ELEMENTS OF POWER

PLANT ENGINEERING:
Discovering Components of
Power Generation

January 24, 2020 • University of the East – Caloocan Campus

Combustion Technology:
Venturing Combustion Properties
of Fuel towards Low Emission
Power Generation

Engr. Jackielyn Barona

Site Engineer
DENR EMB-Air Quality Management Section Central Office
DISCUSSION FLOW
 Introduction to Clean Air Act
 Characterization of Air Pollutants
 Philippine Emission Regulations for Industries under R.A. 8749
 Vital Fuel/Raw Material Properties
 Boiler Operation
 Air Pollution Control Facility
What is the Clean Air Act of 1999?

• It is a comprehensive policy and program for air quality management

in the country. It aims to achieve and maintain healthy air for all
Filipinos.
 Department of Environment and Natural Resources

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT BUREAU

Management of Sources of Air Pollution (Area,
Stationary, and Mobile Sources)

 STATIONARY SOURCES:
Manufacturing Industries, Power
Plants, Factories, etc.
 MOBILE SOURCES: Vehicle
Emissions

 AREA SOURCES:
Open Burning, Fugitive Emissions
 WHAT IS AN AIR
POLLUTANT?
Any matter found in the atmosphere other than
oxygen, nitrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and
the inert gases in their natural or normal
concentrations, that is detrimental to health or the
environment.

Two (2) major Category Monitored:

 Particulate Matters
 Gaseous Pollutants
How Big is Particulate Matter?
SIZE FRACTIONS OF TSP, PM10 & PM2.5
GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
Sulfur Oxides (SOx)

Gaseous SOx are dependent on the sulfur content of

the fuel. SOx from combustion are primarily sulfur
dioxide (SO2), with a much lower quantity of sulfur
trioxide (SO3) and gaseous sulfates.
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)

Nitrogen oxides are produced from

burning fuels, gasoline and coal. It
is a major contributor to smog and
acid rain. Higher temperature
results to increase in NOx
emissions.
Carbon Monoxide
Photochemical Oxidants as Ozone (O3)
It is a gas that is a variety of oxygen. Ozone in the upper
atmosphere is known as the ozone layer which shields the
Earth from the sun’s dangerous ultraviolet rays. However,
at ground level it is considered a pollutant with highly
toxic effects. Some of the major sources of ground-level
ozone are vehicles and industries. Some of the ill effects
of this pollutant include irritations in the respiratory tract,
chest pain, persistent cough and an increased
susceptibility to lung infection.

It is an odorless and colorless gas produced by the incomplete burning

of carbon-based fuels, including gasoline, oil and wood. It can build up
in high concentrations in enclosed areas such as garages and along
roadsides during heavy traffic
OTHER POLLUTANTS
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)
These are organic chemicals that found in gasoline,
industrial chemicals such as benzene, solvents such as
toluene and xylene, and perchloroethylene (principal dry
cleaning solvent). Vehicle emissions are an important source
of VOCs. These chemicals are released from burning fuel,
such as gasoline, wood, coal, and from solvents, such as
paints, glues, and other products used at home or work.
Trace Metals
Trace metals are also emitted during combustion. The quantity of
any given metal emitted, in general, depends on:
A. The physical and chemical properties of the metal itself;
B. The concentration of the metal in the coal; eg. Hg
C. The combustion conditions; and
D. The type of particulate control device used, and its collection
efficiency as a function of particle size.
EFFECTS TO HUMAN HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT
AIR POLLUTANTS
Pollutants Health Environment
Particulates Decreases lung function Visibility reduction
(TSP, PM10, PM2.5) Causes heart ailments, Environmental Damage
Causes premature death. Aesthetic Damage

Sulfur Oxides Causes eye irritation and breathing Reacts with water and oxygen to
(SOx) difficulties. form acid rain
Colorless gas with strong suffocating Exposure associated with increases
odor risk of mortality from respiratory
and cardiovascular disease

Nitrogen Oxides Has adverse respiratory effects Major source of photochemical

(NOx) including airway inflammation and smog
Reddish brown gas with irritating odor, increase respiratory symptoms. Contributes global warming
by product of incomplete combustion Hampers plants growth
from vehicles.
AIR POLLUTANTS
Ground Level Ozone Triggers chest pain, coughing, Affects vegetation and ecosystem
Colorless gas with pungent irritating throat irritation, and congestion.
odor Worsens bronchitis, emphysema,
and asthma
NOX +VOC + Heat & Sunlight =
Ozone

Carbon Monoxide Reduces the oxygen-carrying Contributes to the formation of

(CO) capacity of the blood. At extremely smog, ground-level ozone,
Colorless, odorless gas , by product high levels, can cause death
of incomplete combustion

Lead (Pb) Affects nervous system, kidney Affects Ecosystem

function, immune system,
reproductive and developmental
and cardiovascular system
Management of Stationary Sources and Compliance to Industrial
Emission Policies
 Industries

There are approximately 1000 to

2000+ and 6000+ industries with
air pollution sources permitted per
year by EMB –NCR and National.
Most of it are point sources from
fuel combustion process.

Source; EMB 15

https://psa.gov.ph/content/2016-annual-survey-philippine-business-and-industry-aspbi-manufacturing-sector-total
PROVISIONS FROM CLEAN AIR ACT FOR
STATIONARY SOURCES
• Section 16. Permitting of Stationary Sources
• Section 19. Pollution from Stationary Sources (Emission
Standards)
• Section 38. Recording, Keeping, Inspection, Monitoring
and Entry
• Section 45. Violation of Standards for Stationary Sources
Section 16. Permits
“THE DENR SHALL HAVE THE
AUTHORITY TO ISSUE PERMITS AS
IT MAY DETERMINE NECESSARY
FOR THE PREVENTION AND
ABATEMENT OF AIR POLLUTION”

“SAID PERMITS SHALL COVER

EMISSION LIMITATIONS FOR THE
REGULATED AIR POLLUTANTS TO
HELP ATTAIN AND MAINTAIN THE
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY
STANDARDS”.
PERMITTING REQUIREMENTS
Air Pollution Source
Installation/Activity
Any activity, structure, equipment, facility or appurtenances,
wherein its operation is a potential source of air pollution.

