a whitish bloom in males. Females have a reddish tinge and no bloom. Both sexes have a distinct cream stripe along the thorax between the wing bases. 40 ODONATA © dragonflies1 Brachythemis leucosticta Banded Groundling Identification: Medium-sized (wingspan 53 mm), with broad, darkbrown bands across wings, wing-spot bi-coloured. Abdomen short, robust and black in males (1); abdomen of females (1A) marked in black and yellow. Biology: Gregarious and confiding, with the curious habit of following a person and settling nearby. Flies low over muddy edges of pools. Habitat: Locally common on mud or on bare ground beneath very large shady trees in the warmer parts of the region, Also found in equatorial Africa, Related species: There is one other species in the genus. 2 Palpopleura jucunda Yellow-veined Widow — | Identification: Very small (wingspan 34 mm), stout, with yellow legs, sides of thorax and abdomen. Orange-tinged wings with extensive yellow and black markings. Biology: Flies UZ for brief periods, settling frequently on grasses and reeds. Habitat: Vieis, small pools and streams well vegetated with reeds and grasses. Range extends to equatorial Africa. here are 3 small and stout species in the genus, which occurs widely in Asia and America. 3 Urothemis assignata Red Basker Identification: Large (wingspan 70 mm), with red body and characteristic red patch at base of hind wings. Constriction a quarter way along abdomen. Biology: Flies low and | strongly, returning persistently to the tip of the same reed. Females lay among waterlily | pads. Habitat: Stagnant bodies of water overgrown with reeds, grasses and waterlilies; also in running water. Range extends to Somalia and Senegal. Related species: There are 3 large species in the genus, with similar coloration in both sexes. U. assignata is differentiated from Crocothemis erythraca (previous Page) by its blood red colour. 4 Pantala flavescens Wandering Glider = Identification: Medium to large (wingspan 80 mm), orange-yellow, with long clear wings, often with faint yellow patches at base of hind wings and occasionally an amber patch at | the tip of each wing. Nymphs (4A) large and hairless, with oval abdomen bearing large and as characteristic curved spines at the end. The only species in the genus. Biology: Frequently migrates, flying erratically in front of advancing storms with characteristic gliding flight. Patrols long flight paths in search of a mate or in the quest for food. Females attracted to temporary pools in which to lay eggs. The voracious nymphs feed on almost anything, including their own kind, and develop very rapidly. Habitat: Common in most waterbodies in all parts of Africa. Extremely widespread. Range extends to Asia, the Americas and Australia, 42 ODONATA © dragonflies ‘ibeniunabe£ ORDER BLATTODEA A primitive group of oval and flattened, medium to large insects, with the head concealed beneath \ the shield-like front of the thorax (pronotum). Cockroaches are nocturnal, with biting mouthparts and wings in some species. Where present, the fore wings form leathery ‘tegmina’. These protect the hind wings, which have an enlarged pleated fold at the base (the anal fold). The legs are similar in size and are adapted for running, with large oval coxae. Scent slands are often present on the top or bottom of the body and a pair of short structures (cerci) project from the end of the abdomen. Eggs are produced in a two-tiered egg case (ootheca) which contains from 5-60 eggs. These purse-like structures may be deposited immediately or carried on, or in, the body. Nymphs occur in the same habitat as adults and may be confused with wingless adults. Cockroaches feed on a range of foodstuffs, largely of vegetable origin. A few species are associated with humans and have become household pests. All the 6 known families occur in the region, and include 20 endemic genera that occur mostly in the southern and eastern parts. There are 35 endemic species in the southwestern parts of the Cape, and most of the genera of this region (Aptera, Temnopteryx and Blepharodera) are endemic. The arid parts of the Western Cape and Northern Cape have the smallest number of endemic species (20 species in 3 endemic genera). Family Blattidae Fairly large family of medium-sized insects of diverse appearance, identified microscopically by a symmet- rical plate under the male genitalia, the same plate being made up of 2 parts in the female. Females carry the egg case for a day or two before depositing it. Aout 50 species are known from the region. 1 Cartoblatta pulchra Gregarious Spotted Cockroach Identification: Medium-sized (body length 21-25 mm). with shiny black nymphs marked with rows of white and orange dots across the body. Tegmina of females short or rudimentary; those of males extend beyond abdomen. Biology: Advertises conspicuous coloration by aggregating in exposed positions on tree trunks by day. Aggregations thought to be initiated by secretion of pheromones. Habitat: Subtropical bushveld and coastal forest. Range extends to Malawi. Related species: One of 2 species of this Afrotropical genus in the region. 2 Periplaneta americana American Cockroach, Common Cockroach Identification: Large (body length 27-34 mm), familiar, shiny reddish brown, with long “ legs and spiny tibiae, Both sexes winged, males with longer tegmina. Biology: Aggre- Ww gates in mixed groups of nymphs and adults. Survives in temperate regions in a3s0- "ciation with humans. Egg cases (2A) are deposited immediately. Habitat: Dwellings, sewers, ships and other areas associated with human habitation. Cosmopolitan, appearing to favour coastal areas of high humidity (ancestral distribution probably tropical Africa). Related species: The 5 Periplaneta species in the region are easily confused with Pseudoderopeltis. 3 Deropeltis erythrocephala — Identification: Medium to large (body length 27-37 mm), black, with long-winged pe males, and rotund wingless females (3A). Head and legs typically red-yellow, rarely black. Biology: Gregarious and slow-moving. Hal Widespread and very common - in a range of vegetation types, living under stones that lie on larger rocks, or under dry tree trunks. Abundant in arid parts of the Cape. Related species: One of 15 species in the region, all with a large pad on hind metatarsus. 44 BLATTODEA cockroaches Slattidae1 Pseudoderopeltis albilatera Orange-shouldered Cockroach = 7 Identification: Medium-sized (body length 14-27 mm), with a yellow to orange band on either side of prothorax. Wings reduced or absent in females (1); long, shiny, black and fully developed in males (1A Pseudoderopeltis sp), Biology: Males secrete a substance L "| from tufted glands on the abdomen, on which females feed before mating. Habitat: The genus is widespread in the region, in a range of habitats including forest and stony mountain tops. Related species: One of about 25 species in the region, apparently the centre of origin of the genus. Family Blatellidae Very large family of small (body length 5-20 mm), delicately built cockroaches, with similar spination along the ventral surface of the underside of the mid and hind femora, Females carry the egg case, sometimes until hatching, and are virtually indistinguishable from Pseudophyllodromiidae (page 50). Female Blatellidae, however, are able to rotate the egg case so that the keel faces downwards. Males of many species have glands ‘on their backs which produce a secretion that attracts females. Before mating, males of some species offer females a sperm package coated with uric acid. Both sexes are normally winged and fly to lights. Many of the 90 species in this very widespread family need to be transferred to the Pseudophyllodromiidae. 2 Blatella germanica German Cockroach [yg] ~sMentification: small (body length 11 mm), yellowish brown, with 2 dark stripes running along prothorax. Biology: Aggregates in mixed groups of adults and nymphs. Depends on central heating and other artificial sources of heat to extend its range. Feeds on almost any kind of food. Females attract males from afar by emitting a sex pheromone. Habitat: Human habitation, especially kitchens and drains. The most common inland domestic roach. Cosmopolitan, probably originating in South Asia. Related species: One of 2 species of the genus in the region. 3 Temnopteryx phalerata Cape Zebra Cockroach — =) | Identification: Smallish (body length 20 mm), very flattened, with reduced tegmina and hind wings in both sexes. Females wingless. Abdomen striped black and yellow. Biology: Otten found in small groups under flat rocks. Females may be seen carrying egg case protruding from tip of abdomen (3A). Habitat: Usually associated with rocks overlying boulders in the mountainous parts of the fynbos biome, Common in the Western Cape. Related species: One of 7 species of this endemic genus, all with black- and yellow-striped abdomens. Family Blaberidae Large family containing a number of different-looking, medium to large (body length 7-50 mm), sluggish and heavily built cockroaches, the body carried close to the ground. The egg case is retained in the body, and the young, in many cases, are born live. In some species, egg cases are deposited at a later stage of development. Many species have wingless females that burrow in the soil. Can be distinguished from Blatellidae by unspined ventral surfaces of the mid and hind femora, and the different kinds of spines on the fore and hind margins of femora. Males of some species offer a uric acid-coated sperm package as a nuptial gift to the female, Mostly subtropical, a few species being cosmopolitan pests. About 20 genera and 90 species known from the region 4 Aptera fusca Table Mountain Cockroach, Giant Cockroach Identification: Large (body length of females 30-40 mm, of males 29 mm), bulky, with reddish head and brown to black body segments edged in yellow. Dark brown wings in males (4); females (4A) wingless. Femora heavily spined, hind tibiae having 2 very wide ridges with only 2 rows of spurs. Biology: Adopts a tail-up defensive stance when alarmed and squeaks loudly. From 18-24 young born live, protected by the female for a while with her body (4A). Habitat: Widespread on low vegetation in open areas in fynbos biome. Related species: One of 2 species of the genus. The second species, A. munda, recorded from the Richtersveld, is rare. 46 BLATTODEA © cockroaches Blattidae. Blatelidae, BlaberidaeIdentification: Medium-sized (body length 24 mm), elongate, shiny black or reddish brown, with wings in males only. Pronotum is covered in small granules and ends in a y projection on each side, both sides strongly keeled into ridges. Of the 6 known species, 4 occur in the region. Biology: Sluggish. Generally found in small groups under tree bark. Habitat: Subtropical bushveld and thomveld. 2 Derocalymma Identification: Medium-sized {body length 20 mm), very flattened oval body, generally a matt dark brown with lighter markings. Males (2) brown with a rough surface to wings and \% body, wings often far longer than body. Females (2A) wingless, Well-defined ridge on sides M= of triangular pronotum, body of pronotum distinct from side flanges. Of the 16 known species, 7 occur in the region. Biology: Granules on body surface are sensory. Nymphs do not aggregate like other Blaberidac. Habitat: Under bark of both dead and living trees in all types of forest and open woodland. 3 Blepharodera discoidalis Burrowing Cockroach } | Mentification: Medium-sized (body length 20-22 mm), stout and oval, with shiny and < convex black body edged with cream border. No terminal tooth at corners of pronotal shield, Wings in mates only. Fringe of long setae along sides of body of females; restricted to pronotum in males. Biology: Burrows a few centimetres below the surface of organically enriched soil under karroid bushes. Habitat: Semi-arid areas with low vegetation. Related species: One of 2 species of the genus. 4 oxyhaloa deusta Identification: Medium-sized (body length 7-12 mm), with black legs, dark brown | hind wings, and blackish red pronotum covered in erect hairs. Both sexes winged. Biology: Males produce a long-distance sex pheromone to attract females. Habitat: Under stones in a variety of (mostly subtropical) vegetation types. Related species: Of the 10 known Afrotropical species, 2 occur in the region. 0. buprestoides is widespread in tropical Africa 5 Gyna caffrorum Tree Cockroach Identification: Medium to large (body length 27 mm), distinctive and striking. Cream pronotum with central black butterfly-shaped marking and numerous cream spots on sides of dark brown tegmina. Both sexes winged. Biology: Nymphs of Afrotropical species i | live in ground litter, tree holes and ant and termite nests, adults in tree tops, never at ground level. Habitat: Mostly subtropical bushveld and forest. Vast numbers found in bat caves in Mpumalanga. Related species: One of 2 species in the region, both with winged males and females. 6 Perisphaeria Identification: Medium to small (body length 23 mm), oval, shiny black, with rounded edge to comers of pronotum. Thorax has granulated surface. Males with long wings, females wingless or with very short tegmina (both sexes shown here). Endemic to southern Africa, with 24 species in the genus. Biology: Commonly seen resting under flat stones or on large rods ‘on mountain tops. Habitat: Found in ground litter, under rocks or bark in a variety of vegetation types. 48 BLATTODEA cockroaches bedidae1 Hostilia Identification: Smallish (body length 15 mm), stout, light brown and mottled. Hind tibiae very flattened, with the 2 rows of spurs poorly developed. Pronotum similar to that of Bantua, but the edges are bent downwards, and the central disc is distinct from lateral flanges. Males (1) are winged: females (1A) convex and wingless. There are 3 endemic species in the region. Biology: Sluggish. Live under tree bark. Habitat: Bushveld and forest. re Family Polyphagidae Yellow or maroon roaches, mostly occupying arid areas. Males are winged, the anal fold of hind wings simply folded, not pleated fan-like, when at rest. Females are wingless. Both sexes emit pheromones that are long- distance attractants. The egg case is carried around for a brief period before it is deposited. About 10 species are known from the region. 2 Tivia termes Identification: Small (body length 12 mm), oval, pale reddish yellow. Wings in males extend beyond end of abdomen. Biology: Lives under bark of living and of dead trees, especially in very dry woodlands, Habitat: Arid open bushveld. Widespread in Africa, range extending to Western Australia. Related species: There are 3 species in the genus. The other species in the region are found in Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal, Family Pseudophyllodromiidae This very large and widespread family of small to medium-sized species has been separated from the Blatellidae, which it closely resembles. Its members are elongate, with long limbs and antennae and small triangular heads. In some species the egg case is deposited; in others it is retracted into the body and carried around. A few species retract the egg case into the body and never deposit it. Unlike Blatellidae, females carrying egg cases are unable to rotate them with the result that the keel faces upwards. In a few species, a sperm package is covered in uric acid and offered to the female as 2 nuptial gift. Many of the 90 known species of Blatellidae should be transferred to this family. 3 Supella dimidiata gm |= Mdentification: Small (body length 17 mm), slender, golden yellow, with black markings on | thorax and tegmina. Wings fully developed in the male, extending beyond the end of the abdomen. In the flightless female tegmina are short and hind wings rudimentary. Biology: Agile and fast-moving, females secreting a sex pheromone from an abdominal gland that attracts males from some distance. Habitat: Found in trees and shrubs in a range of vegetation types. Also occurs in East Africa. Related species: Of the 6 Afrotropical species in the genus, 2 occur in the region. The Brown-banded Cockroach S. longipalpa is a ubiquitous household pest in North America 50 BLATTODEA © cockroachesISOPTERA Social insects that typically occupy distinctive nests (termitaria) built of soil, although some live in wood. A colony is made up of 4 different forms (castes). Very large primary reproductives (queens and kings) usually retain vestiges of wing bases, and are darkly pigmented. Secondary reproductives are less pigmented and may have wing buds. Soldiers are sterile males and females with specialized and hardened (sclerotized) heads. Workers are sterile males and females with unmodified heads and faint sclerotization. Termite reproductives (‘lying-ants’) have 2 pairs of similar wings with reduced venation; these are shed after a brief nuptial flight. Mature queens are hugely swollen and enlarged, as a result of massive development of ovaries and fat bodies. Soldiers lack eyes, and their heads are often bigger than their bodies. Two types of soldier can exist in a single colony: minor soldiers (small, with small heads and ' minute mandibles) and major soldiers (large, with massive mandibles). Workers are the most numerous caste and are usually pale and eyeless. They build and maintain the nest, obtain food and feed all other members of the colony. Parent colonies release eyed reproductives at dusk, often after rain (3A, p. 56). These fly a short distance, setile, and detach their wings. A pheromone released by the female attracts the male, and the pair burrows into a suitable substrate, where eggs are laid. The enormous female (which can lay up to 25 000 eggs per day) is cared for by nymphs. Reproductives are produced only after a few years Colonies exist for decades, possibly centuries in some species. All termites feed on dead or living vegetable matter and (except for Termitidae) digest cellulose using single-celled organisms in their guts. Nests are very complex and species-specific, and many other species of insect are associated with the nests as scavengers or predators. Many termite species are of economic significance because they damage wood, crops and fodder. Soldiers (or reproductives) are most often used for identification purposes. Family Kalotermitidae Dry-wood termites Small colonies of termites that live entirely in dry wood and have no worker caste. They infest furniture and other wood in homes; some species are able to survive only in wood that is exposed to precipitation. ‘The most serious pest is the introduced Cryptotermes brevis, whose poppy seed-sized droppings indicate an infestation. Restricted largely to coastal and high rainfall areas, with 11 species known from the region 1 Bifiditermes durbanensis Dry-wood Termite ; Identification: small (body length of soldier 5.5-7 mm), Soldiers have very stout bases to their mandibles, which are parallel-sided and toothed on the inner margin. Biology: Lives in dead branches and branch stubs of a range of living trees: also in standing and fallen dead trees. Feeds only on hard, barely rotted wood, opening it for later fungal attack, Galleries are always above ground. Habitat: Coastal forest and in oaks and other trees in urban areas, especially Cape Town. Related species: There are 2 species in the genus in the region. House termites Identification: Easily identified by the small (body length 5 mm) soldiers, which have characteristic flattened and rounded (phragmotic) foreheads, with rough edges Biology: Soldiers block tunnels from ant attacks with their heads. Mature colonies nel of C. brevis are very small, with only about 300 individuals. Habitat: Dry wood, of all Kinds, including timber, furniture and dead limbs of indigenous forest trees. Cosmopolitan, occurring in South and Central America, the Caribbean (its presumed origin), Hawaii, Australia, Arica and Madagascar, as well as in Asia 52 IsopTERA + termites waiciehaiiaedFamily Hodotermitidae Harvester termites Large termites, recognized by functional compound eyes in all castes, mandibles with several inner teeth and. the presence of pigmented workers. Commonly seen in winter running on soil surface, collecting and cutting grass and twigs and piling cut vegetation before carrying it underground. Nests are partially or totally under- ground. There are 2 species of this primitive family in the region. 