Implementation Guide IG-8 Asphalt Mix Design A guide to the process of design and selection of an asphalt job mix 2004Asphait Mix Design Preface ‘The Australian Asphalt Pavement Association (AAPA) has prepared this guide in conjunction with Roading New Zealand (RNZ) (formerly the New Zealand Pavement and Contractors Association) as an aid to promoting good practice in the process of asphalt mix design as well as improved understanding of the selection of design procedures for particular application. ‘The basic requirements for asphalt are adequate load carrying capacity (resistance to deformation) and durability. Wearing course mixes may also require particular surface texture requirements. Specific requirements for achieving performance attributes vary considerably with traffic loading levels, ‘operating environment and underlying base conditions. While there is a common understanding of the major principles involved in achieving asphalt performance, road agencies in Australia vary considerably in the application of mix design criteria, approval of job mixes, and the acceptance of the properties of manufactured asphalt. The publication of APRG Report No 18 - Selection and Design of Asphalt Mixes: Australian Provisional Guide, in 1996, introduced gyratory compaction for the laboratory compaction and determination of volumetric properties of asphalt mixes, as well as a range of other, generally performance related, optional tests. ‘The extent to which test procedures contained in APRG 18 have been adopted and the development ‘and application of associated specification criteria has varied between states and perpetuates differences in test methods, specification criteria and contract administration that always applied between states. AAPA seeks to promote national uniformity though the activities of the Asphalt Research Reference Group (ARRG), formerly the National Asphalt Research Coordination Group (NARC), and publications such as APRG 18, AAPA National Asphalt Specification, Austroads Framework for Specifying Asphalt, AS 2150 ~ Hot Mix Asphalt, and various other guides, standards and test methods. ‘This guide does not attempt to introduce any new procedures but provides a guide to the preparation of asphalt mix designs to meet existing specification criteria and a guide to the cost- effective use of characterisation tests to satisfy performance attributes for particular application. Australian Asphalt Pavement Association (AAPA) AAPA is a non-profit organisation formed to promote the economic use of asphalt based on sound technical grounds. The ‘Association's Mission Slatoment for Research and Development fs to ensure the alainment of the optimum level of quality and toag-term performance in flexible pavement deign, constuction and maintenance. The AAPA Technology Committee manages the AAPA R&D Program for Asphall Research and Technology and works In close cooperation with the Ausiroads Pavement “Technology Review Panel. The research programs are coordated and complementary Roading New Zealand (RNZ) FRoating New Zealand is an Indepencent organisation representing the mor roading contractors who carry cut the majorly of Naw Zealand's road maintenance and construction work. Members inciude roading contractors, bitumen suppliers and ascoclates such as equipment suppliers and road contcling authorties. Roading New Zoalanc's mission isto be “Whe premiar industry organisation promoting excellence and leading bast practic inthe provision of land transport infrastructure”Asphalt Mix Design CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION LL General . 1.2 Objectives of asphalt mix design. 1.3. An overview of the design proces: 2 SELECTION OF MIX TYPE AND MIX DESIGN CRITERIA . 3. SELECTION OF COMPONENT MATERIALS 3.1 Aggregates 3.2. Mineral Fille 33. Binder... 4 COMBINING COMPONENT MATERIALS 4,1. Selecting a target grading. 42 Maximising Packing Properties of Dense Graded Mixes 43. Combining Aggregates to a Target Grading .. 5 MIXING AND COMPACTION OF LABORATORY MIXES 5.1 Sample preparation and conditioning. 5.2 Compaction 53. Refusal density 5.4 Workability. 6 VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES. 6.1 General 6.2. Determining density of components. 63. Bulk Density of asphalt. 64 Maximum Density.. 6.5. Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA) 6.6 Air Voids. 6.7 Binder Content . 6.8 Voids Filled with Binder (VEB).. 69 Binder Film Index..... MECHANICAL TESTING AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISATION.. VERIFICATION OF MIX PROPERTIES JOB MIX. ne 10 SPECIAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR OTHER MIX TYPES. 10.1 Polymer Modified Binders. 10.2 Crumb Rubber Asphalt Mixes . 10.3 Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA). 104 Open Graded Asphalt (OGA) 10.5 Fine Gap Graded Asphalt (FGGA)... 10.6 Ultra-thin Asphalt Mixes . 11 REFERENCES APPENDIX A VOIDS AND DENSITY CALCULATIONS © oe aAsphalt Mix Design ASPHALT MIX DESIGN A guide to the process of design and approval of an asphalt job mix 1 INTRODUCTION 4.1 General ‘The purpose of this document is to provide a guide to the asphalt mix design process, including the selection of appropriate design criteria and the selection and interpretation of testing to arrive at the most appropriate job mix for particular application, ‘These guidelines are intended to be read in conjunction with existing Australian Standards, Austroads Guides and Test Methods, AAPA Guides and road agency requirements, where relevant. 1.2 Objectives of asphalt mix design The design of an asphalt mix is largely a matter of selecting and proportioning materials to optimise the engineering properties in relation to the desired behaviour in service. Procedures for designing asphalt mixes have been generally developed around testing of dense graded mixes and determination of optimum binder content, although most tests can be used for other mix types with suitable interpretation of results. Notes on special requirements for design of other mix types are provided in Section 10. The overall objective for the design of dense graded asphalt paving mixes is to determine (within the limits of project specifications) a cost-effective blend and gradation of aggregates and binder that yields a mix having: 1, sufficient binder to ensure a durable pavement; 2. sufficient mix stability to satisfy the demands of traffic without distortion or displacement; 3. sufficient voids in the total compacted mix to allow for a slight amount of in place compaction by traffic and bitumen expansion due to temperature increases, without flushing, bleeding and loss of stability; 4, a maximum void content to limit the permeability of harmful air and moisture into the mix; 5. sufficient workability to permit efficient placement of the mix without segregation and without sacrificing stability and performance; 6. for surface mixes, proper aggregate texture and hardness to provide sufficient skid resistance. 