Air Pollution Control

Device/Facility
Any device or apparatus used to prevent, control or abate
the pollution of air caused by emissions from identified
pollution sources (i.e. cyclone, scrubber, filter baghouse,
impingement tanks, electrostatic precipitator etc.)
SECTION 19 STATIONARY SOURCE

Any trade, industry, process and fuel burning equipment or

industrial plants emitting air pollutants shall comply with the
National Emission Standards for Source Specific Air
Pollutants (Table 2, DAO 2000-81)
STANDARDS FOR COMPLIANCE

National Emission Standards for Source Specific Air Pollutants

(Section 19, CAA / Table 2, DAO 2000-81)
National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Source Specific Air
Pollutants (Section 12b, CAA /Table 3, DAO 2000-81)
ALSO UNDER SECTION 12
STANDARDS FOR COMPLIANCE
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY
STANDARDS FOR SOURCE SPECIFIC AIR
POLLUTANTS NAAQS (RULE XXVI , SECTION
1 OF “DAO 2000-81”)
National Emission Standards for Source Specific Air
Pollutants NESSAP (RULE XXV, Section 1 of “DAO
2000-81”)

Emission Standards for Treatment Facilities Using

Non-Burn Technologies (RULE XXVIII, Section 3 of
“DAO 2000-81”)
SOURCE EMISSION TESTING
METHODOLOGIES
What is Source Testing?

- only provides the “snap shot” of the

emission from a source at the time of
testing
- a sample is drawn from the stack in
conditions that represent those in the
source

23
SOURCE EMISSION TESTING
METHODOLOGIES
EPA Method-5 Isokinetic Sampling
- Source Emission Testing Methodologies
Activities/Program: Stationary Sources

Permitting system of stationary

sources by issuance of Permit to
Operate to air pollution sources
by EMB Regional Offices
Regular monitoring of firms and
industrial source by Continuous
Emission Monitoring (CEMS) /
Stack Testing to ensure
compliance to standards (steel
mills, power plants, and other
industries)
Activities/Program: Stationary Sources
Online submission of data from CEMS and
installation of CCTV of major industries to the
EMB (DAO 2017-14)
Accreditation of Third Party Stack Emission
Testing Firms (DAO 2013-26)
22 Firms are accredited with 43 teams as of
March 2019.
Regular monitoring of firms
Guidelines for establishment employing the
emission averaging approach for compliance
purposes (MC 2015-01)
Guidelines on air pollution control techniques
and devices (MC 2008-005)
Guidelines for air dispersion modelling (MC
2008-003)
SECTION 45, CAA “VIOLATION OF STANDARDS FOR
STATIONARY SOURCES”

“For actual exceedance of any pollution or air quality

standards under this Act or its rules and regulations, the
Department, through the Pollution Adjudication Board
(PAB),shall impose a fine of not more than One Hundred
Pesos (Php 100,000.00) for every day of violation against
the owner or operator of a stationary source until such
time that the standards have been complied with”
 FINES & PENALTIES
SECTION 45. STATIONARY SOURCES
 A fine of < P 100,000.00 for everyday of violation of standards until such time
that standards have been complied with
 Shall be increased by at least 10% every 3 years to compensate for inflation &
to maintain the deterrent function of the fine
• Penalties for gross violation: imprisonment of not less than 6 years but not
more than 10 years at the discretion of the court
• Violation of Other Provisions

A fine of not < P 10,000.00 but not > P 100,000.00

3 years & 1 day to 5 years imprisonment
Fuel Properties
 FUNDAMENTALS
OF COMBUSTION

Add a footer
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMBUSTION
Combustion of fuels must be considered both from theoretical and practical
perspectives. Theoretically, combustion can be defined as the rapid chemical reaction
of oxygen with the combustible elements of a fuel (Black et. al.;1996).
For complete combustion, four basic criteria must be satisfied:
 Adequate quantity of air (oxygen);
Oxygen and fuel thoroughly mixed ;
Fuel-air mixture maintained at or above the ignition temperature; and
Furnace volume large enough to give the mixture time for complete combustion.

Fuel + O2 + N2 CO2 + H2 O + N2 + SO2

Air Products of Combustion

TYPES OF FUELS

• Solid (e.g. coal, biomass, etc.)

• Liquid (e.g. bunker fuel, diesel, gasoline, etc.)
• Gas (e.g. Hydrocarbons such as Methane, Propane, Butane, etc.)
Source: https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/energy_statistics/01_2018_power_statistics_as_of_29_march_2019_summary.pdf
 PROXIMATE AND ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

• Proximate Analysis – A method developed for evaluating and specifying the

nature of coal including the moisture properties, volatile matter, fixed
carbon, ash, heating value, and sometimes sulfur. Obtained in accordance
with ASTM1 laboratory procedures (Woodruff, 2004).
• Ultimate Analysis – Another method to evaluate the properties of coal
utilizing its carbon (C), hydrogen (H), sulfur (S), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N)
components. This analysis is performed in a chemical laboratory (Woodruff, 2004).
PROPERTIES OF FUEL – Solid
Coal
Flammable black or brown sedimentary rock and made mostly of organic carbon
Fossil Fuel – “the altered remains of prehistoric vegetation”

Type of Coal Characteristics

o Anthracite - Referred to as “hard” coal( shiny black or dark silver-gray and relatively compact)
- Heating value of 15,000 Btu/lb (Utility –type boilers are designed to burn this low-volatile coal in pulverized coal-
fired boilers (Woodruff, 2004))

o Bituminous - Most abundant and most utilized coal form, it includes low, medium, and high volatile subgroups. It
- Heating value between 10,500 and 14,000 Btu/lb with moisture content and volatile matter lower than the other
types (Woodruff, 2004).