11 Hodotermes mossambicus Northern Harvester Termite, Rysmier Identification: Large (body length of soldier 15 mm, worker 8-13 mm, queen 25 mm), with eyes in all castes. Workers have very dark brown heads, and brown- and cream-striped bodies. Jaws of soldiers robust. toothed and strongly curved inwards. Biology: Pigmented, eyed workers (1B) forage in bright sunshine (especially in autumn and early winter), cutting dead and fresh grass and other plant matter, and dragging this into piles around foraging ports. Nest system 1.5-7 m underground and diffuse, tunnels leading from piles of cut grass and numerous, turreted soil dumps {1A) to temporary subterranean grass-storage shelves. All tunnels finally descend to spherical hives (up to 20), each around 60 cm in diameter, surrounded by flat grass-storage chambers, and made of fragile, black, horizontal shelves of chewed vegetable matter (carton). They are filled with white nymphs (hence the Afrikaans name ‘rice-ant’) and house the queen and king. Heavy infestations can deplete the veld of browse for cattle (leading to soil erosion) and can damage lawns. Estimated to remove 1-3 metric tons of forage per hectare. ‘swarms of winged reproductives occur before rain in summer. Habitat: Grassland and most other habitats, especially open areas. Favours disturbed and overgrazed areas. Absent {rom forest. Related species: Workers dlosely resemble Microhodotermes viator (below), but the latter has indistinct striping on a more uniformly brown abdomen 2 Microhodotermes viator Southern Harvester Termite | HMentification: Large (body length of soldier 7~13 mm, worker 6-8 mm). Biology: Ubiquitous L component of karoo fauna, impacting equally on flora and fauna. Produces sharp conical a <2” | mounds in soils with a high clay content. At the base of the mound is the large spherical “| hive with its delicate horizontal layers of chewed vegetable matter (carton) in which queen (2), king and nymphs live. Mounds generally become covered in sand, forming massive, long-lived structures, called ‘heuweltjies’ (up to 20 m in diameter and 2 m in height), evenly spaced, like all termitaria, across the landscape (2A). Owing to the large amounts of frass (pelleted faeces) that pour out on the surface, they are richer in nutrients than the surrounding soils and are colonized by plants favouring disturbed sites, including colourtul annuals, creating remarkable patterns in the landscape. Workers forage in large numbers by day, preferring woody plants (2B), especially Pteronia and ‘vygie’ species. Green and dead twigs are cut and dragged to temporary storage areas around foraging ports. Habitat: Found in a range of vegetation types, but prefers open veld and avoids fynbos on sandstone. Related species: Closely resembles Hodotermes ‘mossambicus (above), but jaws o! soldiers are thinner and longer and curve inwards only at the tips. Family Rhinotermitidae Subterranean termites, damp-wood termites Apart from a few introduced species, Psammotermes allocerus is the most common, and is abundant in Kalahari sands. Frontal gland (fontanelle) of soldier caste opens from a short, cone-shaped projection on the head, and is used to secrete a defensive sticky drop when disturbed. Nests are dark, papery structures up to 35 cm diameter, often located about 30 cm below the sand surface at the base of a grass clump. The termites feed on a range of dead plant matter (including timber), and construct sand-covered runways to reach food sources, There are 7 species known from the region, some of which are introduced. 54 IsOPTERA « termites Wodotermitidae, khinotermitidae1 Psammotermes allocerus Desert Termite Identification: Small (body length of soldier 7 mm; worker 5 mm). Dark carton nests (1A) about 20 cm diameter, generally located at the base of a grass clump, dead tree or wooden post in the ground. May also occur in sand or under stones or in buildings When in loose sand, nests appear as inconspicuous, small and low mounds of consol- idated sand exposed by wind erosion. Biology: May be very destructive to sound wooden construction in buildings in arid regions. Also destroys wooden fence posts and, in northern parts of its range, crops. Habitat: Both winter and summer rainfall regions in a range of arid vegetation types. KwaZulu-Natal population exists under high rainfall conditions. Family Termitidae Large family which contains 80 percent of the region's termite species. They feed on a range of vegetable matter, and some species lack soldiers. Nests are not always obvious, and some species move into vacated nests of others. First part of the thorax (pronotum) is saddle-shaped and has lobes that project forward. Also includes fungus-growing species and ‘nasute’ termites, where soldiers have a long cone on the head, bearing the open- ing of the frontal gland. There are 190 species of this economically significant family known from the region. 2 Macrotermes natalensis Large Fungus-growing Termite = Identification: Very large (body length of large soldier 18 mm, worker 5-8 mm). Small and large soldiers, both with very large orange head capsules and slender untoothed jaws that cross when closed. Nests are very large (on average 75 cm, but up to 200 cm tall) conical or domed mounds (2B) and may be topped irregularly with pinnacles, Numerous wide ‘ventilation tunnels’ run into the nest, the nest cavity (diameter 60-90 cm) usually just below or (in waterlogged soils) above the ground. Biology: Fungus gardens (2A) for which the genus is known are grown on delicate horizontal shelves, on moulded faecal pellets. The colony cares for and feeds on the developing fungus. Habitat: The most common species in the genus, especially in KwaZulu-Natal and the Northern Province, where it occurs in open bushveld and grassland. Related species: There are 6 species in the genus in the region. M. mossambicus ‘s dominant in the Northern Province, and constructs mounds over 4m tall with mud runaways from nest to food source, Workers are known to forage in bright daylight on dead wood, dead grass, dung, litter and, to a lesser extent, live vegetation. Forage is plastered with a sand cement before it is eaten. Winged females alight head-down on grass stems after long nuptial flights, and emit a pheromone that attracts males. ‘The enormous (100 mm long) queen is imprisoned along with the smaller (25 mm long) king in a royal cell below the fungus garden. 3 Odontotermes badius Common Fungus-growing Termite Identification: Large (body length of soldier 9 mm), similar to Macrotermes (above), but with a single soldier caste, which has 1 tooth on inner edge of mandibles. Winged reproductives (3A) have dark heads and wings. Underground nests, detectable by subtle soil elevation or low grass-covered hump with soil dumps above the hive. Shrubs and trees. may arise from the high (up to 1 m tall and 6 min diameter) mounds of large colonies. Biology: Probably the ‘most destructive of all termites in wooden homes. Forages on wood, dry dung, leat litter, ree bark and dead ‘fass. Food source (including tree trunks) is plastered in cement (3B). The queen is imprisoned in a spherical lay cell in the central hive within which lies the fungus garden. This, in turn, is protected by a very thick clay layer. Habitat: Widespread and abundant in a wide range of habitats, including underside of buildings. Related species: The Lesser Fungus-growing Termite Odontotermes /atericius builds clay chimneys that descend to points near the hive and probably function as air shafts. 56 IsopTeRA « termites ithinotermitidae, Yermitidae1 Microcerotermes Carton nest termites Identification: Small (body length of soldier 5.5 mm), with long parallel-sided, rectangular- shaped heads. Mandibles of soldiers serrated on inner margin. Small nests (diameter 13 cm) Va made of concentric layers of yellowish chewed vegetable matter (carton) are situated under- Le ground or in nests of Cubitermes, Macrotermes or Trinervitermes species. Biology: Forage (on fallen and standing timber, dry dung, and the woody stubble of the base of grasses. Habitat: Abundant in open woodland, 2 Trinervitermes Snouted harvester termites [gq Mdentification: small (body length of soldier 5.5 mm, worker 5 mm), easily recognized by Sy pear-shaped head without jaws in major and minor soldiers, ending in a long thin snout. | Nests are small to medium (35-100 cm tall) smooth, domed mounds (2A), which may be L fairly flat, with a thin but hard outer shell of cemented sand and an inner structure of open cells and galeries. There are 12 species known from the region. Biology: Grass-feeding, foraging at night, using long underground tunnels that radiate from the nest. Vast amounts of cut grass are stored in the nest, and dense populations may compete with cattle for fodder. In de-vegetated areas, sparsely populated nests are constructed as granaries that connect with the primary nest (extensive fields of such nests with many dead colonies occurring in the Free State and elsewhere). If attacked, soldiers squirt a sticky fluid from the head, which entangles ants and contains repeliant turpenes, insufficient, however, to repel the major predator, the aardvark. Habitat: Prefer wetter grassland parts of the region. Absent from the northwestern Cape although widespread and very common in some parts of the Cape. 3. Amitermes hastatus Black-mound Termite Identification: small (body length of soldier 4.5 mm, worker 4 mm), all castes having a bloated abdomen packed with grey material. Mandibles strongly curved inwards, forming an arch when closed, each with a strong tooth that endsin a 90° turn about halfway down the mandible. Nests are characteristic small (35 cm tall), grey-black, domed mounds (3A) with a nodular or honeycombed surface and tunnels that radiate from the mound towards food sources. Biology: Prefers to feed on decaying wood and humus, but will attack dead wood. The black digested paste is used to construct the mound, Bodies of old queens stain brown from the saliva of workers. Most active after spring rains, when winged reproductives are released through holes in the top of the mound. Colony growih is very slow, taking about a decade to reach maturity. f the queen is killed, the colony can continue ‘to survive through production of secondary reproductives. Soldiers release a drop of irritant fluid on to attackers through the frontal gland opening (fontanelle) on the head. Habitat: Common in a variety of habitats. Related species: A, messinae and A. unidentatus are 2 tropical species, which occur in the far north of the Northern Province 58 isopTeRA « termites “TermitidaORDER MANTODEA Relatively large predatory insects, easily recognized by heavily spined prehensile fore legs, mobile and triangular head, and characteristic ‘praying’ posture. Mantids have extraordinarily mobile heads, with large compound eyes set high on their upper corners. The first thoracic segment is elongate and bears characteristic, well-developed, heavily spined fore legs, usually held folded below the head, as if in prayer. The remaining legs are sometimes decorated with ornamental lobes, but are otherwise unmodified. Wings, which are often reduced or absent in females and ground-dwelling species, are folded over the elongate, 11-segmented abdomen. The relatively "narrow tough fore wings are used mainly to cover and protect the broad, membranous hind wings. All mantids are predatory, using their specially modified fore legs to ambush and grasp live prey. Eggs are laid in a frothy mass that hardens as it dries to form a characteristic egg-case (ootheca). Nymphs often differ in appearance from adults, some resembling ants during early developmental stages. Of the 1800 or so known species, 185 occur in the region. Family Hymenopodidae Flower mantids Spectacular mantids that often mimic flowers. A raised process is usually present on the middle of the head, and the first thoracic segment has lateral lobes. Inner margins of the front femora have alternating long and short spines; those on the tibiae are closely spaced and lie at an angle. Legs bear ornamental lobes, and fore wings are often decorated with bands or spiral markings. 1 Phyllocrania paradoxa Leaf Mantid Identification: Large (body length 44 mm). Sexes differ in appearance. Males (1) slender and mottled brown with dark shoulders and darker cross on hind wings. Females (1A) heavier, with triangular lateral flanges on prothorax and abdomen and no cross on fore wings. Head has long, erect, wavy dorsal projection. Legs ormamented with prominent leaf-like lobes. Egg case (1B) long, flattened and narrow. Biology: Superb mimic of dead leaves, remaining motionless while waiting for prey to come within grasp. May make swaying movements to mimic wind-blown vegetation. Habitat: Subtropical vegetation and along forest margins. 2 Pseudocreobotra wahlbergi Eyed-flower Mantid Identification: Large (body length 42 mm). Attractively mottled in pinks, browns and greens with prominent circular eye-like marking on each fore wing. Femora of mid and hind legs ornamented, with rounded lobes. Large lateral extensions on abdomen. Wingless nymphs (2A) are spectacularly ornamented and striped with pink and green, and carry the abdomen curled above the body. Biology: Mimics flowers and ambushes visiting insects. Eyespot used in threat display to frighten off attackers. When threatened, nymphs can expand the raised abdomen to reveal a single dorsal eyespot. Habitat: On flowers and in vegetation. 3 Harpagomantis tricolor Flower Mantid Identification: Medium-sized (body length 31 mm). Resembles Pseudocreobotra wahlbergi (above), except for absence of fore wing eyespot. A double spine projects forwards from middle of head. Eyes pink with white spots, and produced into forward- pointing spines, giving the head a W-shape when viewed from above. Fore wings attractively banded in pink and green. Biology: Stands immobile and unseen on flowering plants, waiting to ambush visiting insects, Habitat; In association with flowers with which its colours blend. Widespread and fairly common throughout the region. 60 mANToDEA — mantids Wymenopoaians1 Galinthias amoena Identification: Small (body length 25 mm). The enormous eyes project strongly forwards into points, giving front of head a distinct U-shape when viewed from above. First thoracic segment greatly elongated, with rounded expansion above origin of fore legs. Fore wings greenish yellow and not patterned except for net-like venation. Hind wings purple. Body and limbs banded in pale pink and green. Biology: Stands immobile and unseen on flowering plants, waiting to ambush insects. Habitat: Weedy habitats and in association with flowers. 2 Oxppiloidea tridens Identification: Small (body length 24 mm), flattened, mottled and extremely cryptic, with powerful grasping limbs. Identifiable by upright teeth on prothorax, a small pair close together in front and a larger separated pair behind. Biology: One of several similar- looking species that scuttle about on the bark of trees. Capable of rapid movement. Antennae vibrate continuously, Habitat: Trunks of trees in arid areas. Family Mantidae Common mantids By far the largest family of mantids, containing a wide array of species. Most typical green and brown mantids belong to this family, as do many species that mimic bark. Inner margin of grasping legs has a row of alter- nating short and long spines; those on margins of tibiae are erect and well separated. 3 Tarachodes Bark mantids Identification: Medium-sized (body length 37 mm). Mottled grey-brown and flattened to closely resemble bark and lichens. Wings attractively reticulated, with dark blotches. Contains 9 similar-looking species. Biology: Move about on trunks of trees in search of caterpillars and other prey. Some species (3A) have brushes of setae along margins of thorax and limbs that help them to blend into the surroundings. Several African species show maternal care, females guarding the egg case for up to 70 days until the nymphs hatch. Habitat: Usually on tree trunks in the warmer parts of the region, Range extends to Namibia and Zimbabwe. 4 Sphodromantis gastrica Giant Mantid, Common Green Mantid = Identification: Large (body length 55 mm), robust and bright green, usually with white spot near anterior corner of each fore wing, Sides of abdomen may be mauve and yellow. Females much fatter than males. Nymphs (4A) lack wings and curl the abdomen up over the body. Familiar boat-shaped egg case (4B). Biology: Unusual in that diet consists mainly of caterpillars. Egg case made of a series of vertical chambers along either side of a central ‘keel’, each chamber containing a single egg. Habitat: On foliage of trees and shrubs in domestic gardens and a variety of types of undisturbed vegetation. One of the most common species in the region. 5 Omomantis zebrata Zebra Mantid Identification: Large (body length 52 mm), slender, green and attractive. Characterized by coloration of fore wings, each decorated with diagonal dark brown stripes and a yellow spot surrounded by black. Biology: Attracted to lights. Habitat: Bushes and trees in savanna. 6 Miomantis Identification: Small (body length 25 mm), delicate, translucent, pale green, with broad head and few other distinguishing features. Females fatter than males and short-winged. There are 10 easily confused species in the region. Blology: Young nymphs of some West Se ___Alrican species are convincing ant-mimics. Habitat: Common in variety of vegetation types. 62 MANTODEA « mantids1 Polyspilota aeruginosa am} Identification: Large (body length over 80 mm) and spectacular, body usually green or A brown, often darker brown on dorsal surface. Wings usually dark mottled-brown. Inner | surface of fore legs bright blue and yellow, with a conspicuous dark spot at base of femur. joe _| Biology: Heavy-bodied and formidable, and may rear up aggressively when threatened, revealing coloured areas on inner side of fore legs. Can draw blood when grasped, using the fierce spines on fore legs. Often attracted to lights. Habitat: Trees in bushveld and savanna. 2 Pyrgomantis rhodesica Grass Mantid Identification: Large (body length 70 mm), unmistakable, with long, cylindrical, light brown body and short legs, the first pair folding neatly into the sides of the body. Head elongate and drawn out into long pointed cone. Pink on inner surface of fore legs. —~"___| Shortened wings in some individuals. Biology: Lies motionless along the length of a grass stem, perfectly disguised, with limbs folded, in wait for prey. Species in the genus exhibit fire melanism, black individuals predominating after a bush fire. Habitat: Grassland. 3 Ligariella Ground mantids ~ gm, | \dentification: Small (body length 11 mm) with enlarged head, short, squat, mottled pink body, and banded legs. Males winged, females wingless. Best identified by unusual ground-dwelling habits, Biology: Mimic stones and scurry around on the ground in search XS | of insect prey. Habitat: Arid regions. Found on the quartz plains of the West Coast and Karoo, Related species: There are several similar species in the genus and related genus Ligaria. 4 Compsothespis sp. (~~ ggm| Identification: Small (body length 32 mm), extremely slender and delicate, with such ‘minute raptorial limbs it could be taken for a stick insect. Uniformly brown except fora pale yellow line along each fore wing and orange base to hind wings. short-winged and flightless. | Biology: Details not known, Build suggests it can take only very small prey. Habitat: Low, often herbaceous, vegetation. 5 Epioscopomantis chalybea Identification: Large (body length 50 mm), pale, uniformly straw-coloured. Eyes and corners of head greatly extended into elongate points, giving head a V-shape when viewed from above. Hind wings with black mottling. Biology: Well camouflaged in dry grasses, where it lies pressed to the stem in wait for insect prey. Habitat: Vegetation in drier regions. 6 Popa undata Stick Mantid m | Identification: Large (body length 55 mm), robust, brown, with densely knobbed and ridged surface. Distinct ridge down centre of prothorax, from the margins of which a row of rounded knobs projects. Limbs ornamented with spikes and ridges. Keel on =~ | femur of fore legs and series of toothed lobes on posterior limbs are good identifying features. The only species in the genus in the region. Biology: Nymphs ground-dwelling, adults tree-living. Habitat: Dry vegetation. Family Thespidae ‘Small family of lightly built mantids with elongate slender prothorax. Tibia or ‘finger’ of fore limbs is less than half the length of the femur on which it closes. Females are wingless. 64 MANTODEA © mantids1 Hoplocoryphella grandis gy | identification: Large (body length 60 mm), very slender and delicate, pale brown, with | elongate spindly limbs and remarkably widened ‘hammershaped’ head. Beautiful translucent, bubble-like egg case (1A). with sculptured ridge down one side. Females with N shortened wings that do not reach end of abdomen. Biology: Primarily an arid region species. Habitat: Dry grasses and other vegetation, 2 Hoplocorypha macra | Mentification: Medium-sized (body length 40 mm). Similar to H. grandis (above) but smaller and lighter. Body mottled grey and brown with slender limbs and spine-like projections on posterior margin of each abdominal segment. Females relatively robust < _| and wingless, males slender-bodied and winged. Egg case a transparent yellow ball. Biology: Ambush predator that seeks its prey in vegetation. Habitat: Vegetation in drier areas. Family Sibyllidae Sibyllid mantids Fragile mantids with a forked and laterally toothed projection on top of the head. The long, slender prothorax is armed with lateral lobes and a sharp dorsal projection. Only 1 species is known from the region. 