1.3 An overview of the design process Asphalt mix design involves the following basic steps that are similar in concept, regardless of the actual tests and procedures used:Asphalt Mix Design Selection of mix type. Selection of component materials. Combination of aggregates to meet target grading, Selection of target binder content or range. Mixing and compaction of asphalt mix to a density that is representative of in-service conditions, wRene Measurement of volumetric properties of compacted mix. Mechanical testing of compacted samples, if required. ‘Verification of design properties on samples of manufactured asphalt, if required Selection of Job Mix. ep RpaAeD 2 SELECTION OF MIX TYPE AND MIX DESIGN CRITERIA Selection of materials must be appropriate to the mix type and performance environment. The selection of mix type and performance application will largely determine: aggregate quality and shape requirements © filler requirements binder type * volumetric requirements for the mix including, aggregate grading envelope or target, range of binder content, and voids requirements. The selection process is driven by specific needs for particular surface characteristics or structural performance. General guides to the selection of mix type are found in documents such as the Austroads/AAPA Guide to selection of road surfacings, Austroads/AAPA Asphalt guide, ‘Austroads/AAPA Selection and design of asphalt mixes: Australian provisional guide (APRG Report 18), and various AAPA guides, advisory notes and pavement work tips. Additional advice relating to selection of modified binders is given in the Austroads specification framework for polymer modified binders. A list of references is provided at the end of this document. Specific mix design criteria are a function of mix type and performance conditions. In many cases, the selection of both mix type and specific design criteria will be made by the purchaser/specifier ‘Where no specific mix design criteria are specified, refer to the AAPA National Asphalt Specification (Edition 2), which provides a guide to specification criteria for all mix types. ‘A major issue can be the selection of mix criteria for light traffic applications. Most State Road Authority (SRA) specifications are developed around requirements for asphalt mixes that provide coarse surface texture and deformation resistance for high speed and heavily trafficked applications, Such mixes may have unsatisfactory surface finish and poor durability in light traffic situations where a fine surface texture and low insitu air voids are often preferred. Smaller nominal sizes, finer gradings and higher contents are factors that lead to enhanced workability, appearance and in light traffic mixes,Asphalt Mx Design 3 SELECTION OF COMPONENT MATERIALS 3.1. Aggregates Aggregates should be clean, tough and durable and have adequate particle shape, strength, abrasion resistance and polish resistance appropriate to the particular asphalt requirements. Aggregate shape and texture can also affect workability and deformation resistance of asphalt mixes. Angular and rough textured aggregates can increase mix stiffness and deformation resistance, but at the expense of mix workability. Workability is generally increased with the use of smooth rounded particles such as natural sand in the fine aggregate component. Poorly shaped coarse aggregates can also reduce workability. Coarse aggregate shape is particularly important in SMA and open graded asphalt mixes where the coarse aggregate skeleton provides the basic structure of the mix. ‘Where aggregate requirements are not specified by the purchaser, the AAPA National Asphalt Specification, which refers, in turn, to AS 2758.5, may be taken as a guide. 3.2 Mineral Filler Fillers may vary in terms of: ‘* patticle size distribution * chemical reaction to other constituent materials. Accordingly, not only is the initial selection of a filler important, the substituting of one type of filler for another can have a significant effect on the asphalt mix. A guide to selection and specification of filler is provided in the AAPA National Asphalt Specification. 3.3 Binder The required properties and performance of asphalt significantly affect the choice of binder. The type and grade of binder (usually bitumen) depends very largely on the climate and traffie volume to which the pavement will be subjected. For a guide to selection of binder for specific application, see AAPA Advisory Note 2 or other referenced documents. Other additives such as fibres and naturally occurring asphalt residues (e.g. Gilsonite and Trinidad Lake Asphalt) may also be used to modify the properties of bitumen binders. For cold mix applications, bitumen may be emulsified or softened with a cutter oil or flux oil.Asphalt Mix Design 4 COMBINING COMPONENT MATERIALS 4.1 Selecting a target grading The selection of mix type largely defines the aggregate grading envelope within which the asphalt mix is to be designed. Road agency specifications generally specify the grading envelope for each mix type. [Where not otherwise specified, typical grading envelopes may be found by reference to lthe AAPA National Asphalt Specification, ‘The aggregate grading and binder content ranges shown in the AAPA National Asphalt Specification are targets for design purposes and selection of a job mix. Application of production tolerances may result in actual production being outside those limits, In some cases the production range is termed the “specified mix envelope” which is based on the job mix (or job mix formula), not the specified grading envelope. s designed within grading envelopes can still vary widely in performance. ‘The target grading should not move widely from one side of the grading envelope to the other but maintain a uniform distribution of aggregate sizes, taking into account the grading of available materials and any adjustments necessary to achieve the desired volumetric properties. In the absence of experience with the intended use of the materials and mixes, the mid point of the grading envelope provides a suitable target grading for initial trial mixes. Where there is experience with the materials being used, or where particular characteristics are being optimised, mixes that are coarser or finer than the mid point may be adopted, provided that specified limits are maintained. Selection of a target grading outside the nominated grading envelope should only be attempted where suitable evidence can be provided to demonstrate that the “non-conforming” mix adequately meets the required performance standards. 