o Subbituminous - Subbituminous has a minimal swelling on heating and have relatively high moisture content of 15 to 30 percent.
- It is easier to ignite because it contains high volatile matter and has a heating value between 8,300 and 11,500
Btu/lb (Woodruff, 2004).

o Lignite - A brown coal often retain a wood like or laminar structure in which wood fiber remnants may be visible.
- The heating value of the lignite is less than 8300 Btu/lb and has a high volatile matter where it can easily ignite
(Woodruff, 2004).

o Peat - Peat is a decaying vegetables matter formed in wetlands and the first stage of metamorphosis in the coalification
process.
- It has a heating value of 6000 Btu/lb.
 Lignite Sub-bituminous

Bituminous Anthracite
Fuel Characteristics
Properties for Proximate Analysis:
(Source: Woodruff, 2004)

Moisture content in the coal influences combustion behavior. The moisture presents a
burden to coal ignition because the water in the coal must be vaporized as the volatile
1) Moisture Content matter in the coal particles is burned.
- Stoker- firing: moisture is 0- 20% by weight
- Fluidized boiler can handle moisture less than 30% by weight.
The mineral matter or resulting ash in the coal is inert, and it dilutes the heating value.
Consequently, with coals of higher ash content, more fuel is required to meet the heat
input that is required in the furnace for a particular steam capacity.
2) Ash Content
 Lower ash content may lead to lower Particulate
 should be within the design of the Boiler
- Stoker- firing: moisture is 6- 20% by weight
This is critical for maintaining flame stability and accelerating the particle burnout. Coals
3) Volatile Matter with low volatile matter, such as anthracite and low-volatile bituminous, are difficult to
ignite and require specially designed combustion systems.
Fixed carbon is the material remaining after the determination of moisture, volatile
matter and ash. It is, in fact, a measure of the solid combustible material in coal after the
4) Fixed Carbon
expulsion of volatile matter. The fixed-carbon value is one of the values used in
determining the efficiency of coal burning equipment.
Fuel Characteristics
Properties for Ultimate Analysis:
(Source: Woodruff, 2004)

Carbon is the most important constituent of coal as it mainly contributes to the overall heating value of
Carbon the coal. During combustion, it is transformed into carbon dioxide (CO2) in complete combustion and
carbon monoxide (CO) in incomplete combustion
During combustion, hydrogen is converted to water (H2O), significantly contributing to the overall
Hydrogen heating value of coal as well. The water then evaporates, becoming steam and released to the
atmosphere as flue gas.
Oxygen is a common element found in coal. Fuel oxygen reduces the amount of air needed for
Oxygen combustion and is found in the combustion products chemically bound in the molecules of CO2 and
H2O.
During combustion and for all practical purposes, nitrogen does not oxidize in any significant quantities
and is released in the gas phase as N2 – therefore, its contribution to the overall heating value is zero.
Nitrogen However, an amount of nitrogen gets oxidized and converted into nitrogen oxides (NOX) depending on
the combustion condition. These extra NOX emissions are harmful gases that can cause adverse effect
to the environment (linked to smog and acid rain) and human health (early child asthma).
Sulfur is a combustible constituent of coal thus it releases heat energy once combined with oxygen.
However, it is considered as undesirable constituent of coal because sulfur dioxide is formed after it
Sulfur burns. Sulfur dioxide contributes to air pollution and causes combustion system and some gas loop
components to corrode. Lower sulfur content of coal means lower SOx production
 FORMATION OF SOX
1. During combustion, sulfur compounds in coal undergo rapid
decomposition and changed to exhaust fumes
2. These fumes undergo oxidation to Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
small extent Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
3. Few percent of sulfur remains in the ash
LIMESTONE
Limestone or Calcium carbonate is added to boiler for:

 Control of SO2 (primary)

 Control of Bed Temperature (secondary)
 SO2 CAPTURE MECHANISM
Calcination CaCO3  CaO + CO2

Sulfation CaO + SO2 + 0.5 O2  CaSO4

Direct Sulfation CaCO3 + SO2 + 0.5 O2  CaSO4 + CO2

Final products = Gypsum (CaSO4) and Carbon dioxide (CO2)

 FORMATION OF NOX
THERMAL NOx
• “Thermal NOx” is controlled by
the nitrogen and oxygen molar
concentration and the
temperature of combustion.
• Approximately 20% of the NOx
produced.
FUEL NOx
• “Fuel NOx” is formed from the
oxidation of the already-ionized
nitrogen contained in the fuel.
• Approximately 80% of the total
NOx formed during coal
combustion.
PROMPT NOx
• “Prompt NOx” is formed when
nitrogen in the air combining
with fuel in the fuel-rich
condition was oxidized and
becomes NOx during
combustion.
• Typically insignificant;
producing <5% of the total NOx
formed during coal combustion
 NOX VS. TEMPERATURE:
N2 + O  NO + N
• According to the Zeldovich equations, to initially break
the strong triple bond of the N2 molecules, a high N + O2  NO + O
temperature (above 1300°C) is required, thus, NO is
generated to the limit of available oxygen (about N2 + O2  2NO
200,000 ppm) in air at temperatures above 1,300⁰C
(2,370 ⁰F).

• At temperatures below 760 ⁰C (1,400⁰F), NO is either

generated in much lower concentrations or not at all.