3 Sibylla pretiosa Cv ] Identification: Medium-sized (body length 45 mm), distinctive, delicate and ornate. | Head with large, forked dorsal spike armed with a pair of lateral teeth. Prothorax very 4 elongate, slender and cylindrical, with sharp lateral lobes. Long thin legs decorated with 4-7 _| small femoral lobes. Fore wings mottled with brown. Biology: Cryptic, moving around on the bark of trees and feeding on other insects that share this specialized habitat, Habitat: Tree trunks Family Empusidae Gargoyle mantids, cone-headed mantids Large, usually slender and elongate mantids, often with quaint or bizarre body forms or adorned with leaf-like lobes, especially along the walking legs. Conical projection from top of head, divided at the tip. Antennae of males are elongate, with comb-like projections along both sides. Spines altemate along inner surface of femur of fore legs, 1 long spine following every 2-4 short ones 4 Empusa guttula Cone-headed Mantid [— ay | Mdentification: Large (body length 74 mm), top of head produced into large elongate cone. Antennae with comb-like lateral projections in males; thread-like in females. Greatly N elongated prothorax, laterally expanded above origin of fore legs, the expansion semi- (NS | circular and bearing teeth anteriorly. Biology: Alert and voracious predator. Often attracted to lights. Habitat: Various vegetation types. 5 tdolomorpha dentifrons Cone-headed Mantid Identification: Large (body length 80 mm) and impressive, similar to Empusa (above), but with even more elongate prothorax, only slightly expanded above fore limbs, the expansion rounded, not toothed, anteriorly. Males attracted by odours released by females. Biology: Capable of taking large prey. Habitat: Vegetation in topical areas. 6 Hemiempusa capensis Giant Cone-headed Mantid Identification: Large (body length up to 85 mm), one of the largest mantids in the region. Looks similar to others in the family, with projection on top of head and very elongate pro- thorax, but lateral expansions of prothorax are rounded lobes. Legs with small lobes above junction of tibia and femur, Biology: Voracious predator. Habitat: Low vegetation. 66 mantoveA © mantids Thespidde, Sibviidae, EmpuslaaeORDER DERMAPTERA Elongate flattened insects, easily identified by conspicuous curved forceps at the end of the abdomen. Long brown or black insects with short, square, leathery fore wings (tegmina) and broad, fan-shaped, elaborately folded membranous hind wings. A few are wingless. The abdomen has 10 visible segments in males, and 8 in females. Earwigs are nocturnal and prefer damp, confined spaces. Most are omnivorous, but some capture live insects with the forceps, which can also be used for display or for folding and un- folding the hind wings. Eggs are laid in a burrow and tended by the female. They hatch into nymphs that look and behave like adults. Despite their common name and fearsome forceps, earwigs are harmless. They may, however, damage garden crops. Of the 1 800 species, about 50 are known from the region. Family Labiduridae Long-horned earwigs Contains a wide variety of winged and wingless, large to small, dull to brightly coloured species. Second tarsal segment is cylindrical, and is not produced beneath the third. Antennae have 16-30 segments. 1 Labidura riparia Identification: Large (body length 30 mm) and pale with dark markings along leathery fore wings and across abdominal segments. Enormous curved forceps in males; those of females closer together and straighter. Biology: Aggressive, raising forceps over the head when threatened (1A). Attacks smaller insects with the forceps before consuming them. Habitat: Under wood or stones on beaches and riverbanks. Naturally cosmopolitan. 2 Euborellia annulipes Identification: Medium-sized (body length up to 20 mm), completely wingless, dark brown with lighter-coloured thoracic segments. Antennae with fewer than 20 segments. Legs pale with dark band across femur. Forceps stout and often asymmetrical. Biology: Reaches considerable densities in damp habitats such as compost heaps. Habitat: Cosmopolitan, common in suburban gardens, Family Forficulidae Common earwigs Identifiable by second tarsal segment which is expanded laterally and extended around the third. Antennae have 10~15 segments. 3 Forficula senegalensis | Identification: Small (body length 8 mm). Thorax and leathery fore wings golden brown, abdominal segments black. Size and shape of forceps unusually variable. \ Biology: Scavenger, feeding on rotting fruit, organic debris and dead insects. Also L ___ reputed to capture live insects with the forceps. Often emerges during the day in over- cast weather. Habitat: Variety of crevices, leaf liter, under stones or on trees. Very common, Family Pygidicranidae Primitive family of stout, flat earwigs with textured body surface, often covered in short, stiff bristles. All species are winged. Forceps are simple and often asymmetrical. 4 Echinosoma wahlbergi Identification: Medium-sized (body length 13 mm), unmistakable, black with pale hind wings that project beyond leathery fore wings. Forceps strongly curved and knobbed on inner surface. Legs banded brown or black. Biology: Details not known. Habitat: Under bark and beneath logs. Uncommon. 68 DERMAPTERA © earwigs ‘aviaiiriaas eaeticuinaaes PyRNaeAMUSESYINNIdS-94M UO SIE ORDER EMBIIDINA (EMBIOPTERA) Small, elongate, soft-bodied and often wingless insects living in silken galleries under bark, logs or stones. Best identified by the greatly swollen first tarsal joints of the front legs and by their kidney-shaped eyes. Embiids are a small and little-known order. They use the greatly swollen first tarsal segments of the front pair of legs, which are packed with ball-like silk glands, to weave silken tunnels and galleries on and under the bark of trees, under stones or in soil and leaf litter. Their bodies are elongate and cylindrical, with short legs. The femora of the hind legs are enlarged to propel the insect rapidly backwards — one of several adaptations to life in narrow tunnels. Females are wingless, but adult males of some species develop 2 pairs of similar, widely spaced, dark wings. These are extremely flexible so as to bend in the tunnel. The abdomen in males terminates in 2 short tails (cerci), the shape of which is important for family identification, Most web-spinners live in small colonies, seldom emerging from their galleries, which are gradually expanded by the young. They feed on bark, lichens, mosses and dead plant material, Eggs are laid in clusters within the galleries and attended by the females. Juveniles resemble adults. Winged males may be attracted to lights, and are thus sometimes mistaken for flying termites. There are only about 200 described species, of which 37 are known from the region, Family Embiidae Most South African species are included in this widespread family of relatively large, robust species. Adult males are characterized by 1 oF 2 lobes on the inner surface of the left cercus. Cerci are covered with short pegiike setae. 1 Apterembia sp. Identification: Medium-sized (body length 11 mm), both sexes wingless. Biology: Feeds. on leaf litter. Constructs galleries where leat litter and debris collect against margins of stones. Habitat: The only named genus of embiid in the Western Cape. The speci- men shown here was collected under a rock in dry fynbos on the slopes of Table Mountain. Related species: Many undescribed species occur in the region. Family Oligotomidae This family originates in Asia, but several species have been widely dispersed as a result of commercial traffic in logs and plant material. Left cercus in adult males lacks inner lobes and is divided into 2 segments, separated by a membranous joint. 2 Oligotoma saundersii Identification: Small (body length 7 mm). Adult males winged, females wingless. Best recognized by sickle-shaped hook on underside of genitalia of adult males. The only member of the family in the region, Biology: Spins flat webs radiating from fissures in ese the bark of shade trees (2). Probably feeds on lichens and mosses on the trunks of host trees. Females remain within the tunnel webs throughout their lives. Winged males (2A) have to pump up their flexible wings with blood before they can fly, and are often attracted to lights. Habitat: Indigenous to India, but has been widely distributed by commercial activity, and is now found in East Africa, Madagascar, Australia and other moist tropical and subtropical regions around the world. Common in gardens and parks in Durban. 70 > EMBIIDINA embiids or web-spinners finbindac, Oidgotoimidae’, ORDER PLECOPTERA Small to medium-sized soft-bodied insects, associated with flowing water. Adults are elongate and rarely fly, but are fast runners. Membranous wings, folded flat on or furled around the abdomen. Large folded anal fan on hind wings. Adult stonellies have a pair of large compound eyes, weak mandibles, long thin antennae, and long conspicuous cerci (reduced to 1-segmented stumps in the Notonemouridae). The aquatic nymphs are recognized by long paired cerci, a body shape similar to that of adults and (in the Perlidae) tufts of gills at the base of the legs. The larval stage lasts from a few months to years. Mature nymphs (recognized by black wing pads) climb up a rock and moult, leaving behind the empty ‘shuck’ (16). Adults appear on the surface of rocks on cold overcast days, but otherwise hide in cool shadowed rock cracks or beneath rocks in oF very close to rivers. Adults fly rarely, with a weak fluttering termite-like flight. Notonemouridae are most abundant in the southwestern Cape; Perlidae in larger, more slow-flowing rivers in the warmer summer-rainfall parts of the region. Nymphs are vulnerable to predation by introduced trout and bass. 1 Family Perlidae True stoneflies 4 Identification: Large (body length 25 mm), yellow to tan, with large compound eyes, wings that fold flat over the abdomen, and a pair of long cerci that project beyond the ‘. wings. At least 5 superficially similar Neoperla species (1) in the region. Biology: Adults, 4 a are attracted to lights close to fast-flowing rivers and streams. Mating takes place by day, the female developing a conspicuous egg ball at the tip of the abdomen. Eggs have elaborate sculp- turing, useful in separating species. Neoperla nymphs (1A) have well-developed bushy white gills at the base of the legs and on the abdomen (1B), apparently enabling them to occupy less-oxygenated streams than Notonemouridae, and are voracious predators on other aquatic insects such as maylly and blackfly larvae. Habitat: Large and small rivers with rocky beds. Family Notonemouridae Southern stoneflies ‘Small (body length 5-8 mm), lead grey or dark brown, with wings tightly furled around the abdomen, iving the appearance of a pencil lead. Antennae are long, cerci reduced to small single-jointed stumps. Cerci long and conspicuous in nymphs. Short-winged or wingless individuals may occur. Adults mate during the day, and can be numerous in winter in the Western Cape. They feed on plant matter and live for a few days. Nymphs are important shredders of dead leaves in high-altitude streams, They resemble adults and occur in leaf packs or under stones, usually in streams with a canopy of vegetation. Most species occur in the Western Cape, a few in the southern Cape, Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal and the Mpumalanga Drakensberg. Restricted to cold unpolluted mountain streams. Approximately 40 species are known from the region. 2 Desmonemoura Porcupine stoneflies Identification: Small (body length 5 mm), slender, wings banded tan and dark brown. ~ 2 Nymphs relatively hairless, identifiable when mature by banded wing pads. Contains \. +2 species. Biology: Adults emerge in mid-summer. Habitat: Nymphs under stones in a fast-flowing mountain streams, adults in shaded rock crevices in or near streams. 3 Aphanicerca Cape stoneflies lentification: Small (body length 5 mm), slender and elongate. Body and wings SES, dark brown, fore wings with lighter band towards tip. Nymphs (3A) elongate and Yo smooth, with characteristic tuft of hair on inner side of each antennal base. Contains ee 15 superficially similar species. Biology: Males tap (drum) substrate during courtship. Habitat: Good-quality shaded mountain and forest streams. Nymphs abundant in leaf packs and under stones, adults resting in crevices on or under rocks. Mostly restricted to the Western Cape. 72 PLECOPTERA © stoneflies veriddae, NotonemouridaeSLSN201 ® SYIddOHSSVUD ‘SGIGALV ORDER ORTHOPTERA Medium-sized to large insects, with bulky body, broad blunt head, hind legs usually modified for jumping and, typically, massive development of the saddle-like first part of the thorax (pronotum). The front Yea. pair of wings is leathery, forming ‘tegmina’; the second pair is fan-like. Both pairs or one may be absent in adults. Orthoptera are generally good fliers, but are usually incapable of sustained flight. They are divided into two groups according to length of antennae: short-homed grasshoppers and locusts (with sound- producing organs on the hind legs) and long-horned crickets and katydids (which sing by means of organs ‘on the wings, and have ‘ears’ on the fore legs). All have chewing mouthparts and, as with most primitive insects, short tails (ceri) at the end of the abdomen. Most have a sword-like egg-laying tube (ovipositor). Short-horned grasshoppers lay many eggs in a pod in the soil; katydids lay single eggs on plants. Juveniles resemble miniature adults without wings. The highest concentration of endemics occurs in the arid western parts of the region. Most other species are widespread Afrotropical forms Family Anostostomatidae (Mimnermidae) King crickets, Parktown prawns Newly established family which incorporates king crickets ~ large, brown or reddish insects (formerly included in Stenopelmatidae) which live in underground burrows by day and emerge at night to feed on small animals and plant matter. Males of many species have very enlarged palps and mandibles, used aggressively in fights with other males. This family can stridulate by rubbing the legs against the abdomen and, like the 4 families that follow, has 4-segmented tarsi. Life cycle is long, eggs taking up to 18 months to hatch, and adults 1-3 years to reach maturity. Adults live for about a year. Males may keep harems, and females brood eggs and young in a special chamber. At least 14 species are known from the region. 1 onosandrus Identification: Medium-sized [body length 28 mm), with single spine on inner side of upper fore tibiae (besides spines near the apex) and mandibles of the same size, unmodified in both sexes (cf. Libanasidus, p. 76). Barred pattern created by black mark- ings on cream body. Hind femora thickened basally, tapering towards apex. Contains about 8 African species. Biology: Nocturnal, roaming about at night to feed. Habitat: Wet soil (as under sod- den moss) and under or in rotting logs. Identification: Large (body length 28 mm), black with reddish head and legs. inner side of upper fore tibiae with 2 spines (besides spines near apex). Blunt cone on forehead ‘of males (less so in females). Mandibles enlarged ventrally in males, not towards front (ct. Libanasidus, p. 76). Contains about 10 species in the region. Biology: Emerge from burrows at night, especially after rain, Presumed carnivorous. Habitat: Under logs in indigenous forest, or in soil burrows under stones. 3 Henicus brevimucronatus Identification: Medium-sized (body length 20 mm), bizarre. Males with grossly enlarged head and mouthparts, with horn-like process (tusk) just above mandibles. Labrum enor- ‘mous and spoon-shaped (3A). Both sexes have 2 spines on inner side of upper fore tibiae (besides spines near apex). Biology: Adults reside in pairs in burrows. Function of males “enlarged jaws unknown. Habitat: Under and in rotten logs in Afromontane forest Related species: There are 10 species in the genus. H. monstrosus is similar and even more bizarre, with very enlarged head and antler- like mandibles in males, reputedly producing rasping sounds by gnashing the jaws. 74 ORTHOPTERA « crickets Aostéatomiidte1 Libanasa Identification: Medium-sized (body length 23 mm), with single spine on inner side of upper fore tibiae (besides spines near apex). Cream-coloured, with black marbling. May be confused with Onosandrus (previous page), but hind tibiae are very thick at base, and do not taper towards apex. Contains about 4 species in the region. Biology: Nocturnal, “emerging after rain, Habitat: Under logs or stones in subtropical forest. Extends as far north as Kenya 2 Libanasidus vittatus Parkhurst or Parktown Prawn, King Cricket Identification: Very large (body length 60-70 mm), familiar, with reddish head and thorax, orange- and black-banded abdomen, and orange legs. Enlarged mandibles in males bearing sharp horn-like processes (tusks) that overlap. Females (shown here) have sword-shaped ovipositor. Single spine on inner side of upper fore tibiae (besides spines near apex) in both sexes. Biology: Nocturnal, emerging from burrow in the early evening. Varied diet includes snails, insect grubs, earthworms, seedlings, fallen fruit and dog droppings. Adults can consume up to 4 snails a night. When disturbed, vocalizes by rubbing abdomen against hind legs and ejects foul-smelling faeces. Habitat: Originally restricted to forest litter in indigenous forests, but has spread to well-watered, rich soils in city gardens. Common in northern suburbs of Johannesburg. Related species: There are 2 species in the genus. 3 Family Stenopelmatidae Jerusalem crickets, sand crickets =) | Wdentification: Sia pallidus (map and species shown) isa fairly common representative of tes true Jerusalem crickets (grouped, until recently, with Anostostomatidae). Large (body ra length 30 mm), cream-coloured, with black-banded abdomen and honey-coloured head, — thorax and legs, and 4-segmented tarsi. Biology: Sia species are burrowers, their burrows usually constructed under stones. Some are very large, and all have a severe bite. Probably carnivorous. Habitat: Fairly dry, sandy soil, commonly in coastal dune sand. Related species: Some (previously classified ‘Maxentius) are widespread in Namibia, Namaqualand, Northern Province and Mpumalanga 4 Family Gryllacrididae Leaf-rolling crickets Identification: Medium-sized, pale tan, with fully winged males (wings absent in some J species), and 4-segmented tarsi. Gryllacris (body length about 15 mm) has a few winged \ species. Eremus (body length 10 mm] has about 5 wingless species, with 3-4 spines on mid cs and fore tibiae (besides spines near apex). E. glomerinus (body length 10 mm) is shown. here. Only a few species known from the region. Biology: Mute. Probably carnivorous. Gryllacris generally live within an envelope of leaves sewn together with silk from the labial glands. Western Cape Eremus hide between very young leaves of buds of the Silver Tree (Leucadendron argenteum), which they bind with an oral secretion. Habitat: Folded leaves in trees and shrubs. Predominantly tropical. Gryllacris has a few winged species in Mpumalanga and the Eastern Cape. 5 Family Schizodactylidae Dune crickets Identification: Mediurr-sized (body length 11 mm), unusual-iooking, pale, with highly modified 4-segmented tarsi with long petal-like extensions. Often with knobs on cerci. ‘Mew species are winged, with spirally coiled wing tips. Comicus, with 7 wingless species, is the only African genus. Biology: Inhabit very sandy areas where they spend the day in burrows and emerge at night to feed on other insects. The enlarged tarsi enhance digging ability and act like snow shoes when they walk over sand dunes, resting in depressions with outstretched antennae, presumably waiting for prey. Large lobed structures on the tarsi help them to leap several metres. Males produce calls by rubbing the femora of the hind legs against the abdomen. Habitat: Prefer consolidated sand to very loose, shifting sand dunes. Most southerly records from red sands of Vanrhynsdorp and Vredendal. ae, Stenopelmatidae, 76 ORTHOPTERA © crickets side sehinodactyildae1 Family Rhaphidophoridae Camel crickets, cave crickets Identification: Wingless, humpbacked, covered in fine golden hairs, with very long | appendages, palps, antennae and 4-segmented tarsi. Females (shown here) with long | ovipositor. The single species in the region, Speleiacris tabulae (body length 10 mm, is the | only representative of its subfamily in Africa. Biology: Scavenge on various types of decay- ing matter in caves, especially bat guano and dead bats. Run and jump well and are generally found on moist cave walls and rocks. Need very high humidity levels to survive, Habitat: Sandstone caves and grottoes on the Cape Peninsula; also crevices of large boulder aggregations in moist forest on southern slopes on the Peninsula, Recorded from a small cave in the Cape Town suburb of Oranjezicht Family Bradyporidae Armoured ground crickets, koringkrieke Recently established family for the subfamily Hetrodinae (previously in Tettigoniidae). Primarily herbivorous, but will scavenge and can turn cannibalistic, devouring road-killed kin. Eaten by only a few animals and large birds, including the Bat-eared Fox, jackals and the Kori Bustard. More abundant in arid and semi-arid zones. About 30 species in 5 genera are known from the region, most genera and all species being regional endemics. 