4.2, Maximising Packing Properties of Dense Graded Mixes Dense graded asphalt mixes use a continuous grading to facilitate packing of aggregate particles to achieve: flexibility durability structural stiffness deformation resistance low permeability. ‘The maximum density grading gives the theoretical densest particle packing and minimum voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) condition of the mix (the total voids within the mass of compacted aggregate). For a particular maximum aggregate size, the maximum density grading may be determined by the Fuller equation: P= 100(d/D)Asphalt Mx Design where total percentage passing a given sieve size of sieve opening maximum size of aggregate grading exponent. ‘The original Fuller equation used a grading exponent of 0.5. Further work has determined that an exponent of 0.45 provides the greatest density and lowest VMA. Increasing the exponent to, say 0.6 provides an asphalt mix with slightly increased VMA and coarser texture. Decreasing the exponent also increases VMA but results in a finer textured mix. Higher exponents such as 0.8 or 0.9 tend towards an open graded mix. The Fuller equation has proved to give impractical proportions of filler for some mixes. Another equation has been developed to adjust for the percentage filler content. where F = the percentage of filler P, d, Dandn are as above. Maximising the density of the mix with a particle size distribution that closely follows the maximum density relationship may result in a VMA that is too low. A low VMA may not provide enough space for the required air voids and a reasonable volume of binder to provide cohesion, durability and fatigue resistance in the mix. Overfilling the VMA with binder in such circumstances can lead to mixes with low air voids and poor rutting resistance (see also Section 6.5). Deviations from the maximum density curve generally result in higher VMA. Significant deviations from the maximum density curve can, however, result in a reduction in mix stability. It can also result in a significant change in finished surface texture by becoming “gap” graded. Its desirable, therefore, that changes to the aggregate grading combination to achieve higher VMA, maintain a continuous distribution and interlock of aggregate particle sizes. 4.3. Combining Aggregates to a Target Grading The proportioning of the selected aggregate fractions, together with the fillet, may be determined by trial and error, graphically, arithmetically, computer spread sheet, or by using computer software such as "Cmix" by ARRB TR. Determining the combined grading of the aggregates is achieved arithmetically using the following formula: P=Aa+ Bb + Ce etc. where P = the percentage of material passing a given sieve for the combined aggregate fractions A,B, C, etc. A, B, C ete = percentage of material passing a given sieve for each of the aggregates A, B, Crete.Asphalt Mix Design a, b, c etc. = proportion of aggregates A, B, C, etc. used in the combination and where the total of a, b, c etc = 1.00. In practice, most large organisations have developed spreadsheets that enable matching of available aggregate fractions to target gradings. Spreadsheet programs may also provide for input of the density of components and hence estimation of key volumetric data for the combined materials. Such programs can significantly reduce the amount of trial and error in preparing laboratory mixes to achieve specific volumetric targets. 5 MIXING AND COMPACTION OF LABORATORY MIXES 5.1 Sample preparation and conditioning ‘An important aim of asphalt mix design procedures is to ensure that specimens prepared in the laboratory have properties as close as possible to asphalt placed in the road. ‘The Austroads mix design procedure includes a laboratory conditioning step that simulates the binder hardening that occurs during manufacture and placing of the mix and around the first two years of field service. ‘This step is important in preparing samples for mechanical tests such as resilient modulus, creep and fatigue as stiffness of the binder has a significant impact on test results, Conditioning of samples is not applicable to the Marshall mix design procedure. ‘Trial mixes may be prepared at three or five binder contents as follows: © Design and redesign of asphalt mixes using familiar materials — trial mixes at three binder contents (target + 0.5%) are generally sufficient. © Full design using new sources of material where volumetric outcomes are less predictable or a wider spread of data is required — five binder contents at 0.5% increments. Procedures for mixing, quartering and conditioning of laboratory samples are described in AS 2891.2.1. [For standard binders, asphalt mixes should be compacted at 150°C. For polymer |modified binders, the compaction temperature should be increased to 160°C. 5.2 Compaction ‘Methods used for compaction of samples for volumetric and mechanical testing include: © Gyratory = Gyropac — Servopac Marshall Slab compactor. The Austroads mix design procedure uses gyratory compacted specimens. It produces cylindrical samples suitable for resilient modulus, dynamic creep and moisture sensitivity testing, ‘The driving force in adoption of gyratory compaction was the belief that it achieves 9Asphalt Mix Design alignment of aggregate particles that is more representative of field placement of asphalt and is preferred where performance properties are to be measured. Where larger samples are required for wheel tracking or fatigue tests, a variety of methods are used involving compaction in rectangular moulds or large slabs that simulate the field placement of asphalt. Compaction devices include the slab compactor (segmental rolling, wheel), compaction of slabs with a footpath roller, and the rectangular “shear box compactor” (see also AST 05). Large rectangular samples can also be cored for use in tests that require cylindrical samples. Road agencies in Australia are moving towards the use of gyratory compaction for basic mix design and performance measurement, Issues relating to consistency of results produced by the Gyropac have been largely overcome but more work is required to verify the correlation between a certain level of compaction (number of Gyropac cycles) with the density of asphalt mixes achieved in service under various traffic conditions. Marshall compaction is still used for many basic mix design applications and is considered by some designers to produce more consistent and representative samples for other mix types (SMA, OGA, etc.). The AAPA National Asphalt Specification allows the option of Marshall or Gyratory compaction for determination of volumetric properties for all mix types. Where the method of compaction is not otherwise specified, the Contractor should choose the method to be used. 5.3 Refusal density Refusal density is a measure of the maximum degree of packing of aggregates in the asphalt mix that is possible without degradation of the aggregate. It is used to simulate the insitu density to which an asphalt mix can be compacted under extreme conditions of traffic loading, Asphalt mixes compacted to an insitu air voids level of less than about 2 or 3% may become unstable and prone to rutting as a result of binder almost totally filling the void spaces and reducing aggregate particle interlock and friction, Refusal density may be used to identify the potential for mixes to compact under heavy traffic and reach a condition where this form of instability may occur. {in the Austroads Selection and design of asphalt mixes (APRG 18), compaction to 250 lcycles in the gyratory compactor is used as a surrogate for refusal density. Values for Iminimum voids at 250 cycles should only be applied to mixes to be directly subjected to lheavy traffic. An alternative measure of refusal density is the British Percentage Refusal Density (PRD) test (BS 598 Part 104). The test uses a standard vibratory hammer to compact a heated sample of prepared asphalt in a cylindrical mould. A split mould is used to enable the testing, of field core specimens. In practice, the same mould is used for both ficld and laboratory samples. ‘The PRD test was originally developed to establish a reference density for assessing the effectiveness of field compaction of asphalt designed to recipe specifications. It was also found that low final voids in the PRD test correlated with mixes prone to rutting, hence the current use in the UK of the refusal density test as a design tool to identify mixes with potential for low insitu voids. 