• The highest amount of NOx is produced during

moderate to heavy load conditions when combustion
pressures and temperatures are their highest.

http://www.alentecinc.com/papers/NOx/The%20formation%20of%20NOx_files/The%20formation%20of%20NOx.htm
Fuel Characteristics
Additional Physical Characteristics of Coal
(Source: Woodruff, 2004)

Although coal size is specified when ordered, the actual size when received does vary from coarse
to fine-sized particles. This property initially determines which type of boiler is to be utilized.
1) Coal Grade and - For pulverized- coal firing: fine fuel particles of about 70 % less than 200 mesh (note: 200 mesh
Size = 0.0029 in. = 0.074 millimeter)
- For fluidized bed: coal is crushed to less than ¼ in
- For stoker firing: the fuel size is approximately 1 to 1 ¼ in

Expressed in BTU’s per gallon or per pound. Heating value varies with the type of fuel.
affects the boiler temperature
should be within the design of the Boiler
2) Heating Value affects formation of NOx
- For fluidized bed: 1500oF- 1600oF
- For pulverized- coal firing: 3000oF- 3500oF
- For stoker firing: 3000oF and above
Coking tendency of coal is expressed by the free-swelling index (FSI). The standard profiles are
expressed in one-half units from 1
3) Free swelling
to 9. Coals having an FSI below 5 are referred to as free-burning. Coals having an FSI above 5 are
index
referred to as caking or coking.
- For fluidized bed: less than 1.5
Fuel Characteristics
Additional Physical Characteristics of Coal
(Source: Woodruff, 2004)

A characteristic known as grindability is considered when selecting coal for

4) HGI
pulverizer plants. Some coals are harder and therefore more difficult to
(Hardgrove
pulverize than others. It has an index of 0-100 where 0 is considered hardest
Grindability
and 100 is friable.
Index)
- The ideal HGI is 50- 60
Fusion temperatures provide an indication of the temperature range over
which portions of the ash will be in molten state or plastic state. When coal
5) Ash Fusion low in ash-fusion temperature is being burned, the ash adheres to the
Temperature refractory surface, causing erosion and spalling. The ash also may adhere to
the heating surfaces, reducing the heat transfer and frequently fouling gas
passages with a loss in boiler capacity and efficiency (Woodruff, 2004).
COAL STANDARDS PER METHOD OF FIRING
(SOURCE: E. WOODRUFF, 2004)

1. Stoker
• for bituminous coal, the fuel size is approximately 1 to 1 ¼ in.; to regulate the passage of air through the fuel bed.
• 7-12% Moisture for chain and travelling grate
• 4-6% ash required for hand fired grates
• Depending on the type of stoker, where some of the coal is burned in suspension, most of the coal is burned as a mass on some
type of moving grate with the air passing through the fixed bed of coal. Temperatures in the fuel bed can exceed 3000°F.
• For chain and travelling grate:
- minimum ash-softening temperature of 2,100F;
- free swelling index (FSI) of 7 for moving grate; and
- size range of 1 in. By 0 with not more than 60
percent less than 1/4in.
FSI- caking or coking tendency of coal

FSI below 5 are referred to as free-burning;

above 5 are referred to as coking or caking

2. Fluidized Bed 3. Pulverized
• Coal is crushed to less than ¼ in. • fine fuel particles (70 % less than 200 mesh) (note:

• The solids are maintained at a temperature of
1500 to 1600°F in an upwardly moving stream
of air and combustion gases.
• For Fluid Bed - lower air velocity
• For Circulating Fluid Bed – more particles
blown from the bed. The particles are collected
by a separator and re-circulated in the furnace.
• Ash Content:
• 20% - Bottom Ash
• 80% - Fly Ash
200 mesh = 0.0029 in. = 0.074 millimeter)
• Can burn completely in 1-2 seconds
• The zone in the furnace around the burners is the
hottest zone, with temperatures in the range of 3000
to 3500°F.
• HGI: 50- 60
• Moisture Content: up to 40%
• Ash Content:
• 20-30 % - Bottom Ash
• 70-80% - Fly Ash
Representative Analysis of Different Types of Wood,
Peat and Coal based on “as received” basis
PROPERTIES OF FUEL – Liquid
Fuel Characteristics
(Source: Boyce, 2002)

Maximum temperature at which fuel can be handled safely.

1) Flash Point Temperature

Indication of the lowest temperature at which a fuel oil can be stored and still be capable of
2) Pour Point Temperature
flowing under gravitational forces.
Measure of the resistance to flow and is important in the design of fuel pumping system.
3) Viscosity

Important in connection with the emission concerns and in connection with the alkali metals
4) Sulphur content present in the ash. Sulphur reacting with alkali metals forms compounds that corrode by a
process labelled sulfidation.
Weight of the fuel in relation to water. This property is important in the design of centrifugal fuel
5) Specific Gravity
washing systems.
Measure of the carbon compounds left in a fuel after the volatile components have vaporized.
6) Carbon Residue

7) Luminosity Amount of chemical energy in the fuel that is released as thermal radiation.

The most volatile fuels vaporize easily and come out early in the distillation process. Can be
8) Volatility categorized into light or heavy where the latter part come out later in the distillation process.
Sample Characteristics of Fuel – Liquid
Sample Characteristics of Fuel – Liquid

TYPICAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FUEL OILS

(source: air pollution engineering manual)

PROPERTIES OF FUEL – Gas
Fuel Characteristics
(Source: Boyce, 2002)

Affects the overall size of the fuel system since since it is a more important
concern in connection with gaseous fuel. The fuel system will of necessity,
1) Calorific Value or Lower have to be larger for process gas since it more is required for the same
Heating Value temperature rise.
- Natural Gas: 1100 Btu/ft3 (41,000 KJ/m3)
- Process Gas: (11,184 KJ/m3) or below
Measure of the water and sediment (for liquid fuels) and the particulate (for
gaseous fuel) content. Must be monitored if the fuel is naturally “dirty” or
2) Cleanliness can pick up contaminants during transportation. These contaminants can
cause damage or fouling to the fuel system thus resulting to poor
combustion.
Can occur in the fuel system and in the hot section of the turbine, where
3) Deposition and Fouling
some can be removed by fuel treating.
Corrosion by the fuel usually in the hot section of the engine, either in the
4) Corrosion
combustor or the turbine blading.
5) Fuel Availability Distance of Supplier from the Philippines.
Sample Properties of Fuel- Gaseous