2 Acanthoplus armiventris Corn Cricket, Koringkriek l Identification: Fairly small (body length 21 mm) with yellow pronotum with black spines, fe brown, yellow and green abdomen, red antennae. Biology: Feeds on Acacia leaves, but its VU oy ~ | catholic tastes include stoneplants (Lithops), citrus fruits and Quelea chicks. Drops from a vegetation when alarmed, males producing a series of short alarm chirps. Squirts yellow blood from thorax when handled (shown here). Males attract females with a high-pitched vibrating call. Eggs are laid in May in packages of 3-11 in shaded soil, and hatch the following March, 2 days after the first rains. Eggs can lie dormant for another year if summer rains fail, resulting in big swings in population size in different years. Habitat: Low thorn trees, scrub and subtropical bushveld. Related species: There are 6 species in the genus, all with unspined dorsal surface of hind femora and straight spines on pronotum. Genus occurs throughout the region. 3 Acanthoproctus cervinus Corn Cricket, Koringkriek Identification: Large (body length 39 mm), grey, abdomen with dark brown top, pronotum . 3, with black spines and large yellow patch on back. Females are wingless. Biology: As in all members of the family, reduced wings of males have a row of file-ike teeth that produce | the characteristic continuous high-pitched call when rubbed together. Present for most of the year. Habitat: Semi-arid low scrubby vegetation and open thornveld. Related species: All 3 species in the genus are large, with 2 side-facing projections arising from pronotum. A. vittatus occurs in the Free State and Eastern Cape. 4 Enyaliopsis Corn crickets, koringkrieke ~ Identification: Brown, with pair of blunt outward-projecting horns on each side of prono- tum. Back edge of pronotum light yellow. Only E,transvaalensis (body length 30-50 mrn) in the region (unnamed species from Zimbabwe shown here). Biology: Fairly terrestrial, often found on soil and rocks. Habitat: Open grassveld and bushveld. Extends to East Africa 5 Hetrodes pupus Corn Cricket, Koringkriek = | Identification: Large (body length 36 mm), grey or brown, abdomen with black spines and tan stripes. Characteristic 4 short spines in the middie of pronotum form a “| rectangular pattern. The only species, 4 subspecies, in the genus. Biology: Active at hight, when males produce the piercing continuous buzzing call. Adults occur from September to June. Females lay about 14 very large eggs. Habitat: Very common in low and open vegetation ranging from fynbos to succulent ‘gie' veld. 78 ORTHOPTERA « cricketsFamily Tettigoniidae Katydids, bush crickets, long-horned grasshoppers Very large family of predominantly green species, mostly concentrated in the warmer parts of the region. Identified by combination of very long thin antennae, 4-segmented tarsi and a pair of ‘ears’ on fore tibiae. Males rub a toothed file on one fore wing against an oval disc on the other, producing a buzzing mating call or an aggressive (probably territorial) call. Typically. the ovipositor is very long and sword-like, Most live in vegetation, and are often excellent leaf-mimics. Includes herbivores, scavengers and carnivores. Females of arboreal forms lay eggs in leaf sheaths or use a serrated ovipositor to penetrate plant tissue and lay eggs in it. About 160 species are known from the region, approximately two-thirds of which are endemic. 1 Eurycorypha Leaf Katydid rc Identification: Medium-sized (body length 22 mm), with oval and elongated eyes. Open ‘ears’ on fore tibiae in males. Tegmina bend sharply, lending a hump-backed appearance. Yellow stripe usually through eyes, pronotum and tegmina. Large genus with many similar African species. Biology: Eggs inserted into leaves hatch in 3 months, Nymphs of ‘some species mimic ants, being black or dark brown, with ant-like behaviour and shape (and have been found in the company of Camponotus ants). The penultimate instar is green, resembling the adult. Nymphs reach adulthood in 7-11 weeks; adults live for 3-7 months. Adults are excellent broad-leal mimics, and even rock from side to side (wind mimicry’). Habitat: Subtropical forest and scrub. 2 Melidea brunneri Leaf Katydid A Identification: Medium-sized (body length 35 mm), lemon green, with red markings on « antennae and abdomen, Cells of hind margin of wings green (not brown). More robust ey than Phaneroptera (below) and with broader wings. Sound-producing organ on left fore A wing in males is marked in brown. Biology: Like other katydids, feeds on buds, leaves and fruits. Thought to produce a short intermittent rasping call at night. Habitat: Subtropical bushveld as well as succulent karoo. Small genus, which also occurs in central and eastern Africa. 3 Phaneroptera Leaf katydids age) Identification: Medium-sized (body length 30 mm), green, with round eyes and green, unstriped abdomen. End of hind tibiae usually has 3 apical spurs on each side. Fore wings opaque green, at least in the last half; hind wings have a tan dorsal stripe and extend well J _ beyond fore wings. P. sparsa is the commonest of 12 species. Biology: Eggs are laid at the edge of leaves between the upper and lower epidermis. Feed on a range of plant parts, including insect galls containing other insects’ eggs and larvae. Minor pests of tea, cotton and vegetable crops. Habitat: A range of vegetation types. Widespread in most of the Old World. Related species: May be confused with Tylopsis (below). 4 Tylopsis Grass katydids [ S Identification: Medium to large (body length 40 mm), uniformly green, resembling Phaneroptera (above), but with slit-like ‘ears’ on fore legs. White stripe in females (4A), yellow stripe in males (4), running along bottom of abdomen. T. continua and T. rubrescens have a brown or reddish pronotum. Biology: Feed on plant parts, and also on aphids and caterpillars. Grass- rather than leaf-mimics. Habitat: Bushveld and open grassland. Widespread in Alrica, extending into Europe. 7. bilineolata is very common in wetter parts of the region. 5 Conocephalus caudalis Meadow Katydid [ga] Identification: Small (body length 20 mm, excluding 30 mm-long ovipositor), fairly slender and delicate, green with brown dorsal stripe, long hind legs and ovipositor. Females wingless. Biology: Feeds on grasses, grass seed, also moths’ eggs. Habitat: Common in lush grassveld, especially near water. Related species: About 4 species in the genus. C conocephalus (5A) is fairy widespread, tan with brown dorsal stripe: both sexes winged 80 orTHOPTERA © katydids eigonidae1 Terpnistria zebrata Identification: Medium to large (body length 44 mm), with broad thorn-tike spines on legs and small crest on rear of pronotum. Entire body and wings barred in cream , and green, Biology: Leg spines resemble Acacia leaflets and coloration matches Acacia | foliage. Found on Acacia and close relatives. Habitat: Typically southern African genus of ‘bushveld and (often arid) thornveld, although 1 species extendsto East Arca. Related species: I abulata (1A), from KwaZulu-Natal, has a smaller crest on pronotum and lacks leafy outgrowths on hind tibiae. 2 Ruspolia Cone-headed katydids Identification: Large (body length 60 mm), elongate, uniformly green or brown, base we | of jaws yellow. Purple-striped forms (2A) also exist. Biology: Active at night, feeding on ‘grasses and grass seed, cracked with the very powerful jaws (capable of biting deep). Prefer Digitaria and Chloris grasses, but also feed on (and damage) ‘milk’ seed of sorghum, millet and maize. Males produce a very loud continuous (up to 5-minute long) hissing call. One of the few katydid genera that form large locust-like swarms. Eggs are laid in the ground at the base of a grass clump, nymphs hatching in 1-2 months and reaching adult maturity in 2-3 months. Often attracted to lights, where adults are caught by certain tribes who boil, roast and eat them. Habitat: Grassland and open bushveld. 3 Cederbergiana imperfecta Cederberg Rock Katydid >>) Identification: Large (body length 35 mm, hind leg 70 mm long) but very slender, with *, tan to orange body. Legs very thin and long, banded in black, tan and orange, with black barring on hind femora. Ovipositor long and broad. Adult males not known, but probably __ have very small wing pads. Biology: Lives in thin cracks in rock faces. Presence of leg spines suggests adults are predaceous. Habitat: Restricted to Wolfberg Cracks in the Cederberg Mountains. A Zitsikama tessellata Knysna Forest Ground Katydid Identification: Medium-sized (body length 25 mm), dark brown with wavy cream and black longitudinal stripes. Antennae and legs very long, the latter banded in black, orange and tan, with spines on apex of fore tibiae. Males smaller than females, with very short, square tegmina, reduced to wing scales in females. The only species in the genus. Biology: Nocturnal Males sing using the reduced tegmina. Habitat: Leaf litter on floor of wet indigenous forests. 5 Antropteris Shield-backed katydids “J | Mentification: Medium-sized (body length 56 mm, including 25 mm-long ovipositor), copper-pink body evenly speckled with small black dots, with a metallic tinge to parts of body. Base of hind tarsi with 2 elongated pads presumably to assist in jumping. ‘A. semiaenea (5) (body length 21 mm) has a large elongated tan pronotum, with bright green and black markings, and hind femora marked in black. Biology: Males use rudimentary wings concealed beneath the large pronotum to call. Mostly carnivorous, feeding on smaller insects. Habitat: Low bush or on the ground in clearings and secondary growth in forest areas. Related species: Thoracistus (5A) (body length 45 mm, including 20 mm-long ovipositor) has a very inflated olive pronotum with green and black shading; it is a sub- tropical species found on the floor of sand forest in the Northern Province and KwaZulu-Natal. © megalotheca longiceps Wingless Meadow Katydid Identification: Medium-sized (body length of females 29 mm), slender and elongated, 2 | with short legs and very long ovipositor. Either tan or green, with pinkish back and anten: nae, and white stripe along side of body. Females are wingless, but males may have short tegmina. Biology: Restio-mimic, resting with legs held close against stems of restios, on which it probably feeds. Habitat: Restio veld and grassland. Related species: There are 3 other species in the genus. Both KwaZulu-Natal species occur and feed on grasses. 82. oRTHOPTERA © katydids Teluigoninaae1 Hemictonia melanoptera Short-winged Predatory Katydi | | Mdentification: Huge (body length 103 mm, including 40 mm-long ovipositor), squat and 253, | robust, body olive green with cream, grey and purplish markings. Tegmina and hind wings 4/° very reduced, anal area of hind wings dark brown-black. Biology: Nymphs present in winter. Adults carnivorous, appearing in summer. Habitat: Low scrubby vegetation, often in strandveld, adults living in low, thorny bushes. Related species: There are 4 species in the genus in the region. 2 Conia wahlbergi Winged Predatory Katy Identification: Very large (body length 40-65 mm), slender, body apple green with silvery markings. Wings fully developed or slightly shortened, as in all members of the genus. Anal area of hind wings whitish with concentric brown bars. Biology: Voracious predators of other large insects (2A). Can bite severely if mishandled. Active by night, males producing a low buzzing call. Eggs are laid in the ground at the base of bushes. Habitat: Widespread in bushveld, forest margins and grassland. Related species: There are 27 species in the genus in the region. 3 Zabalius aridus True Leaf Katy Identification: Large (body length 60 mm), bright green, with a few peculiar raised orange tubercles on pronotum, and pale blue, pink and tan hind legs. Nymphs (3A) resemble adults, but have a yellow midline stripe and green hind legs. Biology: Broad-leaf mimic. Feeds on leaves of trees and shrubs. Normally slow-moving, but kicks out defensively with the colourful spined hind legs when disturbed. Habitat: Lush forest vegetation, often in gardens. Related species: The closely related Afrotropical Z. apicalis feeds only on young Ficus leaves and lays eggs in rows on the tender shoots, its life cycle from egg to adult taking about 100 days. 4 cymatomera denticollis Bark Katydid Identification: Large (body length 55 mm), with 3 ridges along light grey prothorax. Abdomen barred in red, orange, yellow and black. Fore wings intricately marked in grey, ed brown and orange. Broad grey hind wings banded in light brown. Biology: Magnificent lichen or bark mimic. Like other leaf katydids, active at night. If disturbed, raises wings in a threat posture , revealing colourful abdomen (4A). Habitat: Dry subtropical bushveld. Related species: There are 6 similar-looking species in the genus. Family Gryllidae Crickets Familiar and very common insects, generally shades of brown and black, with 3-segmented tarsi, long thin antennae, hearing organs on fore legs, and sound-producing organs on fore wings (when present). Fore wings are folded horizontally over the body and downwards on each side, forming a saddle-like box over the body. Each fore wing has its own file and mirror (cf. Tettigoniidae), sound production being complex and very well developed. Most species ate nocturnal and onmnivorous. After courtship, the male transfers the sperm package to the female, which has a very thin, long and straight ovipositor. About 70 species are known from the region, but the fauna is undoubtedly far richer. 5 Acanthogryllus fortipes Brown Cricket Identification: Large (body length 25 mm), stocky, with very large and broad pronotum and head. Generally dark brown with tan areas behind head, sides of prothorax and elytral margins. Fore tibiae with long apical spurs, hind tibiae heavily spined with about bas 8 very pronounced long spurs on both inner and outer sides. Both sexes winged, elytra reaching end of abdomen in males. The only species in the genus. Biology: Crops grasses and stores the clippings around the 2 entrances to the burrow. Adults present from November to January, the chirping call of males heard from burrow entrances in spring and summer. Serious pest of lawns, cricket pitches and young. seedlings. Habitat: Common in short-cropped grass. 84 > oRTHOPTERA © katydids, crickets tedhypifaceP eciase1 1 Gryllus bimaculatus Common Garden Cricket Identification: Large (body length 25 mm), males shiny black, females dark brown, both ] with 2 yellow shoulder patches. Biology: When approached, males change their chirping song to a softer, lower call. Highly territorial, males very aggressive towards one another. PF burrows never constructed. Habitat: Backyards, alleys and drains in urban areas; rarely in ‘undisturbed grassy areas. Very widespread, occuring all over Africa and into Europe and Asia, typically in association with human habitation and cities. Related species: There are 2 species in the genus. 2 Teleogryllus wernerianus Identification: Small (body length 15-25 mm), without head markings, both sexes with white palps. Hind wings very long. Biology: The only member of the genus that does not produce the familiar two-part call day and night. Never constructs burrows, using cracks in soil or dry leaves for concealment. Adults present from December to March, migrating to wetter regions in winter (mid-year). Habitat: Mainly in grassland and hedges. Related species: There are 5 species in the genus in the region. The genus occurs all over Africa and Asia. 3 Cophogryllus Mute crickets | ggfaq) Identification: Small (body length 10 mm), both sexes wingless. Body tan, marked with dark brown. Ovipositor longer than hind tibiae. Contains 7 similar species. Biology: Adults hide under stones and logs by day, moving about freely at night. Males are mute. Habitat: Open, exposed (often arid) areas in grassland or woodland Identification: Medium-sized (body length about 19 mm), uniformly dark brown, with pale stripe along edge of fore wings. Hind tibiae heavily spined. Contains 5 species. Biology: Mainly surface-dwellers, although some live in cracks, and 2 shiny species with small hind legs dig their own burrows. Emerge to forage and mate at night (mating call a chirp), Habitat: Abundant in cultivated fields; also seasonally swampy grassland and bushveld. P. primiformis, the most common species, occupies a range of habitats from coastal dunes to montane grassland. 5 > Brachytrupes membranaceus Giant Burrowing Cricket | Identification: Massive (body length 40 mm), heavily built, uniformly pale, yellowish brown, with very broad head and prothorax, and very strongly spined hind legs (nymph shown here). The only species in the genus. Biology: Lives in 150-250 mm-deep tunnels, | witha large chamber at the end. Reputedly the largest, and loudest, cricket in the world, with a powerful, high-intensity, continuous buzzing call that can be heard over 1.5 km away. Males call from outside their burrows. Hunted by Chiorion maxillosum (p. 410) as food for its young. Habitat; Arid, sandy areas. Extends across Africa. Lee 6 Oecanthus Tree crickets, thermometer crickets [— Identification: Small (body length 16 mm), fragile, pale green or straw-coloured, elongate, with translucent wings. All species winged and capable of flight. 0. capensis has black abdominal stripes in mates (6A), the short hind wings in males not extending beyond the | tegmina. Contains 10 similar species. Biology: Chirp rate is temperature dependent and ‘an be used to identity species. For 0. capensis the temperature in degrees celcius equals number of chirps in 3 seconds + 11; for O. karschi, number of chirps in 6 seconds + 12. Leaves are used as cones to amplify the mating chirp, one species calling from just behind a small hole that it gnaws in a leaf. Eggs are laid in a row in a deep slit in young shoots, often causing wilting and death of peach tree shoots. Food includes aphids and young caterpillars. Habitat: Trees, shrubs, grasses, bushes and weeds, often in gardens. Prefer the garden tree Ficus nitida. 0. capensis is very common in the Western Cape. 86 oRTHOPTERA © crickets ‘iyitidae1 Family Gryllotalpidae Mole crickets | Mentification: Cylindrical, light brown and furry, with fore legs massively developed for burrowing, much like those of true moles; hind legs not enlarged. Some species are wing- less, but those in the region have short fore wings with very large, fan-shaped hind wings folded beneath them, the tips sticking out like 2 spikes. Similar file on each fore wing in males. Small family, with 3 species in the region, 1 of them endemic. Biology: Males produce a characteristic uninterrupted deep buzzing sound, which is hard to locate, by rubbing together the files on their fore wings. Do not often jump, but often fly to lights. Feed on plant roots, and may be pests of (wet) lawns or bowling greens. Some species feed on potatocs and strawberrics at night. Eggs are laid in a nest chamber in the burrow, and the 10 larval stages take 2 years to reach maturity. Gryllotalpa africana (shown here) (body length 25-30 mm) constructs a permanent burrow up to 1m in depth. Males call from a fork near the mouth of the burrow, which amplifies the sound. Habitat: Very moist or waterlogged soils in gardens or near vleis, river banks and streams. 6. africana is widespread in the region. 