10Asphatt Mix Design Refusal air void levels obtained in the PRD test are generally lower than that obtained with gyratory compaction, Experience gained in UK (and NZ) indicates a suitable minimum value of refusal air voids to be 1 - 1.5% for structural asphalt mixes at design, PRD compaction of field cores usually indicates good performance and satisfactory material when the PRD of the compacted material falls in the range (ratio) 93 - 97% of the bulk density of the field core before vibratory compaction of the heated core (ref BS594: Part 104), 5.4 Workability Workability is the ease with which a material may be handled, placed and compacted to a dense uniform mat. ‘The major factors influencing workability are: binder viscosity binder content filler type and content nominal size of mix aggregate grading aggregate shape (crushed or rounded) and surface texture temperature of placing. ‘There are no defined tests for workability although an indicator of workability may be obtained from the behaviour of a mix under gyratory compaction. 6 VOLUMETRIC PROPERTIES 6.1 General Asphalt mix design is essentially a volumetric process although, for convenience of manufacture and process control, itis simpler to measure the mix proportions by mass. Important measures of volumetric properties are: Bulk density ‘Maximum density Voids in the Mineral Aggregate Air voids Absorbed binder Effective binder content, Voids filled with binder Binder film thickness Volumetric relationships are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2. "Asphalt ix Design r ‘VOIDS IN = Mineral | volossueof |EFrEcnve sNDER TOTAL Ragaecare | Withenoer| [Content SNDER ee vouuMe Fassonseo BINDER TovaL vowuwe Tora Oe COMPACTED wouNett {euLcbENstry VOLUME AGGREGATE VOLUME OF MIX! (anncie | AGGREGATE ExcLUING A DENSITY ON Pace VOIDS Ronveesisy | GFFECTIVE acim Sensim) way FIGURE 1 CONSTITUENTS OF A COMPACTED DENSE GRADED ASPHALT MIX 62 Determining density of components Calculation of asphalt volumetric properties requires determination of the density of components. By definition, density is the mass per unit volume, Density is usually expressed as tonnes per cubic metre. Before metrication and adoption of SI units of measurement in Australia in the 1970s, the term specific gravity was used to describe the weight-volume relationship of materials. Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a unit volume of the material to the weight of an equal volume of water at a standard temperature. The term specific gravity is still commonly used in many countries and reference texts, particularly in non-metric countries. In practical use, the terms are largely synonymous, but when used in scientific calculations the two will always differ by the density of water at the test temperature (0.997 Um’ at 25°C). [The terms density (mass per unit volume) and specific gravity must never be confused lor test values mixed when calculating volumetric properties of asphalt mixes. Accurate determination of densities is important in asphalt design as small differences can have a significant impact on measurement of properties such as bitumen absorption, effective bitumen content and air voids. Bitumen density is determined by AS 2341.6 or AS 2341.7. The test should be done on a sample of binder used for mix design and not assumed from standardised figures. The density of coarse aggregates is determined by AS 1141.6.1 or AS 1141.6.2 and fine aggregates by AS 1141.5. The test methods provide for three measures of particle density. Particle density on a dry basis is the mass per unit volume of particles where the volume includes both the permeable and impermeable voids inherent in the particles. It is determined from the ratio of mass of an oven dry sample to the volume of water displaced by the sample mass in a saturated surface dry condition. In common usage, the term bulk density refers to this condition of test. 12Asphalt Mix Design Apparent particle density is the mass per unit volume of the impermeable portion of the aggregate particles (inaccessible to water by 24 hour soaking). It is determined from the ratio of the mass of an oven-dried sample to the volume of water displaced by that sample after 24 hour soaking. In common usage, the term apparent density refers to this condition of test. Particle density on a saturated surface dry basis is the mass per unit volume including both the permeable and impermeable voids. It is determined from the ratio of the mass of a saturated surface dry sample (o the volume of water displaced by that saturated surface dry sample. For determination of the volumetric properties of asphalt, particle density on a dry basis (bulk density) is generally used. Calculations in AS 2891.8 are based on dry density, Good quality asphalt aggregates should be dense and have low porosity. The porosity of an aggregate is generally indicated by the amount of water it absorbs. The water absorption of aggregates should ideally be less than 2%. The absorption of binder into porous aggregates must be allowed for in asphalt mix design to ensure adequate remaining effective binder content. Water absorption is the ratio of mass of water held in the permeable voids of the aggregate particles brought to the saturated surface dry condition, to the oven dry mass of material. Water absorption of coarse aggregate is determined by testing in accordance with AS 1141.6.1 or AS 1141.6.2 and that of fine aggregate by AS 1141.5. Designers should not confuse recording accuracy with test accuracy. For example, recording of relative density to three decimal places does not necessarily mean that the test is accurate to that level, but the third figure gives confidence in the second figure. This is desirable to avoid cumulative errors when the results are used in subsequent calculations of combined densities and other volumetric determinations. 6.3 Bulk density of asphalt Bulk density is the weight per volume of the compacted mix including internal air voids. Bulk density is the basis for calculation of voids relationships. ‘AS 2891.8 provides three methods of determining bulk density of compacted asphalt. Each method will give slightly different results depending on the surface texture and water permeable voids and this must be considered in both selection of test method and interpretation of test results, Presaturation method is suitable for dense mixes with low permeability and internal air voids that are largely inaccessible to moisture. Influence of water permeable voids is reduced by saturating the specimen in water before measurement of the mass displaced by water and the mass in air, after removal of surface water from the specimen, Waxing procedure eliminates the effect of water permeable voids by sealing the surface with a layer of wax. It is used for dense mixes where it is desirable to avoid the influence of water permeable voids on the measurement of bulk density. Removal of wax can be difficult for samples that are to be used for further testing. An alternative to waxing is the use of silicone to seal the external surface of the sample against the entry of water. Silicone allows 13Asphalt Mix Design easy removal from bitumen coated surfaces of laboratory compacted samples but is not so readily removed from cut surfaces of field cores. Mensuration method refers to determination of the volume of the specimen by direct measurement of the external dimensions. It is generally used for open graded and other porous mix types. In dense graded mixes, increasing binder content tends to increase bulk density to a maximum value and then to decrease with further increases in binder content. 