(Source: Boyce, 2002)

Boiler Operation
METHODS OF FIRING FOR BOILER

• Stoker
• Fluidized Bed
• Pulverized
METHODS OF FIRING
(SOURCE: E. WOODRUFF, 2004)

1) Stoker
Depending on the type of
stoker, where some of the coal
is burned in suspension, most
of the coal is burned as a mass
on some type of moving grate
with the air passing through the
fixed bed of coal. Temperatures
in the fuel bed can exceed
3000°F.
BOILER SETTINGS , COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
(TRAVELLING GRATE STOKER)
VIBRATING GRATE
STOKER
2) Fluidized Bed
• The solids are maintained at a temperature
of 1500 to 1600°F in an upwardly moving
stream of air and combustion gases.
• In its most basic form, fuel particles are suspended
in a hot, bubbling fluidity bed of ash and other
particulate materials (sand, limestone etc.) through
which jets of air are blown to provide the oxygen
required for combustion or gasification. The
resultant fast and intimate mixing of gas and solids
promotes rapid heat transfer and chemical
reactions within the bed.
CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED WITH A HOT CYCLONE
COLLECTOR DESIGN
CIRCULATING FLUIDIZED BED BOILER DESIGN WITH
INTERNAL
PRIMARY RECYCLE DESIGN
3) Pulverized
• The zone in the furnace around the burners is
the hottest zone, with temperatures in the
range of 3000 to 3500°F.
• In the pulverized fuel firing system, the coal is
reduced to a fine powder with the help of
grinding mills and projected into combustion
chamber with the help of hot air current.
• The amount of air required to complete the
combustion is supplied separately to the
combustion chamber.
• The resulting turbulence in the combustion
chamber helps in the uniform mixing of fuel
(coal) and air and through combustion.
TURBO FURNACE-TYPE UTILITY STEAM GENERATOR DESIGNED FOR PULVERIZED
COAL FIRING
Boiler operations:

 Bed Temperature
 Excess Air Ratio
 SO2 CAPTURE
BED TEMPERATURE
 Sintering of sorbent particles is enhanced at high
temperatures resulting in lower porosity and surface area
and hence reducing the conversion of limestone

 At high temperature, sulfation rate is enhance which

causes small pores to become blocked at the surface area
of the particle and hence prevents entry of Sox to the
interior of the calcined limestone (CaO) particle.
 BED TEMPERATURE
Both sulfation and calcination reactions start
at 700ºC and are optimum at 840C- 850ºC
The maximum desulfurization efficiency is
between 850ºC
At bed temperatures higher than 900ºC, SO2
retention suffered a significant decrease

LIMESTONE FUSION TEMP: > 950ºC

S. R. Bragança1*and J. L. Castellan2
L.F. de Diego, A. Rufas, F. García-Labiano, M. de las Obras-Loscertales, A. Abad, P. Gayán, J. Adánez.
 PROXIMATE AND ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

• Proximate Analysis – A method developed for evaluating and specifying the

nature of coal including the moisture properties, volatile matter, fixed carbon,
ash, heating value, and sometimes sulfur. Obtained in accordance with ASTM1
laboratory procedures (Woodruff, 2004).
• Ultimate Analysis – Another method to evaluate the properties of coal utilizing
its carbon (C), hydrogen (H), sulfur (S), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N)
components. This analysis is performed in a chemical laboratory (Woodruff, 2004).
Fuel Characteristics
Properties for Ultimate Analysis:
(Source: Woodruff, 2004)

Carbon is the most important constituent of coal as it mainly contributes to the overall heating value of the coal.
Carbon During combustion, it is transformed into carbon dioxide (CO2) in complete combustion and carbon monoxide (CO) in
incomplete combustion

During combustion, hydrogen is converted to water (H2O), significantly contributing to the overall heating value of
Hydrogen coal as well. The water then evaporates, becoming steam and released to the atmosphere as flue gas.

Oxygen is a common element found in coal. Fuel oxygen reduces the amount of air needed for combustion and is
Oxygen found in the combustion products chemically bound in the molecules of CO2 and H2O.

During combustion and for all practical purposes, nitrogen does not oxidize in any significant quantities and is released
in the gas phase as N2 – therefore, its contribution to the overall heating value is zero. However, an amount of
Nitrogen nitrogen gets oxidized and converted into nitrogen oxides (NOX) depending on the combustion condition. These extra
NOX emissions are harmful gases that can cause adverse effect to the environment (linked to smog and acid rain) and
human health (early child asthma).

Sulfur is a combustible constituent of coal thus it releases heat energy once combined with oxygen. However, it is
Sulfur considered as undesirable constituent of coal because sulfur dioxide is formed after it burns. Sulfur dioxide contributes
to air pollution and causes combustion system and some gas loop components to corrode.
 PROCEDURE FOR ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
LABORATORY ANALYSIS THAT DETERMINES THE
PERCENTAGE CONSTITUENTS ELEMENTS OF A FUEL,
INCLUDING WATER AND ASH.