2 Subfamily Trigo: nae Pygmy bush crickets Identification: Subfamily of Gryllidae, which includes miniature, subtropical or tropical crickets. Fore wings short and hardened, without stridulatory apparatus. Hind tibiae without smaller spines between long spines. Ovipositor flattened and upturned. Second tarsal segment short, widened and flattened. Trigonidium (shown here) (body length 5 ian) has a cherry red head, black body with grooved beetle-like tegmina, and yellowish green legs. Biology: Perch in exposed positions on leaves during the day. Habitat: Trees and shrubs in areas with high summer rainfall 3 Family Mogoplistidae Scaly crickets my | Wdentification: Slender-bodied and flattened, covered in translucent scales. Wings very short or absent. Hind tibiae lack long spines but have apical spurs). Hind femora are stout. The species in the region are small (body length 8 mm), cylindrical and brown, with long _| cerci held parallel to the ovipositor. There are 2 genera in the region: Mogoplistes and Arachnocephalus, which has 6 species. Biology: Apparently nocturnal, hiding during the day between leaf bases. Habitat: Shrubs and trees in bushveld and forest edges. Mogoplises also occurs in Europe and tropical Arica, Arachnocephalus has an almost cosmopolitan distsibution in the tropics. 4 Family Tridactylidae Pygmy mole crickets Mentification: Small (body length less than 20 mm), shiny black or sand-coloured, with shortened fore wings and long hind wings (but may nevertheless be flightless). Fore legs well-developed, hind legs with characteristic tibial spur longer than tarsi, used for digging, Hind femora may be bigger than abdomen. There are 2 genera in the region: Tridactylus and Xya (shown here), each with 1 species. Biology: Live in small tunnels just below the surface of soil, and emerge to feed on damp soil, ingesting the algae associated with it. Able to walk on and even jump off the surface of water or swim, Habitat: Moist soil associated with sandy shores of pans, rivers or the sea 5 Family Tetrigidae (Tettigidae) Groundhoppers, grouse locusts Identification: Resemble small grasshoppers, but are easily distinguished by massive extension of the hood-like pronotum, which usually covers the entire top of body. Fore wings reduced to small scales, hind wings large and fan-like. Tetilla (SA) are small (body length 7 mm), stocky, plain brown, with a large, broad, curved pronotal hood. The genus ‘occurs in many colour forms, all wingless. Biology: Diumal, but attracted to lights. Although cryptic, may be numerous, often swept in large numbers from moist, open ground. Many swim well. Adults feed on small plants and algae, and breed in spring, Eggs are not laid in a pod. Habitat: Widespread in damp localities, often seepages or stream margins, 88 orTHOPTERA © crickets, grasshoppers1 Family Euschmidtiidae Bush hoppers Identification: Small (body length 20 mm), body flattened from side to side, antennae | short. Many species short-winged or wingless. When magnified, inner end of hind tibiae shows a single spine. Amatonga (shown here) contains 2 species, both medium-sized (body LNs | length 24 mm), green or brown, with characteristic cylindrical body tapering at both ends, very short antennae, and white cheek stripe. Sit with hind legs positioned at 90° to the body and flat on substrate. There are 8 species in the region. Biology: Foodplants are varied, but include ferns and conifers. Habitat: Normally found on shrubs (rarely on grasses) in grassland, bushveld and forest margins Family Thericleidae Small grasshoppers, very similar to Euschmidtiids (above), but distinguished under magnification by 2 well- developed spurs at inner ends of hind tibiae. Occur on shrubs and small trees rather than grasses. There are 78 species known from the region. Identification: Small (body length of males 10 mm), stocky, with short rod-like antennae, very large eyes, abdomen upturned at the end. Wingless, with white markings on brown body. Legs green. Biology: Found on toxic plant Dichapetalum cymosum, Habitat: Shrubs in grassland and bushveld. 3 Pseudothericles Identification: Small (body length 17 mm), with very short antennae, large prothorax and | very conical upturned head. Wingless, mostly green, with very broad green hind femora. Contains 4 similar species. Biology: Feed on leaves of shrubs and herbs. Habitat: Disturbed vegetation in bushveld and forest margins. 4 Brachytypus rotundifrons Identification: Small (body length 10 mm), stocky, ight tan, pink or plum-coloured, with | on very short antennae and large eyes. Wingless. Hind femora green, very broad, with toothed oe ee margin and very large brown knee. Biology: Feeds only on young shoots of a few species = of shrubs. Habitat: Subtropical bushveld and grassveld. Family Pneumoridae Bladder grasshoppers Unmistakable, large, usually bright green, arboreal grasshoppers, with very large and inflated pronotum, disproportionately so in nymphs. Males have very large and broad fore wings, and shorter hind wings without the large folding janal) lobe. Females usually have reduced wings that are almost hidden beneath the prono- tum. Hind legs are not enlarged for jumping. In males, the abdomen is hollow and inflated, acting as a resonating chamber for sound production; hind femora have ridges that are rubbed against ridges on the abdomen, Mating call of males very loud and far-reaching. Restricted feeding habits, with usually only 2 host plants. Feeding generally takes place in the day, mating at night. Some live in forests, others in the drier western parts of the region. Virtually endemic, with 17 species known from the region (2 forest species of Physophorina extending to East Africa). 5 Pneumora inanis Bladder Grasshopper =] | Wentification: Very large (body length 62-86 mm), the only species in a genus character- Z ized by a non-inflated pronotum. Emerald green or brownish red, with white edge to pronotum and 2 white spots on tegmina, Females have more-silvery spots on body and on the short wings. Biology: Male call isa long screech followed by a repeated ‘khonia’ sound. Nymphs disperse soon after hatching and develop through the 6 instars from March to November (the rainy season in the Western Cape). Habitat: Subtropical forest 90 3 orTHOPTERA ¢ grasshoppers Fuschmidtiidae, Thericteidae: Paeumori1 Bullacris intermedia Bladder Grasshopper, Hekiejee, Gonna | Identification: Medium-sized (body length 44-49 mm), males (1) green with brown and yellow bar along metathorax, females (1A) green with 3 rows of silvery markings on | abdomen. The 4 to 6 nymphal instars have a very large pronotum and silvery markings. a iology: Adults appear in early spring and, when approached, hide behind branches. Males produce a loud frog-like groan in the early morning, which carries up to 2 km; they are territorial and fight one another. Small wingless males, without the inflated abdomen, employ ‘sneak’ tactics, mating with females without making a mating call. Cup-shaped egg pods deposited in a shallow hole below the foodplant, hatching dependent on rainfall. The genus is fairly host-specific, usually on Asteraceae, e.g. Metalasia. Habitat: Patchily distributed in semi-arid vegetation, typically succulent karoo and renosterveld. Related species: There are 7 similar-looking species in the genus. In B, serrata (body length 50-55 mm), the pronotum has an irregular outline and a red line along the top, females (1B) more evenly marked with white patches than males (10). B. membracioides teeds on Helichrysum and the thistle Berkheya. 2 Physemacris variolosus Silver-spotted Bladder Grasshopper i Identification: Medium-sized (body length 39-50 mm), olive green, both sexes heavily and evenly marked with silver spots. Pronotum has a few large tooth-like ridges. Females are wingless. Biology: Like most pneumonids, males fly at night. They spend much time flying around and calling from low bushes late at night (from 22h00), the high screeching call sounding like the word ‘hatchigeeee’. The male flies to the female after she responds to his mating call with her softer call. Known to feed on Renosterbos (Elytropappus rhinoceratus). Habitat: Open fynbos and renosterveld. Family Pamphagidae Large (body length up to 70 mm), primitive, heavily built grasshoppers, normally cryptically coloured in dull earthy shades or superb stone-mimics. When viewed from above. the snout region of the head ras a short fur- row running towards the eyes (the fastigial furrow). Very broad, sword-shaped, triangular antennae, not round in cross section. Very rough body surface, often bearing tubercles and spines. Pronotum has a raised keel-ike est, which may be punctured by a series of small holes. Many species have winged males and wingless females. Most males are able to stridulate. Of the 71 species known from the region, about hall are endemic. 3 Hoplolopha Saw-backed locusts _ a | Identification: Fairly large (body length 38-43 mm), typically with wingless females (3) and winged males (3A). Females are various shades of brownish and greenish grey, males steel grey with a cream cheek and prothoracic stripe and pale yellow hind wings. Antennae = flattened. Contains 8 species. Biology: Sluggish. Produce egg cases with a swollen base. Habitat: Arid shrubby areas with low vegetation, 4 Lamarckiana Rain locusts aad a | Identification: Large (body length 60-100 mm), generally uniformly grey, with very flattened antennae, and cream cheek and prothoracic stripe. Males winged (4), with smoky black hind wings; females (4A) winless. cucullata isthe largest grasshopper in the region. Contains 20 large species. Biology: Nocturnal, sluggish, males calling from trees, females resting on the ground. Avoid grasses. When flushed, males fly strongly for some distance. Habitat: Various low vegetation types, usually in semi-arid areas with bare ground. Mostly subtropical 5 stolliana angusticornis = Identification: Large (body length 77 mm), grey, with raised pronotum witha cream stripe. Thin cylindrical antennae. Males have dark brown hind wings and black bar on tegmina. \ Females are wingless. Biology: Males fly strongly when flushed. Habitat: Rocky mountain Ae slopes in arid areas. Related species: There are 6 species in the genus. 92 oORTHOPTERA ¢ grasshoppers, locusts Preumdridae/ Pamphagidse1 Batrachotetrix stolli Toad Grasshopper [ ae | ‘dentification: Medium-sized (body length 20 mm), stout, wingless, with flat broad prono- -3, | tum and broad hind tibiae (common to genus). Various colour forms, colour and texture 7 | perfectly matching grey flintstone substrate. Males smaller than females. Biology: Folds antennae against the head when approached and remains immobile. Habitat: Open, well- drained, pebbly patches between low shrubs in semi-arid regions. Related species: There are species in the genus. Pinkish species (body length 24 mm) ate found on sands and are winged. Most species occur in the Northern Cape and Namaqualand 2 Trachypetrella Stone grasshoppers Identification: Large (body length 71 mm), very squat and toad-like. Remarkable stone- | mimics that match not only the colour of semi-transtucent pinkish white quartz stones among which they live, but also the texture, including chipped fracture planes of stones. Wings vestigal. Antennae thin and can be withdrawn into sockets. Legs have a border of hairs that smoothens the body contour when withdrawn, eliminating tell-tale shadows. Contains 2 similar species. Biology: When molested, raise hind legs and lash out with great strength and speed while producing a grating sound. Habitat: Restricted to arid quartz plains with very litle vegetation, 3 Loboscetiana i @_ | Identification: Large (body length 43-68 mm), brown, with tan pronotum edged with white stripe and with 2 brown wedge-shaped markings. Antennae broad and flattened. Males winged, with brown hind wings. Females wingless. Nymphs uniformly light brown, with large pronotum. Biology: Not known. Habitat: Dry leaves on floor of deciduous woodland, Family Pyrgomorphidae Foam grasshoppers, lubber grasshoppers small to large grasshoppers distinguished by a combination of bright colours, conical head, fastigial furrow (see Pamphagidae, p. 92), and a pair of warty crescents on cither side of the fastigial furrow. All stages of wing reduction occur in various species. Many have warning coloration and can produce a foamy defensive secretion; a few can produce sound. Most feed on herbs or shrubs, but rarely on grasses. Many species are gregarious at all stages. There are 39 species known from the region 4 Phymateus morbillosus Common Milkweed Locust gm | Mdentification: Large (body length 60-72 mm), bulky, with red thorax or red knobs on green prothorax. Fore wings dark bluish green with yellowish veins, hind wings mostly red. Red legs with purplish bases. Biology: Adults lay eggs in late summer, eggs hatching the __| following spring. in common with other large species in the genus, nymphs take 2 years to reach maturity. Adult populations, peak in alternate years. Prefers the milkweed Asclepias fraticosus, as do most species in the genus, but also recorded from Solanum panduraeforme, and will feed on citrus and a variety of garden plants. Nymphs form bands, which migrate to new foodplants. When molested, gravid females give a threat display by raising the wings. Habitat: Open veld, in groups on isolated milkweed bushes. 5 Phymateus viridipes Green Milkweed Locust | \dentification: Large (body length 70 mm), body and fore wings green, hind wings red | and blue. Pronotum with raised serrated ridge tipped with red. Nymphs (5A) spotted black and yellow. Biology: Like most Phymateus species, raises and rustles wings when alarmed. | and produces an evil-smelling foam from the thoracic joints. Flies strongly at some height in late summer, forming swarms of many thousands and migrating long distances. Habitat: Grassland. Related species: There are 9 species in the genus. P. /eprosus (5B) has gregarious shiny black and green nymphs (5Q and is an occasional pest of young citrus trees in the Eastern Cape. Human fatalities from ingestion are known. 94 oRTHOPTERA © grasshoppers, locusts famphasidas, Rrrtomerohidag1 Dictyophorus spumans Koppie Foam Grasshopper, Rooibaadjie Identification: Large (body length 64 mm), bulky, familiar, with red and black body and legs, and abdomen banded black and white. Flightless, with short to very short 3” | reddish tegmina and no hind wings. Biology: Like many in the family, extracts and stores heart poisons (cardiac glycosides) from the milkweeds on which it feeds, and exudes these (1A) when molested. Known to be fatal to dogs if eaten. Habitat: Open, often rocky, areas with low vegetation. Frequently encountered on mountain tops. Related species: There are 2 species in the genus. 2 Zonocerus elegans Elegant Grasshopper me | Identification: Medium to large (body length 28-50 mm), head mainly black, antennae | black with orange rings. Tegmina long or short, pinkish black or greenish at the base. The gregarious hoppers are black and white. Biology: Pest of irrigated smallholdings, _| damaging vegetables and fruit trees in the Northern Cape and Free State. In tropical areas, @ pest of cotton, cocoa, coffee and many other crops, In nature, shows a preference for the milkweed Asclepias fruticosus, Senecio and Solanum panduraejorme (rarely grasses). Can emit a nauseating yellow fluid when disturbed. Eggs are laid communally in autumn and remain in the ground for 6 months, hatching in spring and reaching maturity in 75 days. One generation per year. Males produce sounds during aggressive interaction. Livestock avoid eating bushes infested with this species. Habitat: Ubiquitous on low shrubs in subtropical areas. Related species: The other (more tropical) species in the genus, Z. variegatus, has a mainly yellow head with reduced black patterning, 1-2 orange bands on the antennae, and large plain green tegmina. 3 Ochrophlebia 2) | Adentification: Medium-sized (body length 32 mm), lightly built, with cream, yellow and A black variegated body. Wings sireaked with black and yellow, hind wings pinkish purple. Biology: Adults are slow-moving and are found on low vegetation or on the ground. Habitat: Semi-arid, open, succulent karoo vegetation. Identification: Medium to large (body length 52 mm), Mostly uniformly grass green, with very broad tegmina; hind wings orange. Prothorax covered in bumps. T. stali is very colourful, with black and red thorax and legs, yellow abdomen, and olive green tegmina. Contains 3 medium-to-large species in the genus. Biology: Produce a noxious foam when ‘molested T stali feeds on small woody plants. Habitat: Grassland and open bushveld. Family Lentulidae A few large species, but mostly small, typically sluggish grasshoppers, lacking wings, sound-producing organs and fastigial furrow (see Pamphagidae, p. 92). Eyes, head and thorax very large. A few species occur in leaf litter, but the majority are tree or shrub dwellers, often found in groups. Frequently restricted to specific host species. About 50 species (in 20 genera) are known from the region, most from subtropical parts. The family reaches its greatest diversity in southern Africa, with many endemic species. 5 Lentula r Adentification: Smallish (body length 19 mm), cylindrical, wingless, large head and thorax. giving the body a conical appearance. Prominent white stripe through cheek and thorax. Contains 4 species. Biology: Sluggish, basking on the upper surtace of leaves, but can dodge rapidly behind them. Most feed on a restricted range of plants, often including wild thistle (Berkheyo). L. obtusifrons feeds on Renosterbos (Elytropappus rhinoceratus), L. callani on daisy bushes (Furyops) in the Western Cape, heavy infestations killing plants. Habitat: Woody shrubs and herbs. 96 ORTHOPTERA © grasshoppers, locusts Pyrgomorphidae, Lentulidae1 Paralentula prasinata |. ay | 'dentification: Medium-sized females (body length 26 mm) and much smaller males, as G25, | in all species in the genus. Very similar to Lentula (previous pagel, but with single black We stripe above lateral white cheek and thoracic stripe. Body brown with orange ee speckling, hind femora olive green. Biology: Can defoliate Maytenus and other bushes. Habitat: Common in subtropical bushveld. Related species: There are 4 species in the genus. 2 Devylderia Identification: Medium-sized (body length 35 mm), wingless, convincing twig-mimics. Grey, faintly mottled with pale orange. Fairly long serrated antennae. Males less than half the size of females. Contains 3 species. Biology: Very common in summer, males usually arried on the backs of females, even when not copulating, Habitat: Only in thick bushes in fynbos (especially on the top of Table Mountain), renosterveld or succulent karoo. 3 Betiscoides meridionalis “Z} | Mentification: Medium-sized (body length 36 mm), superb restio-stem mimic, coloured ek ane longitudinally in 3 stripes of green, grey and brown, Body smooth, Biology: Probably feeds ec” | 07 restos. Adults present from January to May. Habitat: Restricted to resto stands on | mountain siopes and plateaus. Related species: Largest of 3 common species in the genus Bacteracris similar but with roughened body. Family Acrididae Short-horned grasshoppers, locusts The largest and most familiar grasshopper family, recognized by short and stout antennae, wings in most adults, and a hearing organ (tympanum) on each side of the abdomen. The egg-laying tube of the female is short and usually concealed, as are the male genitalia, and the abdomen in males always turns up at the end. Herbivorous, favouring a range of grasses and often consuming more even than antelope and cattle (up to 130 kg of grass yearly per hectare). Nevertheless, most species are habitat-specific, Eggs are laid in groups in soil and mixed with a frothy substance that hardens to form the egg pod. Hind legs usually have pegs, which, when rubbed against a strengthened vein in the fore wing, make the characteristic chirping all. The 356 species known {rom the region are incorporated in 13 sublamiles. 4 Truxalis [~~ gig | Mdentification: The 2 large (body length 70 mm) species in the genus have hind wings with | a characteristic mottled black pattern, caused by darkened wing veins. Stridulatory serra- | tions on inner side of hind femora and top of abdomen. Biology: Rest on the ground —| between tufts of long grass (4A). Habitat: subtropical grassveld. 5 Acrida acuminata Common Stick Grasshopper T Me | Identification: Large (body length 66 mm), elongate, green or straw-coloured (occasion- | ally striped), with yellow or purplish hind wings. Slender nymphs, resembling small mantids. Biology: Life cycle similar to that of Cyrtacanthacris (p. 100), with adults present am —! fora few summer months only. Female lays eggs in sandy areas, producing a very long egg, pod with a hard wall. Feeds on various long, tough and soft grasses. Flies readily, making a loud crackling noise (louder in males) by rubbing the wings together. Habitat: Widespread in fairly long grass in open sandy habitats in the region and in Central Africa, rarely in gardens. Occurs on the Cape Peninsula (as does A. turrita). Related species: There are 7 species in the genus, easily confused with Truxalis (above) and Truxaloides (next page), but lacking stridulatory serrations on inner side of hind femora. 