6.4 Maximum density Maximum density, also termed voids free bulk density, is the density of the mix excluding air voids. Testing is performed by determining the volume of water or methylated spirits displaced by a loose sample of mix after removal of all air. Maximum density determined in this manner is also sometimes referred to as maximum theoretical density, i.e., the maximum density to which a mix could be theoretically compacted if there were no air voids present. In Australia, the term maximum theoretical density is usually applied to the calculation of density from the combined density of all the components, and not the measurement of maximum density by test. ‘The difference between maximum density and bulk density is the air voids in the mix, Absorbed bitumen Water permeable Porosity, not filed with bitumen Aggregate volume (bulk density) Aggregate volume (elfective density) ‘Aggregate volume (apparent density) Etfective bitumen binder Volume of water permeable porosity (water absorption) FIGURE 2 VMA, AIR VOIDS AND EFFECTIVE BITUMEN CONTENT IN COMPACTED ASPHALT MIXTURES 14Asphalt Mix Design 6.5. Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) The voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) is the total volume of voids within the mass of compacted aggregate. It is a function of the particle size distribution, the shape and surface texture and packing characteristics of the aggregate particles. MA is the combination of air voids in the compacted mix and the volume occupied by effective binder (total binder less any binder absorbed into the aggregate). It is important that the VMA be large enough to: allow space for sufficient binder so that the mix will be durable ¢ allow sufficient air voids in the compacted mix to ensure the mix is stable. Typical values of VMA in dense mixes can be 13% to 20%, depending on the nominal size of the mix. ‘The VMA affects the performance of the mix as follows: MA too low: © potential for over-filling of voids with binder resulting in flushing or bleeding or instability; © insufficient binder for cohesion and durability. VMA too high: * high air voids © increased binder volume to satisfy air voids requirements resulting in a mix that is more costly to produce. Increases in VMA may be obtained by: ‘* Changing the particle size distribution. Moving away from a maximum density curve or moving f0 a coarser exponent of maximum density (see Section 4.2) will increase VMA. Generaily, it is preferable to maintain a uniform particle size distribution rather than introduce gaps in the grading. © Reducing the minus 0.075 mm (filler) fraction. This will also increase binder film index but may reduce stiffness of the mix. '* Changing one or more of the aggregate fractions for one that has different shape and/or surface texture characteristics and hence different packing properties. Decreases in VMA may be obtained by: © Changing the particle size distribution to move closer to a maximum density relationship ora finer grading with a lower exponent of maximum density. * Increasing the filler content. © Changing one or more of the aggregate fractions for one that has different shape and/or surface texture characteristics and hence different packing properties, 6.6 Air voids ‘The air voids content in a mix is a function of: + YMA binder content * level of compaction. 15Asphalt tix Design ‘The air voids content of a mix affects the stability and durability. In general, mixes should be designed to have the lowest practical air voids value in order to reduce: yxidation) of the binder ry of water penetration, and hence stripping of binder from the aggregate, If the air voids content of asphalt in service is too low (less than 2 or 3%), plastic flow may occur resulting in flushing, bleeding, shoving or rutting of the pavement. ‘The air voids content also influences other properties such as mix stiffness, fatigue strength and workability, 6.7 Binder content In general, the optimum binder content is a balance between being high enough to ensure durability and life for the pavement but not so high that the mix becomes unstable. ‘The binder content has a major influence on the volumetric and mechanical properties of an asphalt mix. The optimum design binder content is dependent on: aggregate type ‘© aggregate particle size distribution * compaction level of the mix © design air void content. Asphalt performance depends on its effective binder content, excluding any binder absorbed by the aggregate, and not its total binder content. Binder absorption is generally determined from the measured maximum density of the mix and a theoretical maximum density determined from the combined bulk density of aggregates, filler and binder. Accurate measurement of the density of aggregates and filler is an essential part of estimation of absorbed binder. A negative value calculated for binder absorption indicates an error in density calculations. ‘The proportion of binder absorbed by aggregate depends on the porosity of the aggregate and the type of binder. Typically, the amount of binder absorbed by aggregate is 0.3 to 0.7 times the water absorption of the aggregate, 6.8 Voids filled with binder (VFB) ‘Voids filled with binder (VFB) is the proportion of VMA occupied by effective binder. This is generally in the range of 65% to 80%. ‘At low VEB values, approximating 60%, the mixes become dry, lacking cohesion, durability and fatigue resistance. Mixes with low VEB may also be more permeable. ‘When VFB approximates 85% or more, mixes can become unstable and susceptible to rutting, High VEB is generally associated with high VMA while a low VFB is an indicator of low MA. Adjustments to VMA may be achieved as indicated in 6.5. 