Biodegradation

From Wikipedia,

Biodegradation is the breakdown of organic

matter by microorganisms, such
as bacteria and fungi.[a][2]

Contents
 1Mechanisms
 2Factors affecting biodegradation rate
Mechanisms
The process of biodegradation can be divided
into three stages: biodeterioration,
biofragmentation,
and assimilation.[3] Biodeterioration is sometimes
described as a surface-level degradation that
modifies the mechanical, physical and chemical
properties of the material. This stage occurs
when the material is exposed to abiotic factors in
the outdoor environment and allows for further
degradation by weakening the material's
structure. Some abiotic factors that influence
these initial changes are compression
(mechanical), light, temperature and chemicals
in the environment.[3] While biodeterioration
typically occurs as the first stage of
biodegradation, it can in some cases be parallel
to biofragmentation. [4]Hueck,[5] however, defined
Biodeterioration as the undesirable action of
living organisms on Man's materials, involving
such things as breakdown of stone facades of
buildings,[6] corrosion of metals by
microorganisms or merely the esthetic changes
induced on man-made structures by the growth
of living organisms.[6]
Biofragmentation of a polymer is
the lytic process in which bonds within a polymer
are cleaved,
generating oligomers and monomers in its
place.[3] The steps taken to fragment these
materials also differ based on the presence of
oxygen in the system. The breakdown of
materials by microorganisms when oxygen is
present, it's aerobic digestion. And the
breakdown of materials when oxygen is not
present, is anaerobic digestion.[7] The main
difference between these processes is that
anaerobic reactions produce methane, while
aerobic reactions do not (however, both
reactions produce carbon dioxide, water, some
type of residue, and a new biomass).[8] In
addition, aerobic digestion typically occurs more
rapidly than anaerobic digestion, while anaerobic
digestion does a better job reducing the volume
and mass of the material.[7] Due to anaerobic
digestion's ability to reduce the volume and mass
of waste materials and produce a natural gas,
anaerobic digestion technology is widely used
for waste management systems and as a source
of local, renewable energy.[9]
The resulting products from biofragmentation
are then integrated into microbial cells, this is the
assimilation stage.[3] Some of the products from
fragmentation are easily transported within the
cell by membrane carriers. However, others still
have to undergo biotransformation reactions to
yield products that can then be transported
inside the cell. Once inside the cell, the products
enter catabolic pathways that either lead to the
production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or
elements of the cells structure.[3]
Factors affecting biodegradation rate[edit]
In practice, almost all chemical compounds and
materials are subject to biodegradation
processes. The significance, however, is in the
relative rates of such processes, such as days,
weeks, years or centuries. A number of factors
determine the rate at which this degradation of
organic compounds occurs. Factors
include light, water, oxygen and
temperature.[10] The degradation rate of many
organic compounds is limited by their
bioavailability, which is the rate at which a
substance is absorbed into a system or made
available at the site of physiological activity,[11] as
compounds must be released into solution before
organisms can degrade them.The rate of
biodegradation can be measured in a number of
ways. Respirometry tests can be used
for aerobic microbes. First one places a solid
waste sample in a container with microorganisms
and soil, and then aerates the mixture. Over the
course of several days, microorganisms digest
the sample bit by bit and produce carbon dioxide
– the resulting amount of CO2 serves as an
indicator of degradation. Biodegradability can
also be measured by anaerobic microbes and the
amount of methane or alloy that they are able to
produce.[12]
It's important to note factors that affect
biodegradation rates during product testing to
ensure that the results produced are accurate
and reliable. Several materials will test as being
biodegradable under optimal conditions in a lab
for approval but these results may not reflect real
world outcomes where factors are more
variable.[13] For example, a material may have
tested as biodegrading at a high rate in the lab
may not degrade at a high rate in a landfill
because landfills often lack light, water, and
microbial activity that are necessary for
degradation to occur.[14] Thus, it is very important
that there are standards for plastic
biodegradable products, which have a large
impact on the environment. The development and
use of accurate standard test methods can help
ensure that all plastics that are being produced
and commercialized will actually biodegrade in
natural environments.[15] One test that has been
developed for this purpose is DINV 54900.[16]