98 oRTHOPTERA e@ grasshoppers, locusts Lentulidae, Acrididae1 Truxaloides Identification: Large (body length 50 mm) but slender, green with grey stripes, wavy white lines on tegmina separating green and brown longitudinal stripes. Hind wings without mottled black pattern (cf. Truxalis, previous page). Truxaloides broziliensis has magenta hind wings. Stridulatory serrations on inner side of hind femora and top of abdomen. ‘The 4 large slender species in the genus are very similar to Acrda (previous page). Biology: Make brief but strong flights, alighting on bare ground. Habitat: Areas with some long grass. 2 Ortacanthacris aeruginosa Green Tree Locust - Identification: Large (body length 55 mm) and stocky, apple green with red band behind head, green stripe on prothorax, and thin white line along wings. Tegmina with yellow spot at base, hind wings pale yellow. Biology: Common breeding cycle in which sexually L "| immature adults survive the dry season and lay eggs in response to the first rains. Eggs hatch simultaneously and nymphal development is completed during the rainy season. Minor pest of vegetables and tobacco, and a nuisance in gardens. Habitat: Rank (often shrubby) vegetation with long grass. Related species: There are 2 species in the genus. 3 Abisares viridipennis Identification: Large (body length 53 mm), rufous brown and grey, with very long anten- nae, weakly banded legs, and large notched prothoracic crest. Eyes have characteristic : vertical bands. Nymphs (3A) like adults, but grey or green, The only species in the genus. = __| Biology: Slow-moving. Sits on low herbs. Habitat: Shaded subtropical forest and bushveld. 4 Nomadacris septemfasciata Red Locust Ay Identification: Large (body length 51-72 mm). Tegmina very long, brown or reddish 1pm brown, often with pale dorsal stripe and a few oblique, parallel, brownish bands where dark brown spots have coalesced. Hind wings clear with red or purple base. Hind tibiae red. The only species in the genus. Biology: Major pest in tropical Africa, where swarms (as long as 30-60 km and 3-4 km wide) can develop. Maize, wheat, sorghum, sugar cane and various grasses are favoured foods. Nymphs develop in floodplains after the first summer rains. One generation per year. Habitat: Subtropical grassland. Swarms occasionally under very humid conditions in coastal KwaZulu-Natal ‘and Mozambique floodplains, spreading into the Northern Province, Northern Cape and Free State. 5. Locustana pardalina Brown Locust Identification: Occurs in 2 distinct phases (forms): the larger (body length 41-51 mm), gregarious (migratory) form (5) changing {rom yellowish grey to yellow when sexually mature, with characteristically constricted pronotum. Wings very long, covered in black spots from about halfway along their length to the transparent tip, hind wings pale blue. In the smaller (body length 26-36 mm), solitary phase, adults are green, mottled with brown and black. Black and orange nymphs (hoppers or ‘rooibaadjies’) aggregate in bands. Biology: Major pest in the Karoo (incurring costs of R28 million in 1986). Eggs rest in a diapause stage over the dry Karoo winter until heavy summer rains synchronize hatching. May complete 3 generations in a wet summer, but usually 2~4 generations per year Large swarms (SA) occur sporadically (every 7—11 years). Insecticides sprayed to conteol swarms kill harmless insects. Primarily a grass-feeder, attacking cereal crops oy, in their absence, vegetables. Adults are preyed on by a sphecid wasp (Prionyx, p. 412), and eggs are parasitized by bombylid fies Systoechus sp. p. 284) and 2 other fly species (Stomorhina lunata and Wohifarhtia euvittata), which also live inside the ‘hoppers’ and can kill as much asa third of the population, Habitat: Semi-arid regions of the central Karoo. In plague years, swarms may spread to most parts of the region except the Western Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and the coastal Eastern Cape. 100 ortHoPTERA e grasshoppers, locusts iets’1 Acanthacris ruficornis Garden Locust | Identification: Large (body length 65 mm), familiar, with midline cream stripe down dark brown thorax and wings. Hind tibiae have well-developed white and red spines. Hind wings pale lemon. Nymphs (1A), in contrast, are soft and bright green (some later - becoming brown or pink). The only species in the genus. Biology: Feeds on leaves, buds and flowers of various trees, but also on grasses. Life cycle similar to that of Cyrtacanthacris (previous page). Adults common in autumn, when approximately 120 very large eggs are laid loosely in a weak pod, often in freshly turned soil. Winter is probably spent in the egg stage, and nymphs appear in October. Wings of adults produce a crackling sound in flight. These strong insects can break human skin when they kick, using the spines on the hind legs. Nymphs jump weakly. Habitat: Found on bushes or trees in open ground, especially in stands of Port Jackson Willow (Acacia saligna), but also in gardens. Absent from very atid areas. 2 Anacridium moestum Tree Locust ie Identification: Very large (body length 50-90 mm) but slender, with mottled reddish brown or grey body, and grey, finely speckled tegmina, Hind wings pale blue with broad black band near base. Hind tibiae purple (yellowish in the similar Desert Locust Schistocerca s | gregaria, below). Nymphs (hoppers) are yellowish green. Biology: Swarms on occasion Preterred foodplants are Acacia, Zizyphus, Capparis aphylla and gum trees. Can damage crops, specifically fruit trees in the Free State, Habitat: Always in trees or shrubs in veld with scattered acacias. Related species: There are 4 species in the genus. 3 Schistocerca gregaria Desert Locust ification: Large (body length 72 mm). Exists in 2 forms: a yellowish swarming phase ae) ide (pink when freshly moulted) and a greenish white solitary phase. Prothorax contrastingly marked with 3 cream stripes and a number of short brown stripes. Eyes have vertical stripes — (ct. plain dark eyes in Locustana pardalina, previous page, which it resembles). Tegmina very long, whitish owing to cream-colored veins, but otherwise covered in black spots like those of L. pardalina, Hind wings pale yellow. The subspecies S. gregaria flaviventris (Southern African Desert Locust) occurs in South Africa. Biology: Rarely, if ever, swarms in the region, although present in both solitary and swarming phases. Major pest in North Africa where it forms huge swarms. Areas of outbreak are unpredictable, but swarms move downwind with rain, Damages wheat crops in the Free State. Habitat: Arid parts of the region (Gordonia district). Absent from humid, forested parts. Occasionally swarms along the Orange (Gariep) River. feeding on a wide range of crops 4 Gastrimargus Identification: Large (body length 52 mr), stocky, with both green and brown forms. Head, thorax, wing bases-and hind femora boldly patterned in bright green and dark | brown. Hind wings banded in yellow and black. Contains 15 similar-looking species. . Biology: Strong fliers. Eggs overwintered, one generation completed per year. Feed on both tough and soft grasses (mostly of the subfamily Andropogonae). Habitat: Variety of habitats, including well-grassed areas and shrubby thicket. 5 Heteracris [ Identification: Medium-sized (body length 30 mm), with bold and elegant olive green and ‘anary yellow markings. Hind femora banded in yellow and black. Antennae very long. | Contains 4 medium-sized species, all very distinctive. Biology: Mostly alert, agile fliers, _s alighting on exposed branches and rocks. Habitat: Grasses and herbs in the shade of riverine trees. Subtropical. 102 oRrTHOPTERA © locusts, grasshoppers ‘Acrididae1 Paracinema tricolor Vlei Grasshopper Identification: Large (body length 47 mm), bright green with a cinnamon band running along entire length of body, wings shading to brown towards the tip (1A), Hind tibiae bright red. The only species in the genus. Biology: Typically flushed from reeds or tall grasses in eis, where it flies accurately and strongly, resettling on a grass stem with head upright Habitat: Very widespread. Apparently prefers wet habitats with tall grasses. 2 Orthoctha dasycnemis Identification: Medium-sized (body length 22 mm), slender, green with cream stripe along top of wings. Tegmina dark brown with thin green margin. Hind legs green, shading to red. Long antennae. Biology: Eggs overwintered, one generation completed per year. __| Feeds on tough and soft grasses, especially Setaria perennis. Habitat: Common in areas of ‘thick tall grass. Related species: There are 17 similar species in the genus. 3 Leptacris elegans Elegant Grass-mimicking Grasshopper a Identification: Large (body length 60 mm) and elongate, body cigar-shaped and straw- |) 4S coloured, with continuous pale yellow stripe running along cheeks, thorax and femora. ey Wings and hind legs short. Antennae flattened and short. Biology: Excellent grass-mimic, “| generally resting with legs drawn tightly against the body. Habitat: Grassland in open ‘bushweld, Related species: There are 2 species in the genus 4 Cannula gracilis Grass-mimicking Grasshopper Identification: Large (body length 60 mr), long and slender, yellow-brown, with very elongate head and flattened antennae. Wings plain brown. Biology: Superb grass-mimic, dinging tightly to grass stems. Habitat: Common in open grassland. Related species: There are 2 species in the genus. 5 Conistica saucia Rock Grasshopper Identification: Medium to large (body length 38 mm), dark brown with fine black pep- pering, long antennae, bright red hind tibiae. Hind wings bright magenta with black border (5A). The only species in the genus. Biology: Brilliant hind wings displayed in short agile flights from large rocks. Habitat: Only on rocky mountain slopes or mountain paths. Burrowing grasshoppers Identification: Medium-sized (body length 20-30 mm), familiar, with large and bulging eyes, middle legs elongated for digging. Hind legs banded with black. Hind wings banded “| inred and blue, or clear with black border (6A). Contains 20 species. Biology: Poor fliers, displaying banded hind wings in flight. Bury themselves when disturbed or in windy conditions, using the middle legs. Stridulate loudly. Egg pod with hard wall, lacking a cap. Rising spring temperatures break the resting period (diapause) of the eggs. There are 2 generations per year. A. patruelis is the commonest Karoo grasshopper and feeds predominantly on soft grass (in Mpumalanga mainly on the grass Digitaria eriantha), one of the first invaders to recolonize an area after fire. Habitat: Loose shifting sand or hard gravelly soil in open disturbed areas, e.g. road verges. There are 4 species on the Cape Peninsula. 7 Tmetanota Identification: Fairly small (body length 19-24 mm), dark brownish grey, with rough | surface. Large white patches on head, base of hind femora and base of tegmina. Red and | black band on hind wings. Contains 5 similar-looking species. Biology: Poor fliers. Never occur in large numbers. Probably feed on short grass. Habitat: Overgrazed and trampled open spaces. 104 orTHOPTERA © grasshoppers ‘ctididae’1 1 Sphingonotus scabriculus Blue-wing | Identification: Medium-sized (body length 24-32 mm), colour varies to match soil or stone substrate. Lighter-coloured specimens occur on limestone. Head, thorax and first third of wings dark brown, with 4 brown bands over remainder of tegmina. Hind wings blue with very broad, completely black band, abdomen light blue (1A). Biology: Makes a characteristic click or snap of the wings during short, buoyant flights, and settles briefly after displaying the colourful hind wings. Never occurs in large numbers. Habitat: Bare stony ground with sparse low vegetation. Widespread. Related species: There are 4 similar-looking species in the genus. 2 Rhachitopis | Identification: Medium-sized (body length 22 mm), stocky, brown, with white markings ‘on head and metathorax. Tegmina brown with tan stripe, continuous with a stripe along each side of head and thorax. Hind wings pale yellow (2A). Contains 6 similar-looking | SP! species. Biology: Clumsy fliers, spending much time on the ground. Habitat: Well-drained open areas with stubble (karooid) vegetation. 3 Catantops humeralis Identification: Medium-sized (body length 20-25 mm), stocky, with characteristic black, white and grey hind femora, and large black patches outlined in white on head and thorax. Nymphs uniformly coloured in shades of green or brown. Biology: Adults common. from late summer to July. Usually found in association with Eyprepocnemis caleata. Attracted to thick vegetation (e.g. Euphorbia thickets). Re-settles on plants, never on open ground, when disturbed, Feeds mainly on leaves of shrubs, such as Burkea africana and Grewia flavescens. Re-invades burned areas when herbs begin to sprout. One generation per year, with overwintering adults. Habitat: Long grass or, less often, short scrub, Related species: There are 9 species in the genus, ay Eyprepocnemis plorans Ga | identification: Medium-sized (body length 30 mm), stocky, predominantly grey with | brown stripe along top of body. Hind tibiae armed with well-developed white spines. | Biology: Ege pod straight, with rudimentary wall. Adults occur in late summer and early winter and are particularly common in the Western Cape, Habitat: Long grass or short scrub. Related species: There are 3 species in the genus. 5 oedaleus Yellow wings Identification: Medium-sized (body length 28-42 mm), stocky, occurring in a number of | colour variations. Grey body, sharply marked in black and white. Tegmina largely black, 7 | banded with brown, hind wings banded yellow and black. Abdomen yellow. Contains a 6 common species. Biology: Egg pods curved and constricted in the middle, and laid in firm or very hard ground, There are 2 generations per year. Have been observed to flash the yellow- and black- banded hind wings at the approach of a wasp. Feed on short grasses. Males callin flight using the hind legs. Habitat; Open pebbly or sandy spaces with sparse grass cover, often heavily grazed. Avoid tall grasses. 0. nigrofasciatus occurs on the Cape Peninsula. 6 Tylotropidius ~ Identification: Fairly large (body length 47 mm), dull-looking, uniformly grey with brown [es tegmina banded in black. Hind femora long and distinctive. Contains 2 similar-looking species, Biology: Active and mobile, moving half a kilometre a day. One generation per [Sx “| year, with overwintering adults. Feed on a variety of soft grasses and are unusual in that the feed on dry grass in winter. Re-invade burned areas very slowly. Habitat: Long grasses in bushveld and grassland. Locally abundant in dense stands of Panicum maximum, 106 oRtHOPTERA ¢ grasshoppers Acrididae- ORDER PHASMATODEA Large, slow-moving insects with very elongate, slender b and legs, well known for their ability to mimic twigs or leaves. Stick insects are unlikely to be confused with other insects, except perhaps grass-mantids (which have large eyes and grasping fore legs). Their heads are rectangular to oval, with small eyes and strong biting mouthparts. The first thoracic segment is short, but the second and third segments are greatly elongated and cylindrical. The abdomen has 11 long segments and ends in a pair of tails (cerci), which may be modified into daspers in the male. The very long, thin walking legs are sometimes ornamented with lobes or spines, but are otherwise unmodified and not capable of jumping. Wings may or may not be present, and are usually strongly developed only in males. Where present, fore wings are short and tough, and only partially cover the hind wings, which are longer, opaque and hardened anteriorly, and broad and membranous posteriorly. All stick insects are nocturnal herbivores and are difficult to spot, creeping slowly around on their food plants. if disturbed, they may perform rhythmic rocking and swaying movements or fall to the ground and feign death. Some, when provoked, suddenly raise their brightly coloured hind wings ina threat display, only rarely flying away. Males are usually smaller, thinner and far less numerous than females. Parthenogenesis is common, and many stick insects are known only from females. Nymphs look like adults. Eggs are large and hard, resembling seeds, and, usually, are simply dropped on the ground. Some species cement them, however, to the substratum. Of some 2 500 known species, about 50 occur in the region. Family Heteronemiidae Common walking stick insects A large cosmopolitan family whose members are more convincing as stick mimics than any other family of phasmids. There are about 30 species in the region. The family contains the biggest and most spectacular stick mimics, with winged males. There are 5 very large species in the region. 1 Bactrododema tiaratum Giant Stick Insect [gy | Identification: Large (body length of females 250 mm, males 110 mm), body uniformly dark brown, with rough, bark-like texture and pronounced double spike on top of head. Males (shown here) have fully developed hind wings, the smoky brown membrane marked with darker veins and clear spots. One of the largest species in the region. Biology: Sways rhythmically when disturbed. Males may flash their wings in a threat display (1) and are capable of weak sustained flight. Often attracted at night to lights, where they are found on walls the following morning. Habitat: Trees and shrubs, especially in warmer regions. Related species: Two similar, very large Palophus species. 2 Carausius morosus Indian Stick Insect, Laboratory Stick Insect Oe i Identification: Medium-sized (body length 75 mm), relatively fat and robust, uniformly Xe yellow or green, with characteristic bright red flash on inner surface of front legs. Occasional knobs on body, sometimes forming a line along the sides. Biology: Feeds _| mainly on ivy and privet, but accepts numerous foodplants. Reproduces partheno- genetically, only females reported. Eggs (2A) hatch in 4-6 months, the fragile nymphs taking 4-6 months to reach maturity. Habitat: Common in suburban gardens and natural fynbos on the Cape Peninsula. Native to India, probably introduced to Cape Town for laboratory use. 108 PHASMATODEA @ stick insects Neteronemiidae1 Zehntneria mystica 2) ] Mentification: Medium-sized (body length 60 mm), slate grey with black-tipped spikes on iS 24 body, especially along posterior margins of thoracic and abdominal segments. Black line Sy” | down middle of head. Tube-tike genitalia of females project well heyond tip of abdomen nel Biology: Poorly known. Habitat: Fynbos plants in the Western Cape. (Although originally described in 1907, only 2 museum specimens exist) Family Bacillidae A cosmopolitan family, with males and females closely resem short, and both sexes usually slender and wingless. 1g one another. The antennae are generally 2 Phalces brevis Cape Stick Insect Identification: Medium-sized (body length up to 80 mm). Colour variable, ranging from green to brown, grey or speckled. Legs often a different colour from body. Best identified by 3 distinct blue or green marks on the back, one above each pair of legs. Abdomen ends in a pair of short white cerci in males, in females, a boat-shaped, chute-like appendage. Previously known as P. longiscaphus. Biology: Feeds on Australian Myrtle, and also on Erica and other plants. Habitat: Probably the most common stick insect in the Western Cape. 3 Phalces tuberculatus =] Identification: Females large (body length 110 mm; males only haif this length). Long 2&9, | and slender, uniformly brown, with numerous small tubercles on body surface, These hy | are especially dense on the first thoracic segment and decrease in number posteriorly. Biology: Strong sexual dimorphism (shown here), typical of stick insects. Habitat: Scrubby vegetation in southern Namaqualand. Although named only in 2000, the species is apparently quite common within its restricted range. 4 maransis rufolineatus Grass Stick Insect [gq] Mdentification: Medium-sized (body length 61 mm), males extremely slender, delicate and wingless, with especially long fore legs; females stouter. Colour variable, usually pale brown with longitudinal red or darker brown stripes along the body and head. Legs — usually green at base, becoming brown at tips. Body surface sometimes granular, especially along the sides. Biology: Feeds on grasses. Extremely well camouflaged and difficult to spot in its natural habitat as body and limbs closely resemble grass stalks. Habitat: Grassland and savanna regions. 5 Macynia labiata Thunberg’s Stick Insect oS) Ident in: Medium-sized (body length up to 60 mm), head and mouthparts pink or yellow in adults, end of abdomen with pink tip. Females usually vivid green speckled with white, or with a pink stripe along the side. Males smaller and thinner, brownish green, with reddish brown pincer-like cerci. Biology: Entirely herbivorous. Eggs take about 6 months to hatch. Nymphs emerge in April-May and moult 5 or 6 times before maturing, in early summer. Breeding season from October—January, after which the spent adults die. Habitat: On food plants, especially Australian Myrtle and Erica. 