16Asphalt Mix Design 6.9 Binder film index Binder film index is calculated as a function of the surface area of the aggregates and filler, and the effective binder content. The calculation of film index is based on standardised surface area factors for each particle size. In practice, surface area is influenced by aggregate shape and texture so that the calculation of binder film index should be taken as an indicator only, and not an accurate representation of actual binder film thickness. Consideration of minimum binder film index at the volumetric design stage is a guide to incorporation of sufficient binder in the asphalt mix to ensure adequate cohesion, durability, fatigue resistance, and resistance to the effects of moisture. Binder film index may be increased by: © changing the particle size distribution to increase the proportion of coarse to fine material; ‘* increasing the VMA and hence increasing the binder content for the same air voids. Alternative specification measures for ensuring adequate binder volume include minimum percentage of binder by volume (rather than mass) or proportion of voids filled with binder (VEB). Neither of these measures is used in the AAPA National Asphalt Specification, 7 MECHANICAL TESTING AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISATION Ideally, the mechanical properties of asphalt in-situ are required for pavement design purposes. In-situ conditions will vary with a range of factors including temperature, loading time, stress conditions and degree of compaction. Reproduction of in-sita stress conditions in the laboratory is difficult, hence simplified tests have been introduced which may indicate certain aspects of the in-situ behaviour. Procedures for the mechanical testing of asphalt mixtures may be considered in three groups: fundamental tests for stiffness and deformation resistance, and fatigue: ~ repeated load indirect tensile test = repeated load dynamic creep test repeated flexural bending (fatigue) + simulative tests for deformation resistance and other properties: ~ wheel tracking test = _ moisture sensitivity ‘* empirical tests for design of asphalt mixes: - Marshall test. A major objective of asphalt R&D programs in Australia and overseas, in the last decade or 80, has been the development and implementation of practical fundamental and simulative tests for characterisation of asphalt mixes to supplement or replace empirical tests that did not, directly relate to road performance, In Australia, this has resulted in the implementation of the following tests: ‘* AS 2891.12.1 Determination of the permanent compressive strain characteristics of asphalt — Dynamic creep test * AS 2891.13.1 Determination of resilient modulus of asphalt — Indirect tensile test * ASTOL Deformation resistance of asphalt mixtures by the wheel tracking test * ASTO2 Stripping potential of asphalt ~ Tensile strength ratio * ASTO3 Fatigue life of compacted bituminous mixes subject to repeated flexural bending. 17Asphalt Mix Design Of these tests, it has been found that the dynamic creep test provides a good indicator of the relative performance of different binders in a particular mix, but not a good indicator of variations between different mixes or prediction of actual levels of field performance. Accordingly it is no longer used except in some research studies. Wheel tracking is considered a more reliable indicator of relative deformation resistance of various mixes. ‘An issue of concern to the asphalt industry is a tendency towards specification of excessive levels of mechanical testing. This is often a misinterpretation of the intent and value of mechanical testing. Tests such as resilient modulus and fatigue were largely developed as a means of validating the assumptions used in mechanistic pavement design, Along with creep testing and wheel tracking, these tests are useful in the development of new or modified asphalt mixes to provide a ranking and optimisation of performance against mixes of known field performance. Test variability is high, as the results tend to be sensitive to small variations in individual asphalt samples. Results, therefore, tend to fall into broad bands that may overlap between mixes of nominally different performance levels. Users should not attempt to ascribe specific numbers to particular levels of field performance other than the use of broad characteristic values. In particular, the tests should not be used as a measure of manufacturing process control. Specifiers also need to be aware of the costs associated with mechanical testing. Asphalt suppliers normally consider standard volumetric mix design and associated production monitoring as included in the price of supply. Any additional mechanical testing at either the design stage or on manufactured asphalt, should be shown as a separate schedule item. 8 VERIFICATION OF MIX PROPERTIES AAPA recommends that volumetric properties obtained on laboratory prepared samples be verified on asphalt mix sampled from actual production, This may require minor adjustments to grading or binder content targets before adoption of a job mix for subsequent production. In some cases, design properties of asphalt mixes may also be verified by mechanical tests on samples of plant manufactured or field materials before adoption of a job mix. Such testing should not be confused with process control and assurance testing of asphalt production. 9 JOBMIX ‘The final selected mix is called the job mix (also referred to as job mix formula (SMF) or nominated mix in some jurisdictions). The job mix will nominate the type and source of components, target grading and binder content, and volumetric properties of the mix. ‘These are used as the basis for manufacturing process control, Production tolerances allow for variations in the mix composition due to raw material fluctuations, sampling and testing limitations, etc. Tn many cases, manufacturing process control is applied to grading, binder content and maximum density only, although some agencies also require volumetric testing, and possibly some mechanical testing, to monitor consistency of production. 18Asphalt Mix Dosign Any change in the type or source of components, or significant variation in the proportion of any component, generally requires redesign of the mix and determination of a new job mix. Where there are no other changes requiring redesign of the mix, AAPA recommends that a job mix remain valid for a period of two years before the need to re-confirm design properties. Verification of design properties may not require a new mix design if the supplier can demonstrate that the desired target volumetric and mechanical properties of the mix are still being achieved. ‘This could be shown by testing undertaken as part of quality assurance programs or similar. 10 SPECIAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR OTHER MIX TYPES 10.1 Polymer modified binders Asphalt containing polymer modified binders can be designed in accordance with the standard procedures already described. When designing dense graded mixes, some designers prefer to prepare volumetric designs using conventional binders and then substitute a polymer modified binder with the desired performance attributes. This is done partly as conventional binders are easier to work with in the laboratory, but also as the presence of polymers can mask subtle influences of aggregate properties on the volumetric properties of the mix and make the selection of optimum grading and binder content more difficult. In substituting a polymer modified binder into a dense graded asphalt mix designed using conventional binder, some designers choose to add slightly more binder, typically 0.3% by mass of the mix, to achieve the same volumetric performance. Mixes with PMB tend to undergo less traffic compaction after placing. The additional binder, therefore, is unlikely to lead to reduction in field voids below critical levels and may enhance durability and fatigue performance due to increased binder volume and lower air voids at construction. 