Sample Ultimate Analysis of Fuel

Carbon (C) 84.4%

Hydrogen (H) 5.4%

Nitrogen (N) 1.8%

Sulfur (S) 0.69%

Oxygen (O) 7.71%

Ash 16%
 REQUIRED AMOUNT OF AIR FOR COMBUSTION
Computation for the required O2:
32O2
For C: (0.844 C) = 2.251 O2
12C
16O
For H: (0.054 H2) = 0.432 O2
2H2

For O: to be subtracted = - 0.0771 O2

For N: Inert Gas = 0
32O2
For S: (0.0069 S) = 0.0069 O2
32S

lb.O2
Total = 2.613
lb fuel

Product of combustion:
44CO2
For C: 12C
(0.844 C) = 3.095 CO2
18𝐻2 𝑂
For H2: (0.054 H2) = 0.486 H2O
2𝐻2

For N2: Inert Gas = 0.018 N2

64𝑆O2
For S: (0.0069 S) = 0.0138 SO2
32𝑆

lb.flue gas
Total = 3.613
lb fuel
For the computations of air-fuel and gas-fuel ratios, the considered percent distribution of oxygen and
nitrogen in the atmosphere are 23.2% and 76.8%, respectively (Morse, 1953).
Where:
.768𝑁2
N2 in air = .232𝑂2
(2.613 O2)= 8.65 N2

Air-fuel ratio:
Raf=N2 in air + (Required O2)
= 8.65N2in air + 2.613O2
lb.Air
Raf = 11.26 lb fuel
Gas-fuel ratio:
Rgf =N2in air + (Product of combustion)
= 8.65N2in air + 3.613
lb.Flue Gas
Rgf = 12.26
lb fuel
BY VOLUME:
For carbon:
C + O2 CO2
C – 12 ; O2 – 32 ; CO2 – 44

1mol C + 1 mol O2 + 3.76 mol N2 = 1mol CO2 + 3.76 mol N2

for C=12 ; for any gas 1 mol = 379 ft3

379 379 379 379

1 lb C + ft3 O2 + (3.76) ft3 N2 = ft3 CO2 + (3.76) ft3 N2
12 12 12 12

1 lb C + 31.6ft3 O2 + 118.8 ft3 N2= 31.6ft3 CO2 + 118. 8 ft3 N2

1 lb C requires 150.4 ft3 (31.6ft3 O2 + 118.8 ft3 N2) of air at std. condition
FOR HYDROGEN
1
H + 2 O2 H2O

H – 2 ; O2 – 16 ; H2O – 18

1
1mol H+ 2mol O2 + 1.88 mol N2 = 1mol H2O + 1.88 mol N2

for H - 2 ; for any gas 1 mol = 379 ft3

379 379 379 379

1 lb H + (0.5) ft3 O2 + (1.88) ft3 N2 = ft3 H2O + (1.88 ) ft3 N2
2 2 2 2

1 lb H + 94.75 ft3 O2 + 356.26 ft3 N2 = 189.5 ft3 H2O + 356.26 ft3 N2

1 lb H requires 451.01 ft3 (94.75 ft3 O2 + 356.26 ft3 N2)of air at std. condition
FOR SULFUR

S + O2 SO2
S – 32 ; O2 – 32 ; SO2 – 64

1mol S+ 1 mol O2 + 3.76 mol N2 = 1mol SO2 + 376 mol N2

for S - 32 ; for any gas 1 mol = 379 ft3

379 379 379 379

1 lb S + ft3 O2 + (3.76) ft3 N2 = ft3 SO2 + (3.76) ft3 N2
32 32 32 32

1 lb S + 11.84 ft3 O2 + 44.5 ft3 N2 = 11.84 ft3 SO2 + 44.5 ft3 N2

1 lb S requires 56.34 ft3 ( 11.84 ft3 O2 + 44.5 ft3 N2)of air at std. condition
 SO2 AND PARTICULATE MATTER CONCENTRATION
(ESTIMATED)

Computation for the required O2: (by volume)

For C: 0.844C (150.4) = 126.9
For H: 0.054 H(451) = 24.35
For S: 0.0069 S(56.34) = 0.389
ft3 air
Total = 150.74
lb fuel

ft3 of Flue Gas

( 0.844C) (31.6 ft3 air/C) = 26.67 ft3CO2
(0.054 H)((189.5 ft3 air/H) = 10.23 ft3H2O
(0.0069S) ((11.8ft3 air/S) = 0.081ft3SO2
(N in fuel) + (Nair) = (.018) ( 379/14) + (0.79)(150.74)
= 119.57 ft3 N
ft3 flue gas
Total = 156.5 lb fuel
ESTIMATING SO2 AND PM CONCENTRATION

𝐟𝐭 𝟑 𝟏
𝑆𝑂2 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (%𝑆) 𝟑𝟕𝟗 𝐦𝐨𝐥.𝐨𝐟 𝐒 𝐫𝐠𝐟
(106) ppm
379 1
= (0.0069) 32 156.55
(106 ppm) = 522 ppm
64 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑂2 mg
SO2 Concentration = 522 ppm x
24.45 𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 Ncm
𝐦𝐠
SO2 Concentration = 1,366.38
𝐍𝐜𝐦

𝟕𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐬 𝟏
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 =(𝑎𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝐥𝐛 𝒓𝒈𝒇

7000grains 1 𝑙𝑏
=(0.16)
lb 156.55 𝑓𝑡 3
= 7.15 grains
𝑓𝑡 3

grains mg ft3
= 7.15 𝑥 64.7989 𝑥 (35.28 )
𝑓𝑡 3 grain m3
mg
𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 16,345.65
Ncm
𝐦𝐠
assuming 30% discharge as fly ash: PM = 4,903.7
𝐍𝐜𝐦
Sample for Analyzing Hydrocarbons

An important class of binary compounds are the hydrocarbons. As the name implies hydrocarbons consist
of only hydrogen and carbon atoms. There are thousands of possible hydrocarbon molecules. However, the simplest
type are called "alkanes". Alkanes have the formula CnH2n+2, where n = 1,2,3 etc.. For example for n=1 we have
CH4, for n=2 we have C2H6 etc..