110 PHASMATODEA « stick insects Weteronemilase! baciORDER PSOCOPTERA ‘Small, soft-bodied insects with large round mobile heads, long slender antennae and (usually) membranous wings that are held tilted, roof-like, over the abdomen. 491110048 40 SdID0 Psocoptera are often referred to as booklice or barklice, but the term psocids is preferred as they are not parasiticand are only distantly related to true lice (Phthirapteral. Their compound eyes are usually big and bulging, but are small in wingless groups. Where present, the delicate transparent wings have reduced venation. Cerci are always absent. Although common, psocids are easily overlooked as most are small and cryptic. They are found on bark, in leaf liter, under stones and in human dwellings. Psocids feed on algae, fungi, lichens and plant or animal debris, and some are pests of stored products. Eggs hatch into nymphs that are initially wingless, but otherwise resemble adults. Of the more than 3 000 named species, 80 are known from the region. 1 Family Liposcelidae Booklice Identification: Small (body length 1-2 mm) with flattened body, relatively short antennae, and greatly reduced eyes. Wings are almost always absent. Legs short, femora of hind pair enlarged. Biology: Domestic booklice Liposcelis (shown here) feed on paste, glue or minute traces of mould on the surface of paper, and have been widely dispersed by human activities. Habitat: Buildings. Related species: Trogiidac are more rotund, not flattened, and have slender hind femora 2 Family Psocidae Common barklice foe Identification: Large (body length 5 mm), usually appearing grey or black, but on close examination often with intricately and beautifully patterned wings. Most larger psocids belong to this family. Biology: Nymphs generally live together in large groups (some- times with adults), emerging at night to feed on lichens. Such groups scatter when dis- turbed, but quickly re-form. Common genera include Pearmania (2), which contains a number of large and spectacular forms, and Psococerasts (2A). Habitat: Trunks of trees. 3 Family Amphipsocidae = Ident ion: Attractive, delicate, identifiable by hairy (setose) appearance, Main wing veins ornamented with double rows of setae, margins fringed with short setae Fore wings broad, with unusually branched and patterned veins posteriorly, and held closer to the horizontal than usual among psocids. Only 1 named species (genus Harpezoneura) (shown here) in the region, although others occur. Biology: Not known. Habitat: Leaves of trees. 4 Family Ectopsocidae I Identification: Usually yellow-brown with clear wings lacking setae, held close to the horizontal, Pterostigma distinctly rectangular, pigmented in the Ectopsocus shown here | (body length 3 mm). There are 2 genera and 3 species in the region. Biology: Not known. Habitat: Dried leaves and leaf litter. Distribution poorly known. 5 Family Peripsocidae i ga | \dentification: Medium-sized (body length 3 mm), usually dark with attractively | patterned wings that lack setae and are held steeply sloped over the body, Pterostigma | has distinctly curved margin. Only 1 genus, Peripsocus (shown here}, containing 3 = species, is known from the region. Biology: Not known, Habitat: Bark or dried leaves. Liposeelidae, Procidae, 112 pPsocopTERA © psocids or booklice ‘ampilipdocidad) ediopsocidae, retipsocidadSmall, flattened, wingless insects that are permanent external parasites on birds and mammals, typically host-specific. -_ Aa ey ORDER PHTHIRAPTERA nel Lice are a diverse group of highly modified parasitic insects with reduced eyes, short antennae, and chewing or piercing-and-sucking mouthparts. Their legs are short and stout and usually end in strong claws. The entire life cycle takes place on the host. Eggs or ‘nits’ are cemented onto the host’s feathers or hairs. They hatch into nymphs, which moult 3 times before reaching adulthood. Over 3 000 species are known, ‘more than 1.000 of which occur in Africa 1 Family Pthiridae Crab lice, pubic lice Identification: Small (body length 1-2 mm), broad and flat, with crab-like appearance. Mid and hind legs stout, with very large claws. Abdominal segments with distinct lateral lobes. Only 1 species, the human Pubic Louse Pthirus pubis, in the region. Biology: Eggs or ‘nts’ attached to pubic hair. Bites cause irritation and leave a characteristic mark on the skin. Spread by close bodily contact, usually sexual, Habitat: Usually confined to human pubic hair. 2 Family Pediculidae Human lice Identification: Small (body length 2-3 mm), elongate, abdomen longer and wider than thorax and without lateral projections. All 3 pairs of legs equally strong and devel- oped. The 2 species, Pediculus capitus and P. humanus, are sometimes considered forms of a single species. Biology: Head lice (P. capitus) suck blood from the scalp and lay eggs or nits (2A) on the hair, particularly behind the ears. Common and eaily spread by close bodily contact, even in sanitary conditions, and by sharing of combs or brushes. Body lice (P. humanus), transmitted by direct con- tact or shared clothing, are now uncommon and easily controlled by insecticides. Habitat: Human body only. 3 Family Haematomyzidae Elephant lice fl Identification: Medium-sized (body length 4 mm). Easily recognized by rounded body AY | and elongate downward-curved proboscis. Colour blends well with elephant skin er” | Biology: Proboxcis used to penetrate host's thick skin to draw blood on which to feed. <-*" _| Habitat: On elephants only. Related species: Haematomyzus hopkinsi occurs on warthogs. 4 Family Gyropiidae Guinea pig lice Identification: small (body length 2 mm). Biology: Adults occur all over the body, but the large nits (4) are particularly abundant behind the ears of infected guinea pigs. Spread by bodily contact. Habitat: Fur of guinea pigs. Introduced from South America 5 Family Menoponidae Biting bird lice Identification: Small to very large (body length 2-12 mm). Antennae fold into grooves on side of broadly triangular head. Tarsi with 2 claws. Over 300 species in the region. h Biology: Crawl in plumage of birds, feeding on the feathers. Some species chew holes ——— in the quills and live inside the shaft of feathers. Piagatiella live inside the throat pouches of pelicans and cormorants. Habitat: On birds. Mostly host-specific. 6 Family Philopteridae Bird lice Identification: small to large (body length 2-8 mm), shape varying from short and | rounded to long and slender. Antennae relatively elongate, nt concealed in grooves in | head. The largest family of lice, with over 500 species in the region. Biology: Feed on downy parts of feathers. Habitat: Wide variety of birds. Mostly host-specific. Pris 114 puTHiRAPTERA ©ORDER HEMIPTERA Bugs have piercing and sucking mouthparts, 2 pairs of wings, and reduced hind wings. In the Sternorrhyncha and Auchenorrhyncha, both pairs of wings are membranous; in Heteroptera, the bottom half of the fore wings is thickened, forming the hemelytra. The largest order of insects that lack a pupal stage, subdivided into Sternorrhyncha and Auchenorrhyncha (terrestrial plant feeders) and Heteroptera (many of which are aquatic and carnivorous and are well known {or their ability to produce stinking secretions from repugnatorial glands). Many species with these glands (or capable of a nasty bite) are brightly coloured in red, yellow and black as a warning, All grades of wing reduction are apparent, some, e.g. bed bugs, totally wingless, others with winged males and wingless {apterous) females. Nymphs are small wingless replicas of adults. Many species have legs adapted for jumping or swimming. The long mouthparts are folded back beneath the head, between the legs. Bugs feed on a range of animal and plant foods. Because of their sucking habit, they are potentially pests, especially when vectors for viruses, bacteria and fungi that cause diseases in crop and garden plants. HETEROPTERA The following 18 families (up to p. 138) are terrestrial bugs. 1 Family Enicocephalidae Gnat bugs | entation: Sal dy length 2-7 mi) ey since lai ih own, wth entirely membranous hemelytra. Head very thin and long, with compound eyes at front 27 | of head, which is then constricted, the swollen part bearing 2 simple eyes. There are bee 40 species known from the region. Biology: Feed on a range of arthropods. One species (found in an ant nest) presumed to feed on ants. Australian species form swarms of winged males at dusk, and persistently use humans as beacons to maintain the coherence of the swarm. Winged species may be attract- cd to lights. Habitat: Leaves and logs in damp evergreen forests, moist coastal fynbos. Fairly scarce. cidae Bed bugs Identification: Small (body length 4-7 mm), apricot-coloured, wingless, with circular body and flattened extensions of prothorax behind the eyes. Most common is the cosmopolitan Gimer lectularius (shown here). About 10 species are known from the region. Biology: Adults and tiny nymphs emerge at night to feed on blood, but do not appear to be vectors of disease among humans. Bite can produce a strong reaction, with swelling and irritation lasting for days. Carry a wide variety of disease organisms in nature. Apart from one human- and one bird-associated species, all attack bats. Can starve for months. Young are born live. Habitat: Bat roosts, bird nests and mammalian shelters, including human dwellings. Hide in crevices, walls, furniture and clothing. Family idae Plant bugs, capsids Most species-rich group and the dominant bug family. Small to medium-sized (body length 2-12 mm) and slender. Present on virtually every plant. Microscopically identified by an obvious fracture in leathery part of fore wing, marking out a triangle (cuneus). Females wingless in many species, some of them ant-mimics. Most feed on plants; a few on insect eggs or blood. There are 250 species known from the region. 3 Pameridea Identification: small (body length 4 mm), shiny black with ivory-coloured marks and a pair of white spots on each fore wing. Biology: Walk with impunity on sticky leaves of host plant, the insectivorous Giant Sundew (Roridula) which traps insects for their nitro- =— gen. Habitat: Only on a few moist slopes in the Western Cape where host plant occurs. 116 HEMIPTERA © bugs enfeseapnanae)Qianaass)1 | Identification: Small (body length 8 mm), dark brown, with orange heart-shaped mark in | | middle of thorax. Membranous part of fore wings with 3 black circles. Biology: Predacious | dike all members of the subfamily to which they belong). Feed on aphids. Habitat: Weedy oe” ___urban and natural veld, often in gardens. Related species: Stenotus (1A) are large (body length 12 mm), tan, with reddish legs, orange prothorax, and 2 dark brown stripes on each hemelytron. This genus contains many similar species, commonly swept from grassveld throughout the region. Family Tingidae Lace bugs Named for and easily recognized by the delicate lace-like sculpturing of their wings and thorax (better developed in some species than others). Plant feeders, living on the underside of leaves. However, their feeding causes white spots to appear on the upperside, while certain species cause galling of leaves. When in high densities, they can cause leaves to curl and become discoloured. Often very host-specific. Eggs are laid in the tissue next to the leaf midrib, and sealed in a hard brown substance. Nymphs are spiny and gregarious, and develop lacy reticulation only after the final moult. One species that attacks olives is of economic significance. About 200 species are known from the region Zz; Ammianus wahlbergi Identification: Large (body length 5 mm), rectangular, with constriction at prothorax and 4 black patches on lacy hemelytra. Biology: Adults occur singly. Habitat: Grassland and bushveld. Genus occurs in KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and Eastern Cape. Related species: Other 2 species in the genus are smaller. Pogonostyla natalicola (body length 5. mm) (2A) from KwaZulu-Natal is more linear, with brown thorax and 2 brown marks at base of hemelytra. 3 Plerochila australis Olive Lace Bug Identification: Small (body length 4 mm), dull-coloured, grey-brown, with faint net- work of wing veins where wing tips meet. Biology: Nymphs resemble aphids, and feed | | gregariously on underside of olive tree leaves or shoots, where accumulated honeydew | ae may promote sooty moulds. Damage takes the form of yellowed leaves or wilted shoots with a bushy growth beneath the damage. Habitat: Widespread on cultivated olive and Wild Olive (Olea ofricana) trees in Africa and the Mascarene Islands. Related species: Compseuta ornatella (3A) is very small (body length 3 mm), oval, and black, brown and white in colour. Can be found on soft herbaceous leaves of shrubs. Family Reduviidae Assassin bugs Medium to large, robustly built bugs that prey on other arthropods and have a powerful recurved beak (ros- trum), the tip of which is rubbed against a ridged groove under the body to produce sound. They are ambush predators that move slowly towards prey before rushing out and grabbing with the fore legs, injecting a secretion from the rostrum that has a very quick paralytic action. The prey is then sucked dry. Bite is very painful to humans, but no local species habitually bites mammals, unlike some South American species (which take blood meals from humans and transmit Chagas disease). A number specialize in certain prey items. About 475 species are known from the region. 4 Acanthaspis obscura [gq] Wdentification: Medium-sized (body length 16 mm), dull black, with 2 white spots and | apical honey-coloured spot on each wing. Biology: Nymphs cover themselves with debris | and sucked prey, and otten occupy deserted termitaria with adults, feeding on ants. Adults _| can inflict @ painful bite on humans. Attracted to homes by lights. Short-winged adults found together with full-winged individuals. Habitat: Adults occur under bark or stones, or in termitaria Subtropical, extending into tropical Africa, Related species: There are 13 similar species in the genus. 118 HeMiPTERA « bugs Miridae) Tingiase/meauvidyellow thorax incised with a black cross, margins of abdomen yellow. Nymphs bright red. = with black wing pads. Biology: Rests during the day under stones or among debris, emerging at night to feed on an exclusive diet of millipedes. Nymphs or adults frequently feed gregariously on a single large millipede (1A). Habitat: Common in gardens and variety of veld types. 2 —" Glymmatophora Metallic assassin bugs Ze Identification: Medium-sized (body length 12-16 mm), robust, shiny, bluish black or dark 1 Ectrichodia crux Millipede Assassin | a Identification: Large (body length 22 mm), stout, unmistakable, shiny black, with dull | brown, with red, orange or cream markings. Females generally wingless, resembling nymphs, Adults have 2-3 spines arising from last part of thorax. Winged males have feathery antennae. Contains 19 similar species. Biology: Emerge from hiding places to feed at night Gregarious, possibly preying on millipedes. Habitat: Under logs and stones in forests Holoptilus Ant wolves Identification: Small (body length 7-9 mm), light brown, with black markings on wings and legs, the entire body (apart from wings) heavily covered in robust hairs. Wings almost entirely membranous. Biology: Feed on ants that are attracted, intoxicated and, finally, paralyzed by a substance secreted by a unique warty structure under the abdomen. Habitat: Shade under bush- €s or litter, or on ant trails. Related species: There are 8 similar species in the region. Lopodytes grassator Grass Assassin Wdentification: Medium-sized (body length 17 mm), slender, grey, with elongate legs and antennae. Both sexes winged. Biology: Excellent grass-mimic. Habitat: Grassland in open XN bushveld, highveld and Kalahari veld, Related species: The 6 similar species are yellow or grey and may be confused with stick insects. Wingless forms are common. Oncocephalus annulipes Identification: Medium-sized (body length 16-18 mm), light brown. with cylindrical head ‘elongated in front of eyes, and wings with 2 central black marks. Thickened front legs with - spined femora. Biology: Nocturnal. Attracted in numbers to lights. Habitat: Dry succulent karoo or valley bushveld, Related species: There are 18 species in the genus. | Rhinocoris segmentarius Flower Assassin Identification: Medium-sized (body length 18 mm), conspicuous, shiny black, with red thorax and front part of wings, side margins of thorax striped yellow and black. Biology: Frequently hunts honey bees and other prey from exposed sunny positions on vegetation and flowers. As in many reduviids, the black, red and yellow coloration is a warning to potential vertebrate predators. Can deliver a very painful bite that produces numbness, nausea and general welts. A paste of bicarbonate of soda relieves the symptoms, which can last for months, Habitat: Common in open bushveld, at forest edges and in gardens. Related species: R. neavii (6A) is among 37 similar species. In some species, males exhibit parental care of eggs and young. Platychiria umbrosus 4y Identification: Medium-sized (body length 20 mm), brownish, with black and tan spots. Abdomen and thorax with lateral spines, and fore tibiae with expansions. Biology: Nocturnal. Attracted to lights. May occur on vegetation in the day. Does not bite when handled, but emits fluid from thoracic glands while stridulating. Habitat: Grass and low plants in sub- tropical bushveld. Related species: There are 6 species in the genus, some termite-feeders. 120 HemipTeRA © bugs eauvidae1 Pantoleistes princeps Identification: Large (body length 27 mm), shiny black, with yellow- and black-banded legs and thin leaf-like expansions at sides of abdomen. Head very thin, with robust beak. Biology: Lives on tree trunks and branches at some height from the ground, and on termite mounds. Known to bite humans. Habitat: Subtropical bushveld and forest. Cotton-stainer assassins Identification: Large (body length 27 mm), brightly coloured with red head, white neck, and white, red and black abdomen. Wings tan and black with black spots. Contains 3 species. Biology: Mimics, lives with and feeds on various species of cotton stainers Dysdercus (p. 128). Eggs are laid in a ring around a plant stem. Can usually be found in the day on host plants of their prey. Habitat: Various vegetation types. Subtropical 3 Platymeris Giant assassins 5 | Identification: Large (body length 36 mm), hefty, dull black with bright orange bands on legs, and an orange spot on wings. Includes 5 similar species. Biology: The bite of these formidable bugs is extremely painful, and its effect may last for days. A tropical species is | reported to feed on adult rhino beetles (Oryctes, p. 208). Habitat: Under bark. Subtropical, extending into equatorial Africa 4 Reduvius tarsatus Identification: Small (body length 15 mm), with yellow- and brown-banded legs, and sparse white hairs on all appendages. Large dark spine on last part of thorax. Biology: Nymphs. attach sand and debris to their bodies using secretory hairs. Adults nocturnal and attracted to lights. Habitat: Under stones and bark in most vegetation types, or in caves or buildings. There are 17 species in the genus. 5 subfamily Emesinae Thread assassins | Identification: Small (body length 9 mm), very slender, with elongated appendages and raptorial fore legs. Hemelytra entirely membranous, and wingless forms common. About 45 species known from the region. Biology: Apparently feed on small flies. Often attracted to lights at night. Habitat: Under stones, logs and bark, and in caves, often in very arid areas. Myiophanes (illustrated) species occur under stones and rocks in dry habitats. 6 Family Berytidae Thread bugs Identification: Small and very delicate, with elongate body, limbs and antennae. Ends of femora thickened, giving @ knob-kneed appearance. Elbowed antennae also clubbed at tips. Metacanthus (shown here) are typical, small (body length 5 mm) with green abdomen and tan thorax, and black swollen clubs at end of antennae. Southern Affican fauna poorly known, with only 15 described species. Biology: Gampsocors feed mainly on young shoots, but also on small insects such as aphids. Habitat: Mainly on grasses and tree trunks, 7 Family Phymatidae Ambush bugs Identification: Medium-sized (body length 7-15 mm), squat, with expanded abdomen. Toothed fore legs modified for grasping live prey. Antennae thickened, with last segment longest. Narina (shown here) are small (body length 10 mm) and elongate but stout, green ventrally, with long head; short thick antennae reddish, as are ends of hemelytra and enlarged raptorial fore legs; thorax with lateral expansions. Only 2 species known from the region. Biology: Wait on flowers by day for large prey such as bees, butterflies and wasps. Habitat: Narina rarely seen, but frequent fynbos flowers, especially leucadendrons. 