10.2 Crumb rubber asphalt mixes Crumb rubber blended into bitumen provides a binder with performance characteristics similar to other elastomeric PMB types. Superficially, crumb rubber bitumen, directly substituted for conventional bitumen, will provide improved rutting and fatigue resistance. In practice it has been found that substitution of the same volume of binder results in a mix that lacks adequate cohesion, and that higher binder contents are required for equivalent performance (see also APRG ‘Technical Note 9). It has also been found that the total proportion of binder can be increased substantially without risk of bleeding or instability, provided that the VMA is adjusted to achieve a suitable air void content. This feature has been exploited to manufacture asphalt mixes with outstanding resistance to reflection cracking and fatigue through the use of binder contents (combined bitumen and crumb rubber) as high as 11% by mass of the total mix Manufacture using the “dry” process whereby the rubber crumb is added direct to a pugmill mixer has been found to be more effective in these mixes than “wet” processes that pre-blend bitumen and rubber. 19Asphalt Mix Design Binder requirements are generally established on a recipe basis using, typically, bitumen contents of 7 to 8% and crumb rubber contents of 1.8 to 2.5% by mass of the total mix. Crumb rubber may also be applied to some proprietary mixtures, primarily designed to provide lower surface noise characteristics. 10.3 Stone Mastic Asphalt (SMA) SMA is a gap-graded mix with a high coarse aggregate content, high filler content, and high bitumen content. Fibres are frequently used to assist in controlling binder drain-off during handling and transport, The high proportion of coarse aggregate interlocks to form a high stability skeleton (structural matrix) with good internal friction, The voids are substantially filled with a bitumen-filler mastic. Accordingly, SMA retains good texture under heavy loading while having low permeability. The mastic has a high filler and bitumen content. ‘The coarse aggregate skeleton must be able to contain all the mastic binder while maintaining the stone-to-stone contact essential for rutting resistance. Too much mastic will result in flushing, bleeding and loss of pavement shear deformation resistance. ‘Too little mastic will result in high air voids, increased permeability and reduced pavement durability. ‘The design of SMA is a combination of recipe and measured test criteria. Optimum performance is obtained when the fine aggregate just fills the void space in the coarse aggregate particles while still retaining inter-particle contact of the large particles. ‘The particle size distribution may be selected from standard grading envelopes, developed from experience, or using a rational design procedure that measures the change in density and hence dilation point obtained by progressively adding increased proportions of fine material. There is no procedure for establishing optimum proportions of filler and binder and these are generally selected from standard envelopes. Minor adjustments may be made to satisfy voids criteria in the mix. Target design air voids are similar to other dense mixes, i.e. around 4%. Design of SMA mixes should also incorporate a check for binder drain-off (AST 06). A guide to SMA mixes is provided in AAPA IG-4 — Stone mastic asphalt design and application guide. Specification criteria for SMA are provided in the AAPA National Asphalt Specification, 10.4 Open graded asphalt (OGA) There is no universal rational design system for open graded asphalt (OGA). Generally a recipe approach is used based on an aggregate particle size distribution for texture and voids content and the type and content of binder for cohesion and durability. Polymer modified binders are frequently used in OGA mixes to provide greater cohesion and durability. They may also allow higher binder contents to be used without drainage of binder from hot asphalt during transport. Fibres may also be used to inhibit drainage of binder. Generally, the durability of open graded mixes is aided by the use of the highest binder content practicable, but not so high that significant drain-down and segregation of binder ‘occurs during handling and transport, AAPA Implementation Guide IG-1 (Open Graded Asphalt Design Guide) provides advice on the use of two tests to assist in selecting the type and content of binder in OGA.Asphalt Mix Design ‘The Asphalt Binder Drain-Off Test (AST 06) can be used to establish the maximum amount of binder that can be used without excessive drain-off of binder or to evaluate the influence of different binder types or additives. The test may also be used to establish the maximum temperature for mixing and transport for a given binder type and binder content. ‘The Asphalt Particle Loss Test (AST 07) measures the loss of aggregate particles of a sample subject to tumbling in a Los Angeles Abrasion Loss test apparatus. It gives an indication of the cohesion of the asphalt mix and hence a guide to the effectiveness of binder type and content in resisting particle loss during service. K guide to OGA mixes is provided in AAPA IG-1 — Open graded asphalt design guide. Specification criteria for OGA are provided in the AAPA National Asphalt Specification. 10.5 Fine gap graded asphalt (FGGA) Fine gap graded mixes are largely designed on a recipe basis to match grading and binder content targets. Volumettic properties should, however be checked to ensure appropriate air voids. Guidelines for fine gap graded mixes are provided in APRG Report No 18 and the AAPA National Asphalt Specification, 10.6 Ultra-thin asphalt mixes Ultra thin asphalt comprises a range of asphalt mix types used in asphalt layers that are typically less than about 20 mm. These include small nominal size dense graded, fine gap graded, open graded and stone mastic asphalt mixes as well as a range of mixes developed as hybrids of those mix types, or as proprietary products. The most common type of ultra-thin asphalt is a form of open graded mix that contains a greater amount of graded fine aggregate to assist in shear resistance but retains a coarse, open surface texture, Such mixes are largely designed on a recipe basis and may include proprietary mix types. Specification criteria for the most commonly used forms of ultra-thin OGA are rovided in the AAPA National Asphalt Specification. 