Approximated time for compounds to

biodegrade in a marine environment[17]

Product Time to Biodegrade

Paper towel 2–4 weeks

Newspaper 6 weeks

Apple core 2 months

Cardboard box 2 months

Wax coated milk carton 3 months

Cotton gloves 1–5 months

Wool gloves 1 year

Plywood 1–3 years

Painted wooden sticks 13 years

Plastic bags 10–20 years

Tin cans 50 years

Disposable diapers 50–100 years

Plastic bottle 100 years

Aluminium cans 200 years

Glass bottles Undetermined

Time-frame for common items to break down in

a terrestrial environment[14]

Vegetables 5 days – 1 month

Paper 2–5 months

Cotton T-shirt 6 months

Orange peels 6 months

Tree leaves 1 year

Wool socks 1–5 years

Plastic-coated paper milk

5 years
cartons

Leather shoes 25–40 years

Nylon fabric 30–40 years

Tin cans 50–100 years

Aluminium cans 80–100 years

Glass bottles 1 million years

500 years to
Styrofoam cup
forever

Plastic bags 500 ars to forever

Biodegradation and
bioremediation of hydrocarbons
in extreme environment
Abstract.
Many hydrocarbon-contaminated environments
are characterized by low or elevated
temperatures, acidic or alkaline pH, high salt
concentrations, or high pressure. Hydrocarbon-
degrading microorganisms, adapted to grow and
thrive in these environments, play an important
role in the biological treatment of polluted
extreme habitats. The biodegradation
(transformation or mineralization) of a wide
range of hydrocarbons, including aliphatic,
aromatic, halogenated and nitrated compounds,
has been shown to occur in various extreme
habitats. The biodegradation of many
components of petroleum hydrocarbons has
been reported in a variety of terrestrial and
marine cold ecosystems. Cold-adapted
hydrocarbon degraders are also useful for
wastewater treatment. The use of thermophiles
for biodegradation of hydrocarbons with low
water solubility is of interest, as solubility and
thus bioavailability, are enhanced at elevated
temperatures. Thermophiles, predominantly
bacilli, possess a substantial potential for the
degradation of environmental pollutants,
including all major classes. Indigenous
thermophilic hydrocarbon degraders are of
special significance for the bioremediation of oil-
polluted desert soil. Some studies have
investigated composting as a bioremediation
process. Hydrocarbon biodegradation in the
presence of high salt concentrations is of interest
for the bioremediation of oil-polluted salt
marshes and industrial wastewaters,
contaminated with aromatic hydrocarbons or
with chlorinated hydrocarbons. Our knowledge
of the biodegradation potential of acidophilic,
alkaliphilic, or barophilic microorganisms is
limited.

Advantages and disadvantages

of biodegration
Enzymatic membrane reactors for
biodegradation of recalcitrant
compounds. Application to dye
decolourisation

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1656(02)00217-
1Get rights and content
Abstract
Membrane bioreactors are being increasingly
used in enzymatic catalysed transformations.
However, the application of enzymatic-based
treatment systems in the environmental field is
rather unusual. The aim of this paper is to
overview the application of enzymatic membrane
reactors to wastewater treatment, more
specifically to dye decolourisation. Firstly, the
basic aspects such as different configurations of
enzymatic reactors, advantages and
disadvantages associated to their utilisation are
revised as well as the application of this
technology to wastewater treatment. Secondly,
dye decolourisation by white-rot fungi and their
oxidative enzymes are discussed, presenting an
overall view from for in vivo and in vitro systems.
Finally, dye decolourisation by manganese
peroxidase in an enzymatic membrane reactor in
continuous operation is presented.