122 HEMIPTERA © bugs Reduviidae, Emesinae, Wetyuidase, Phymatidae1 Family Aradidae Flat bugs, bark bugs gq | Identification: Small to medium-sized (body length 2-12 mm), easily recognized by broad and flat appearance (an adaptation to living under loose bark). Mostly winged, but females may be wingless. Fine piercing mouthparts (stylets) coiled in the head. Strigacoris are typical, very flattened, dull brown, with small narrow wings surrounded by an expanded abdomen. About 55 species are known from the region. Biology: Feed on fungi, stylets suited to following fungal threads. Some species guard their egg batches until they hatch. Habitat: Commonly found under the bark of dead Acacia branches. Sirigocoris occur in tunnels constructed by other insects in rotting logs. Family Coreidae Twig wilters, squash bugs, leaf-footed bugs All species feed on young shoots, seeds or fruits, often of squashes. Medium to large (body length 540 mm), light to dark brown, with broad thorax (not as broad as that of stink bugs, Pentatomidac), and a head that appears quadrangular in shape. The numerous veins in the membranous part of the hemelytra run almost parallel to one another. Stink glands are visible between middle and hind legs. In some of the larger species, hind legs of males are enlarged and armed with spines. About 150 species are known from the region. 2 Acanthocoris [. _ gi) Wdentification: Medium-sized (body length 13 mm), stout, greyish brown, with rough body surface covered in small white bumps. Thin white line from centre of head to end | of thorax. Hind legs enlarged. Biology: Recorded on indigenous species of Solanum and exotic Bugweed (5. mauritianum). Often in groups on host plant. Habitat: Usually 3 Petalocnemis Identification: Medium-sized (body length 13 mm), stout, brown, with rough body surface. Very similar to Acanthocoris (above), but darker, with enlarged hind legs, tan margins to abdomen, and cream spot on sides of wings. Biology: Occur in aggregations, often on exotic Bugweed (Solanum mauritianum). Habitat: Subtropical forest margins. 4 Anoplocnemis Twig wilters [gm | dentification: Large (body length 24 mm), dark brown, with reddish wing membrane, | and orange tip to antennae. Hind legs enlarged, with swollen femora, each with a stout spine. Contains 2 very similar species. Biology: Pierce young shoots, macerating tissue and | injecting sativa with digestive enzymes that cause the shoot to shrivel beyond the puncture. A. curvipes attacks over 100 species of plants, often shrubs, climbers and trees. Eggs are laid in rows in plant tissue. Females remain in the vicinity of eggs and young nymphs. Habitat: Lush vegetation, including gardens. Occur over tropical Africa. A. curvipes is the more common species in Mpumalanga. 5 detus Identification: Small (body length 7 mm), uniformly light tan, with bulbous eyes, | 2 white spots on hemelytra and black tips to antennae. Biology: Host plants include | indigenous potato (Solanum) and weed-like Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae species. l Habitat: Stands of weeds in open sunny situations. Widespread in Africa and Australia, 6 Homoeocerus auriculatus c vail | Identification: Medium-sized (body length 19 mm), stout, light brown, mottled, with the membranous parts of wings dark brown, and 2 rounded knobs arising from the se thorax. Underside white. Biology: Recorded on Black Wattle (Acacia meamnsi, most species apparently feeding on indigenous Acacia species. Habitat: Bushveld and forest. Related species: Similar to all brown Homoeoceris magnicornus (6A) and green and brown H. discolor (6B). 124 HeEMIPTERA © bugs draaidce torevane1 Holopterna alata Identification: Large (body length 23 mm), with broad, flattened, forward-projecting pointed extensions on prothorax. Body dull brown with whitish bloom, white band on X sides of thorax, and antennae banded orange and black. Hind legs very enlarged and bent, L __| but without spines (cf. Anoplocnemis, previous page). Biology: Lives on young shoots of indigenous and other shrubs and trees, often on creepers, causing typical wilting of shoots. Habitat: Variety of veld types, gardens and cultivated fields. Related species: A few similar large species in the genus. 2 Leptoglossus membranaceus “Zim | Mdentification: Large (body length 16-22 mm), black, with red-banded antennae and abdomen and red stripe across thorax. Readily distinguished from Anoplocnemis (previous | page) and Holopterna (above) by flattened leaf-like projections on hind legs. The only __| African species in the genus. Biology: Pest of granadilla, citrus, and cucurbits such as melons, squash and cucumbers, and of wild foodplants including (seeds of) bitter melons and various wild calabashes (Cucumis and Lagenaria). Citrus fruits that have been fed on drop off the tree. Habitat: Bushveld, subtropical forest, gardens and orchards. Cosmopolitan tropical genus, also occurring in Asia. 3 Petascelis remipes Giant Twig Wilter gm |= Identification: Very large (body length 36 mm), bulky, velvety dark brown, with thin | yellow lines along sides and down centre of very dark brown thorax. Hind legs much enlarged, with leaf-like projections. Nymphs (3A) are black with warning coloration of red 5" _| spots on a whitish abdomen. Biology: Gregarious and bold, walking towards intruders with antennae vibrating when disturbed. Probably capable of squirting defensive secretion for some distance. Found on Combretum. Habitat: Bushveld and subtropical forest. 4 Carlisis wahibergi qq] Mentification: Medium-sized (body length 20-26 mm), boldly marked, with tan and black fore wings, and white- and black-banded antennae and abdominal margins. Hind legs enlarged. Biology: As many as 9 000 individuals recorded on single Gardenia volkensii shrubs, which then failed to flower but did not wilt. Can spray defensive secretion up to "15 cm. Habitat: Bushveld and gardens 5 Pephricus age) Identification: Small (body length 11 mm), unmistakable and bizarre, brown and grey | with characteristic flange-like extensions of thorax and abdomen, ending in long spines. | Silvery wings, lving flat in midline of abdomen. Contains 3 very similar species, P. paradoxus a the largest and most common, Biology: Associated with grasses. Habitat: Grasses in bushveld Family Alydidae Broad-headed bugs Medium-sized, easily recognized by a combination of slender body, broad triangular head and enlarged hind legs. Microscopically, the curved last antennal segment can be seen to be the largest. Very alert and active bugs, taking flight almost as rapidly as flies. Feed on grass seed and other seeds, and may be foun large numbers on the ground below trees or shrubs where seeds have fallen. Nymphs are often dark grey ant-mimics There are 25 species known from the region. 6 Hypselopus gigas Giant Broad-headed Bug Identification: Large (body length 18 mm), brightly coloured, with orange to dark red ve | body and legs, banded antennae, and black fur on lower part of hind legs. Biology: Feeds Gy" | on dry seeds of various acacias, including Acacia hebaclada, A tortilis and A. karroo, | Habitat: Bushveld 126 = HEMIPTERA « bugs Coreidac, Alydidae1 stenocoris apicalis Identification: Medium-sized (body length 14 mm), slender, green, with highly reflective wings, and red markings at leg joints. Characteristic white bar near tip of antennae. Biology: Defensive secretion very strong and offensive. Often occurs in very large numbers in shade on surface of leaves of herbaceous plants (especially Hypoestes). Habitat: Sub- tropical forest and bushveld. 2 Mirperus jaculus Identification: Medium-sized (body length 14 mm), reddish brown, bow-legged with enlarged hind legs. Similar to Anoplocnemis (p. 124), but more slender, with large eyes and white triangular marking at wing bases. Biology: Associated with grasses. Australian Mirperus species pierce bean pods, damaging the crop. Habitat: Grassland and bushveld. 3. Nariscus cinctiventris Identification: Medium-sized (body length 14 mm), light tan, with dark brown hemelytra and yellow stripe through midline of head and thorax. Enlarged hind legs with small spine on femur. Biology: Non-specific, feeding on seeds of most Acacia species and those of the introduced Mesquite (Prosopis). Habitat: Avid bustveld and fynbos. 4 } Tupalus fasciatus Identification: Medium-sized (body length 19 mm), brown, with dull orange band on swollen hind legs, faint orange bands on abdomen, and conspicuous cream band on antennae. Nymphs grey. Biology: Feeds on seeds of Bauhinia. Like many in the family, nymphs are ant-mimics. Habitat: Variety of vegetation types. Family Pyrrhocoridae Cotton stainers, red bugs, fire bugs Medium sized (body length 5-20 mm), brightly coloured (often red or combination of red, yellow and black). Under magnification absence of simple eyes (ocelli) can be confirmed. Many species are short-winged or totally wingless. All are plant-feeders associated with species of wild hibiscus (Malvaceae) and related families, feeding chiefly on seeds, but also on stems. Of economic significance for tropical crops such as cotton, There are 35 species in the region. 5 Cenaeus carnifex C Identification: Small (body length 9 mm), oval, uniformly red or orange with black legs and antennae. Short-winged forms common. Biology: Usually encountered in groups on seed heads of herbaceous plants, often in mated pairs. Habitat: Lush vegetation of forest margins and gardens. 6 bysdercus nigrofasciatus Cotton Stainer Identification: Large (body length 17 mm) but variable in size, elongate, tan-coloured with reddish head and legs, and white band around neck. Black stripe across wings; ends of hemelytra black. Nymphs more reddish. Biology: Nymphs gregarious, adults and nymphs ‘often encountered together feeding on developing seeds of Malvaceae (6A) (hibiscus, Baobab, Kapok Tree) and related families, and on crops such as cotton and okra. Adults remain mated for days, and the colourful nymphs are gregarious. Parasitized by tachinid flies (Alophora, p. 306). All except one species in the genus are pests of cotton, damaging seeds and transmitting a fungus that stains the cotton (lint’) yellow or brown, hence their common name. Habitat: Bushland and forest, agricultural land and gardens. Related species: D. nigrofasciatus is the major pest species of the 10 species in the genus in the region. Odontopus sex- punctatus (6B), a large tan cotton stainer, boldly marked in black, is subtropical and feeds on seeds in develop- ing cones of the primitive Upside-down Plant (Welwitschia mirabilis) in the Namib. 128 HEMIPTERA © bugs Ad ec Pyerhocoridae,1 Scantius forsteri m™ | Identification: Smal! (body length 10 mm), with crimson margins to black body. Biology: Flightless, Short-winged individuals commonly run around, feeding on falien seeds. Habitat: Very common under bushes. Largely ground-dwelling, often encountered | under dry logs. Family Lygaeidae Seed bugs, ground bugs Large family of medium-sized, usually quite slender or oval bugs capable of producing the classic bug stink. Under magnification can be seen to have only 3-4 (often faint) longitudinal veins on the soft membranous part of fore wings, thus distinguishable from Coreidae, which have at least 6 veins. Wings may be reduced, especially in ground-dwelling species, Although most are herbivores, feeding chiefly on seeds, a few species feed on other insects, About 400 species are known from the region, with many cosmopolitan genera. 2 Dieuches Identification: Large (body length 12 mm), parallel-sided, dark brown, with thin cream marginal stripe, Most of the 25 local species have white spots on the wings. Biology: Ground-dwelling. Feed on dassie (hyrax) pellets. Some foreign species damage straw- = | berries, cotton and stored peanuts. Habitat: Under logs or low vegetation. 3 Pachygrontha lineata Identification: Small (body length 8 mm), elongate and slender with very long antennae. Light brown, with yellow steipe in midline of head and thorax. Femora of fore legs enlarged. Biology: Associated with grasses. Habitat: Common on herbaceous vegetation. Genus, cccurs in all tropical parts of the world. Related species: There are 3 species in the region 4 oncopeltus famelicus Milkweed Bug Identification: Large (body length 14 mm), unmistakable, boldly marked in black and orange. Biology: Feeds on seeds of Urticaceae (Pouzolzia), Triumfetta, granadilla, and on cotton and sweet potatoes, which it damages. Most often found feeding in numbers = ‘on pods of the Common Milkweed (Asclepias fruticosus). Habitat: Open grassland, road verges and forest margins, and also in gardens and agricultural land. Range extends into tropical East Africa. Genus occurs in most tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Related species: Oncopeltus jucundus is known to feed on crushed millipedes in Zimbabwe. 0. militaris is common throughout the region. G 5 Spilostethus pandurus Milkweed Bug i | Identification: Medium-sized (body length 13 mm), easily recognized by combination of red bars and dots on a black to grey background. Biology: Feeds on seeds of various milk- te weeds (Asclepias), related Calotropis and on indigenous Solanum. Minor pest of suntlowers, oi” | feeding on developing seeds. Also recorded on cotton, sorghum, millet, citrus, mangoes, sweet potatoes, apricots and maize. Habitat: Very common and widespread in various veld types (usually grassland, where it occurs on flower heads of yellow daisies), and in disturbed veld, gardens and agricultural lands. Related species: There are 8 species in the genus in the region. 6 Family Cydnidae Burrowing bugs Identification: Small to medium-sized, shiny dark brown or black oval body and spiny hind legs. Geocnethus plagiata (shown here) is small (body length 11 mm), black, with smooth and shiny thorax. There are 30 species in the region. Biology: Feed on leaves, stems and roots. Attracted to lights in large numbers. Can release unpleasant-smelling secretion from thoracic glands. Habitat: May occur up to 2m underground 130 HEMIPTERA ¢ bugs Pyrrhocoridae, Lypaeidae, CydniFamily Plataspidae Pill bugs Distinctive, small to large, dull-coloured, oval and convex-shaped bugs. Shiny extension of thorax (scutellum) so enlarged it covers the entire body, including abdomen and very long folded wings. Superticially, some might be confused with beetles, others with Scutelleridae (although more convex and rounded in profile). Suck juices {rom various species of wild pea. Some are thought to feed on fungal threads beneath bark. The 25 species of this mostly tropical family are restricted to the northern parts of the region. 1 Libyaspis wahlbergi | estfcation: Large (body length 9-13 mm), rounded, white anteronly fading toa rch x reddish colour towards end of body. Entire body peppered in black pits. Nymphs are covered in a whitish bloom, and have conspicuous gland openings (1A). Biology: Adults live communally with nymphs on tree branches. Eggs laid in 2 rows and covered in a pellet-like secretion. Habitat: Branches of tres; has been recorded on Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon, Family Scutelleridae Shield-backed bugs Easily recognized by the very enlarged extension of thorax (scutellum), which covers the entire abdomen and wings. Oval medium-sized bugs, more elongate and brightly coloured than plataspids, with which they may be confused, A few look superficially like beeties. Feed on a wide range of shrubs and trees. Subtropical family, most common in the northern parts of the region, where 30 species are known. 2 Sphaerocoris Picasso bugs [mq] Identification: Medium-sized (body length 10 mm), oval and convex, intricately and Clearly marked in various bold patterns (including concentric spots) in olive green, tan, red and black. Nymphs are yellow, oval and convex, and marked with black stripes on the __| abdomen. Biology: Feed in groups on annual herbaceous plants. Habitat: Stands of weedy plants at edges of subtropical forest and in bushveld. 3 Alphocoris indutus ~ Identification: Medium-sized (body length 10 mm), spindle-shaped, whitish, with brown scutellum., The only species in the genus. Biology: Feeds on tender grass shoots and ripen- ing grass seeds, Habitat: Open grassland. 4 Calidea dregii Rainbow Shield Bug a | identification: Medium-sized (body length 14 mm), spindle-shaped, unmistakable, with | 2 rows of black spots on the iridescent green, blue, yellow and red back. Underside red | or orange, with green plates. Biology: Sometimes a pest of cotton; also breeds on sun- tower, sorghum, tobacco, castor oil and various other domesticated and indigenous plants (shown here on Melkbos (Euphorbia mauritanica). Feeds by piercing young seeds, causing seed shedding and distortion of seed head. Eggs are laid in a spiral on a stalk. Habitat: Weed patches, gardens, agricultural and natural vegetation of various kinds. Related species: There are a few similar species in the genus. 5 Solenostethium liligerum [gm |_—Mdentification: Fairly large (body length 14 mm), stocky, weak metallic olive green, with | | 3 yellow blotches at end of scutellum. Abdomen shows red in flight. Biology: Usually | | encountered singly on shrubs. Habitat: Bushveld. 132 HEMIPTERA © bugs Plataspidae, scutelleridae1 Graptocoris aulicus Identification: Medium-sized (body length 11-13 mm), brightly coloured, orange and black with metallic black-green head and body markings. Biology: Nymphs (1A) are gregarious, and feed on Malvaceae. Habitat: Subtropical bush. Genus also occurs in tropical parts of the world 2 Steganocerus multipunctatus Ladybird Bug Identification: Small (body length 9 mm), ladybird-like, usually black with bright orange, evenly spaced spots, but variable in colour and occasionally brown without spots. Beak confirms bug affiliation. Biology: Like others in the family, appears to feed on a variety of flowering shrubs and trees, Habitat: Bushveld. Family Tessaratomidae Inflated stink bugs Large (body length 15-30 mm), green or yellow, with distinctively flattened and expanded abdomen, and short extension of thorax (scutellum) that does not cover the wings. Very short beak which does not quite reach the base of the front legs. Suck plant juices, usually trom shrubs and trees, some species occurring in large numbers. This tropical family has 10 species known from the region. 3a Encosternum delegorguei Identification: Large (body length 25 mm), green-yellow or brown, with lateral margins of abdomen not exposed as in similar Natalicola species. Nymphs (3A) circular and green. Biology: Flies in droning swarms on hot days, settling in the evening. Feeds on Acacia ‘taxacantha and other shrubs and trees. Can eject an acrid fluid from stink glands with some force. In Zimbabwe swarms develop on Mahobohobo trees (Vapaca), apparently arriving at favoured spots every winter in enormous swarms to feed on Wild Loquat trees (Oxyanthus speciosus), and remain from April to September. The bug (‘harugwa’) is a local delicacy, killed in hot water, squeezed to remove the almost nauseating secretion, and then roasted and dried. Also eaten in South Africa, raw or cooked. Habitat: Subtropical ‘open woodland and bushveld. Family Pentatomidae Stink bugs, shield bugs Large family of small to medium-sized, often brightly coloured bugs varying considerably in shape, although all are shield-shaped as a result of the enlarged triangular scutellum (shield’) extending at least halfway along the abdomen and partially covering the wings. All are well armed with stink glands, which open on the top of the abdomen in nymphs. Generally plant feeders, but some in the subfamily Asopinae feed on soft-bodied insects such as beetle larvae. A number are pests of economic significance. About 300 species known from the region. 4 Coenomorpha Bark stink bugs a Identification: Medium-sized (body length 20 mm), flattened, brown or streaked with grey, y | sometimes with light orange marbling and stripes on edge of abdomen. Nymphs (4A) oval, Y\. convex, and covered in loose bluish white waxy layer. Atelacera (body length 15-22 mm) BF | similar to Coenomorpha, but with banded antennae. Biology: Herbivorous in the region. Foodplant not known. British species exhibit maternal care of eggs and newly hatched young. Habitat: Occur frequently on Brazilian Pepper Tree (Schizinus moll 5 5 Antestia lymphata Identification: Medium-sized (body length 12 mm), with white spots on thorax, including scutellum, and orange dots along margin of abdomen. Biology: Numbers effectively regulated by Strepsiptera(p. 260) in tropical parts of Africa, where itis sometimes a pest of coffee. Habitat: Disturbed weedy fields and gardens. Scutelleridae, Tessaratomidac, 134 HEMIPTERA © bugs Pentatomidac