2tAsphalt Mix Design 11 REFERENCES Australian Standards AS 1141 Methods for sampling and testing aggregates, AS 1141.3 Sampling ‘AS 1141.5 Particle density and water absorption of fine aggregate ‘AS 1141.6 Particle density and water absorption of coarse aggregate AS 1141.6.1 Weighing-in-water method AS 1141.6.2 Pycnometer Method AS 1141.7 Apparent particle density of filler AS 1141.11 Particle size distribution by sieving AS 2008 Residual bitumen for pavements AS 2150 Hot mix asphalt AS/NZS 2341 Methods of testing bitumen and related roadmaking products ASINZS 2341.6 Determination of density using a hydrometer ASINZS 2341.7 Determination of density using a density bottle AS 2758 Aggregates and Rock for Engineering Purposes AS2758.5 — Asphalt aggregates AS 2891 Methods of sampling and testing asphalt AS 2891.1 Sampling of asphalt AS 2891.2.1 Sample preparation ~ Mixing, quartering and conditioning of asphalt in the laboratory AS 2891.22 Sample preparation - Compaction of asphalt specimens using a gyratory compactor AS 2891.3 Bitumen content and aggregate grading AS 2891.5 Determination of stability and flow —Marshalll procedure AS 2891.6 Determination of stability and flow by the Modified Hubbard-Field procedure AS 2891.7 Determination of the maximum density of asphalt AS 2891.8 Voids and density relationships for compacted mixes AS 2891.9 Determination of bulk density of compacted asphalt AS 2891.12.1 Determination of the permanent compressive strain characteristics of asphalt — Dynamic creep test AS 2891.13.1 Determination of resilient modulus of asphalt ~ Indirect tensile test Austroads Manual of Test Methods AST 01 Deformation resistance of asphalt mixtures by the wheel tracking test AST 02 Stripping potential of asphalt - Tensile strength ratio AST 03 Fatigue life of compacted bituminous mixes subject to repeated flexural bending AST 04 Asphalt binder content (Ignition oven method) AST 05 Sample preparation - compaction of asphalt slabs suitable for characterisation AST 06 Asphalt binder drain-off AST 07 Asphalt particle loss AST 08 Binder film index General 22Asphalt Mix Design AUSTROADS Pavement Research Group Report 18 (2003) - Selection and design of asphalt ‘mixes: Australian provisional guide, AP-T20 AUSTROADS (2000) - AUSTROADS specification framework for polymer modified binders, AP-T04 AUSTROADS (2000) - Framework specifications for asphalt recycling (AP-T02) AUSTROADS Pavement Research Group Technical Note 8 (1999) - Ultra thin asphalt surfacing AUSTROADS (2002) - Asphalt Guide AUSTROADS (2002) - Framework for Specifying Asphalt (AP-T18) AUSTROADS Pavement Research Group Technical Note 10 (1999) ~ The use of recycled crumb rubber in asphalt AAPA (1997), Implementation Guide IG-1~ Open Graded Asphalt Design Guide AAPA (1997) Implementation Guide IG-2 - Cold Mixed Granular Materials Guide AAPA (2000) Implementation Guide IG-3 ~ Asphalt Plant Process Control Guide AAPA (2000) Implementation Guide IG-4 ~ Stone Mastic Asphalt Design and Application Guide AAPA (2002) Implementation Guide IG-5 - Light Duty Asphalt Pavements: Design, Specification and Construction AAPA (2002) Implementation Guide IG-6 — A Guide to the Selection and Design of Flexible Pavements AAPA Advisory Note 2— A guide to the selection of asphalt mix size AAPA Advisory Note 4—A guide to the selection of binder for asphalt pavements AAPA (2004) National Asphalt Specification, Edition 2 ‘The Asphalt Institute, Mix Design Methods for Asphalt Concrete and Other Hot-Mix Types, 1984, Maryland. (6" edition) 23Asphalt Mix Design APPENDIX A VOIDS AND DENSITY CALCULATIONS CALCULATIONS ‘The following calculations are based on Australian Standards AS 1141.5 — Methods for sampling and testing aggregates, Part 6: Particle density and water absorption of coarse aggregate and AS 2891.8 ~ Methods of sampling and testing asphalt, Method 8: Voids and density relationships for compacted asphalt mixes. Density of aggregates Apparent density =— x2, Equation 1 m,— (Wa) Bulk (dry) density Equation 2 Saturated-surface-dry density 0, =— Oe Equation 3 mm, = Where Qa apparent particle density, in m® Qo particle density on a dry basis, in tm? Qs particle density on a saturated-surface-dry basis, in Um? m mass of dry material mz = mass of saturated-surface-dry material w: = weight of basket and material under water w2 = weight of basket under water Qy = density of water at the test temperature Density of combined aggregates Pass = 100 Equation 4 BR Pa. PP Pg where Pogg = bulk density of combined mineral aggregates P,P, = proportion of the individual aggregate fractions, in percent i..Px = bulk density of the aggregate fractions Pq = proportion of filler, in percent ‘Pu = apparent density of the filler 24Asphalt Mix Design Volume-mass relationships of the asphalt mix Air voids in the compacted mixture AV = Lem = Pout e109 Equation 5 Prous where AV = air voids in compacted mix nae = maximum density of the mix Pui = compacted bulk density of the mix Bitumen absorption 100 (100-— B) b=B-p,|—- = Equation 6 ae Pe where b absorbed bitumen by mass of total mix total proportion of bitumen in mix rs = density of bitumen maximum density of the mix bulk density of combined aggregates Effective bitumen content Equation 7 where: Be proportion by mass of effective bitumen b absorbed bitumen by mass of total mix B = total proportion of bitumen in mix Voids in mineral aggregate (VMA) VMA= AV (2222) Equation 8 Ps or it may be calculated directly from the density of the aggregate as follows: yMa =100-2#.(100- B) Equation 9 where AV = air voids now po density of the bitumenAsphalt Mix Design density of the combined aggregates Pout = bulk density of the compacted mixture bitumen content by mass of total mix effective bitumen content by mass of total mix Voids filled with bitumen (Vfb) vj = YM A=Ve 09 VMA Equation 10 voids filled with bitumen total volume of voids voids in mineral aggregate WORKED EXAMPLES I Calculate the bulk density of combined aggregate A mix is combined using the following components: ‘Component % of total mix Density of components vm 20 22 2.636 4 8 2.646 10 12 2.648 7 n 2.852 Sand 25 2.649 Dust 10 2.631 Filler 1 2318 Total 100 ‘The bulk density is calculated using the following formula: Dogg = (P14 P2+P3+P44...+Pn)/(PL/p, + P2/p, +P3/p, + PAlp, +...+Pa/p,) Where agg = density of combined aggregates. (P1 -Px= density of the individual components Pl, P2, Pn = mass percentages of the individual components (224+8+12+22+425+10+41) (222.636 + 8/2.646 + 12/2.648 + 22/2.852 + 25/2.649 + 10/ 2.631 +1/2.318) __100 © 37.284 682 vim? PissAsphalt Mix Design 2 Absorbed bitumen b= B~ P,x(LO00/ Pyay + [100 BY/ Pgs) = 1.040 tm? ‘Poax = maximum density of the mix (measured) = 2.495 ‘Pagg = density of the combined aggregate = 2.682 vm* B= bitumen content by mass % = 5.7% b =5.7 -1.040x(100/2.495 + [100 - 5.7]/2.682) = 0.58% Effective bitumen content = B—b 7-058 = 5.12% 3 Maximum density Calculate the maximum density of the mix with the following properties: B (binder content by weight) = 5.7% b (effective binder content) = 5.12% ‘> (density of binder) = 1.04 vm? ‘Pagg (density of combined aggregate) (Pnox (Maximum density of mix) = = 2.682 tim? 100% Ayes X Oy Prose = Pag XD + 1, x(100-B i 100%2.682x1.04 (2.682x5.18 +1.04x[L00-5.7, =2.495 vm? 4 Estimate the bitumen film index Calculate the bitumen film index for the following mix: Surface area factor % passing Total surface area OaT 100 Oat - 85 - 65 O41 31 0.2091 082 34 0.2788 164 28 0.4592 287 2. 0.6314 6.14 16 0.9824 12.29 84 1.0324 3277 48 15730 Total 5.5163 7Asphalt Mix Design TF =P x 1, 1000 (100-b) p, SSA where SSA density corrected surface area factor = total surface area x 2.65/ Pees SSA = 5.5763 x 2.65/2.682 = 5.51 b = effective bitumen content by mass % =9.42 micron 28