Formula(state at
Name
room temperature)
CH4 (gas) methane
C2H6 (gas) ethane
C3H8 (gas) propane
C4H10 (gas) butane
C5H12 (liquid) pentane
C6H14 (liquid) hexane
C7H16 (liquid) heptane
C8H18 (liquid) octane
C9H20 (liquid) nonane
C10H22 (liquid) decane
C18H38 (solid) octadecane
Chemical Formula for Hydrocarbon
Without excess air (Balancing Method):
CnHm + a[O2 + 3.76N2] = b[CO2]+ c[H20] + 3.76a[N2 ]

Fuel + Air = Products of Combustion

With excess air, e:

CnHm + (1+e)a[O2 + 3.76N2] = b[CO2]+ c[H20] + 3.76a[N2 ]

Actual air- fuel ratio considering excess air

(A/F)actual = (A/F)t (1 + e)

Molecular Weight of common combustible elements

C = 12 H=1 O = 16 N = 14 S= 32

Composition of air by volume

Oxygen in air = 21% Nitrogen in air = 79%

Composition of air by weight

Oxygen = 23.20% Nitrogen = 76.80%
Alternate Method:

Given a Hydrocarbon, CnHm ,

where:
𝒎
x = n +
𝟒
Solving for Theoretical Air- Fuel ratio
Molal Basis:
𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒂𝒊𝒓
(A/F)t = x + 3.76(x) ,
𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍
Mass Basis:
𝟑𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐𝟖 𝟑.𝟕𝟔 𝒙 𝒌𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓
(A/F)t = ,
𝟏𝟐𝒏 + 𝒎 𝒌𝒈 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍

Solving for Actual Air- Fuel ratio (considering excess air, e)

Molal Basis:
(A/F)a = (A/F)t(1 + e)
Sample Problem 1

C8H18 is burned with ideal proportion of air.

Calculate the ideal air-fuel ratio by weight.
Solution: Alternate Method:
C8H18 + a[O2 + 3.76N2] = bCO2 + cH20 + 3.76aN2
C8H18
Balancing: n=8
C: 1(8) = b(1) : b = 8 m = 18
H: 1(18) = c(2) : c = 9 𝑚 18
x = n + = 8 + = 12.5
O: a(2) = b(2) + c(1) 4 4
a = 8(2) + 9(1)/2 = 12.5 kg-mol
N: 3.76(a) = 47 kg-mol Then the theoretical A/F is:
𝟑𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐𝟖 𝟑.𝟕𝟔 𝒙 𝒌𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓
(A/F)t = ,
𝟏𝟐𝒏 + 𝒎 𝒌𝒈 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍
Then the theoretical A/F is:
(A/F)t = 12.5(32) + 47(28) / 12(8) + 1(18) 𝟑𝟐 𝟏𝟐.𝟓 + 𝟐𝟖 𝟑.𝟕𝟔 𝟏𝟐.𝟓
(A/F)t =
(A/F)t = 15.05 kga /kgf 𝟏𝟐(𝟖) +𝟏𝟖
(A/F)t = 15.052 kga /kgf
Sample Problem 2

A typical industrial cetene (C16H32) is burned with 20% excess air. Calculate the
actual air-fuel ratio by weight.

Solution: Alternate Method:

CnHm + a[O2 + 3.76N2] = b[CO2]+ c[H20] + 3.76a[N2 ]
C16H32 + a[O2 + 3.76N2] = bCO2 + cH20 + 3.76a[N2] C16H32
n = 16
Balance:
C: 1(16) = b(1) : b = 16 m = 32
H: 1(32) = c(2) : c = 16 𝑚 32
O: a(2) = 2(16) + 16(1) : a = 24 x = n + = 16 + = 24
N: 3.76(a) = 90.24
4 4

Considering excess air of 20%: Theoretical A/F is:

C16H32 + (1.2)a[O2 + 3.76N2] = b[CO2]+ c[H20] + 3.76a[N2] 𝟑𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐𝟖 𝟑.𝟕𝟔 𝒙 𝒌𝒈 𝒂𝒊𝒓
1.2(24)2 = 16(2) + 16(1) + d(2) d=4.8 (A/F)t = ,
𝟏𝟐𝒏 + 𝒎 𝒌𝒈 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍
𝟑𝟐 𝟐𝟒 + 𝟐𝟖 𝟑.𝟕𝟔 𝟐𝟒
Then the actual A/F is: (A/F)t = 𝟏𝟐(𝟏𝟔) +𝟑𝟐
(A/F)a = (1.2) [(24)(32) + (90.24)(28)] / 12(16) + 1(32)
(A/F)a = 17.65 kga /kgf (A/F)t = 14.709 kga /kgf
Then the actual A/F is:
(A/F)a = (A/F)t(1 + e)
(A/F)a = (14.709)(1 + 0.2)
(A/F)t = 17.65 kga /kgf
Amount of excess air
IN PRACTICE, IT IS NECESSARY AND ECONOMICAL TO SUPPLY MORE AIR THAN THE THEORETICAL
AMOUNT IN ORDER TO OBTAIN COMPLETE COMBUSTION. THE AIR SUPPLIED TO A COMBUSTION
PROCESS IN AN AMOUNT ABOVE THAT THEORETICALLY REQUIRED IS KNOWN AS EXCESS AIR
(WOODRUFF, 2004).

The excess air in percentage of the theoretical requirements can be

calculated by the following formula:
SAMPLE PROBLEM FOR SOLVING THE
PERCENTAGE OF EXCESS AIR
RANGES OF EXCESS AIR REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS METHODS
OF FIRING
 ACTUAL AIR FUEL AND GAS-FUEL RATIO

The excess air is needed because the finite fuel is of finite size, and each droplet must be
surrounded by more than the necessary number of oxygen molecules to assure oxidation of all
the hydrocarbon molecules. This excess air is usually expressed as a percentage of the theoretical
air (Burghardt & Harbach, 1993).

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒂𝒇=𝟏+𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒊𝒓(𝒓𝒂𝒇)

𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒈𝒇=𝟏+𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒊𝒓(𝒓𝒈𝒇)

MANAGEMENT OF FUEL BURNING INSTALLATIONS

There are three basic factors, which affect the combustion efficiency of
fuel burning equipment. These are:
• Excess air,
• Unburned fuel in the stack gases and
• Environmental concerns.

Factors that can reduce combustion efficiency:

1. High Oxygen Content (caused by)
• too small burner nozzle
• Air leakage into the furnace or boiler; and
• Under firing in the combustion chamber.
2. LOW OXYGEN CONTENT (CAUSED BY):
- INSUFFICIENT DRAUGHT; AND
- OVER-FIRED BURNER

3. Smokey Combustion (caused by);

- Soot formation on the heating surfaces;
- Insufficient draught, incorrectly adjusted draught regulator, improper air
delivery (fan);
- Poor fuel supply; malfunctioning fuel pump;
- Defective firebox;
- Oil burner nozzle defect;
- Excessive air leaks in boiler or furnace; and
- Wrong fuel-air ratio.
4. High Stack Temperatures (may be caused by):
• undersized furnace;
• defective combustion chamber;
• Incorrectly sized combustion chamber;
• Over-fired burner;
• Draught regulator improperly adjusted; and
• Soot formation on the heating surfaces.
Air Pollution Control Device
(APCD)
Topic Outline

 Air Pollution Control Devices and Techniques

 Engineering Controls
 Particulate Emissions
 Gaseous Chemical Contaminants
 Control Equipment for Particulate Matter
 Inertial Separator (Cyclone)
 Fabric Filtration
 Electrostatic Precipitators
 Wet Collection Devices
 Control Equipment for Gaseous Contaminants
 Biofiltration
 Thermal Oxidation
 Gas Absorption
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DEVICES AND TECHNIQUES
(FROM DAO 2008-005)
Options available for managing, controlling and reducing
emissions:
• Engineering Controls
• Operating Procedures and Practices
• Inspection, Maintenance and Performance Monitoring
• Emergency Contingency Plans (based on risk management).
 ENGINEERING CONTROLS

There are two main categories of air pollution control devices to control and reduce:
1. Particulate emissions; and
2. Chemical contaminants from the gas stream including odorous substances.

For the control of particulate emissions the types of air pollution control devices commonly
installed include:
• Fabric filtration including pulsejet and mechanical bag filter units;
• Electrostatic precipitators;
• Inertial separators which includes cyclones;
• Water scrubbing devices; and
• Ceramic filters.
 FOR THE CONTROL OF GASEOUS CHEMICAL
CONTAMINANTS THE TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION DEVICES
COMMONLY INSTALLED INCLUDE

• Bio filtration;
• Incineration/thermal oxidation including afterburners;
• Chemical scrubbing devices;
• Adsorption (e.g. carbon adsorption).
 INDUSTRY SPECIFIC AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

Add a footer 2/5/2020 99

Scrubber
CONVENTIONAL CYCLONE CONVERTED TO SCRUBBER
CYCLONE SCRUBBER
ORIFICE SCRUBBER
ORIFICE SCRUBBER
DOUBLE-CHAMBER CYCLONE SCRUBBER WITH HELICAL BAFFLES
MECHANICAL CENTRIFUGAL SCRUBBER
MECHANICAL SCRUBBER
VENTURI SCRUBBER
THIN-BED PACKED
TOWER SCRUBBER
CENTRIFUGAL
AND
IMPINGEMENT
SCRUBBER
Fabric Filters (Bag House)
REVERSE AIR BAG FILTER
PULSE –JET BAG FILTER
Inertial Separators (Cyclone)
CARTRIDGE FILTER
 Inertial Separators

Cyclone separators

separates particulate matter from a

carrier gas by transforming the
velocity of an inlet stream into a
double vortex confined within the
cyclone
TYPES OF CYCLONE

a. Tangential Entry – widely used in

process industries

b. Axial entry cyclones. Gas enters

the top and is directed by vanes

c. Air enters tangentially at the

bottom
Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR, WEIGHTED WIRE
DESIGN
RAPPERS
Thermal Oxidizers
 THERMAL OXIDATION OF GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS

Thermal oxidation (incineration) relies on the destruction of air pollutants by

the application of heat. It is best applied to carbon and hydrogen-containing
contaminants because thermal oxidation renders them into harmless carbon
dioxide and water. There are several different types of thermal oxidation
devices:

• Thermal (often referred to as afterburners)

• Recuperative
• Catalytic
• Regenerative
• Flares.
THERMAL OXIDIZER
CATALYTIC THERMAL OXIDIZER
(WITH CATALYST BED)
 REGENERATIVE THERMAL OXIDIZER
SIMILAR IN PRINCIPLE WITH RECUPERATIVE THERMAL OXIDIZER, BUT USE
DIRECT CONTACT WITH A HIGH DENSITY MEDIA SUCH AS A CERAMIC-PACKED
SCRUBBER FOR HEAT EXCHANGE
 FLARES
SPECIAL CATEGORY OF THERMAL OXIDIZER; GENERALLY USED DURING UPSET
CONDITION OR ON ACCIDENTAL RELEASE FROM A PROCESS
CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS

BIOFILTRATION
- Vapor phase compounds (generally organic compounds) are passed through a bed of media material
(biofilter) and adsorbed onto the exposed surface where they are degraded by micro-organisms in the
bed. The bed media is generally soil, bark, compost, scoria or any combination of these materials.
Designed to achieve at least 95% odour removal efficiency

(Source: AQM,2008)
 GAS ABSORPTION EQUIPMENT

Gas absorption equipment is designed to provide thorough contact between the gas
and liquid solvent in order to permit interphase diffusion of the materials.

From an air pollution standpoint, absorption is useful as a method of reducing or

eliminating the discharge of air contaminants to the atmosphere.

Contaminants most commonly controlled by absorption include sulfur dioxide,

hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen chloride, chlorine, ammonia, oxides of nitrogen, and light
hydrocarbon
THANK YOU