Unit-I Introduction to Research Methodology: Objectives of Research, Motivation in Research, Types of Research, Research process and Phases of Research. 1.1 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH ‘The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings: ‘+ To gain familiarity with a certain phenomenon or gain new insights (Exploratory research) * To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, group or situation. (Descriptive) * To see the frequency with which some phenomenon is associated with something else (Diagnostic) ‘* Hypothesis of causal relationship between variables (Hypothesis-testing) ‘What is research methodology? © “Systematized effort to gain knowledge”- Redman and Mory. + Research is @ process of ” manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of theory or in the practice of an art’- Slesinger and Stephenson in Encyclopedia of Social Sciences * Thus Research comprises the following: Defining and redefining the problem Formulating hypothesis Collecting, organizing and evaluating data Making deductions and reaching conclusions Carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the hypothesis ‘+ Methodology means the systematic study of the methods, principles, procedures, and rules applied within a discipline, Hence, research methodology Research objectives falls into 2 number of following broad groupings: ‘* To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it; * To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group; * To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with ‘© something else; * To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables, 1.2 MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible ‘motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following: 1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research; 3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work; Desire to be of service to society; 5. Desire to get respectability. However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies. Many More factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel] people to perform research operations 1.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH The basic types of research are as follows: Descriptive vs, Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. it attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about , say, living condition of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs, as it exists at present. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material. Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research, Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or mainly concerned with ‘an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning hunan behaviour carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. Qualitative research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones, On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. in such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will Manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when Proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis. Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-study ‘methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the Causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested, Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events oF ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is Prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control 1.4 Research Process ‘+ It involves a sequence of mutually-inclusive and reinforcing steps and procedures for Acquiring reliable knowledge 7 oO ‘© There are many diverse ways to describe research process but there are common and essential elements and stages of the process. * Generally as a process, research is a sequence of activities or steps leading to an end Product.* Ithas a procedural and step -wise character one view point of research process: RESEARCH OROCESS IN FLOW CHART Or © Fn sta al aera Trai a =a "ame |_| ‘anata | ah ra sees | [esse ol fe leew i y i a nore © = ed back hes in tig me astm owe fs vareratoa) (@} = Pes tomate (Serves hei ncn of ‘wong eiena er erasaton) The above chart indicates that the research process consists of a number of closely related activities, as shown through | to Vil. 1L Formulating the research problem 2.€xtensive literature survey 3.Developing hypotheses 4.Preparing the research design 5.Determining the sample design 6.Collecting the data 7 Execution of the project B.Analysis of data 8. Hypotheses testing 10.Generalisation and interpretation, and 11 Preparation of report and presentation of the results Another description of research process (abridged) LResearch design 2.Sampling 3.Data collection 4.Data analysis 5.Report 1.4.1. FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM. ‘it means stating the general research topic as an analytical object, Research problem statement is @ distillation of the research subject into feasible investigative questions that are precise, concrete and unambiguous. The research problem can either relate to the state of nature or to relationships between . variables.41.4.2. EXTENSIVE LITERATURE SURVEY Involves reading and studying materials related to the research subject or problem. Materials can be found in journals, books, magazines, periodicals, monographs, seminar papers, conference proceedings 41.4.3 DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING HYPOTHESES This isa tentative assumption made for the purpose of testing its logical validity. The role of hypothesis is to guide the researcher to be focused on specific area of inquiry and keeping him on track. The hypothesis determines the data to be collected and the type of analysis to be done. 1.4.4 PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN It involves decisions about the units of study, methods of study and techniques to solve the research problem. The research design is the conceptual structure upon which the research would be carried out. Research designs can be broadly categorized into experimental and non-experimental. 1.4.5 DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN Researcher has to decide the way and means of choosing the units of the study-individuals, households, enterprises, communities, societies etc. The sample design is the plan for selecting the representative group from the population of study. 1.4.6 COLLECTING DATA Involves observation, experimentation and field exercises. There are different types of data just as there are different methods and techniques of data collection. Choice of type of data and data collection method depends on a variety of factors, the research problem, working hypothesis, time and money available for the research. 1.4.7 ANALYSIS OF DATA Data analysis requires several related operations involving data organization, data exploration, data tabulation and statistical testing of hypothesis. 1.4.8 EXECUTION OF PROJECT Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project. proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. Ifthe data are to be collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. 1.4.9 HYPOTHESIS TESTING Involves the researcher to answer the question-do the facts support the hypothesis or not? Where there are no hypotheses intially, the generalizations emanating from research could form the basis of hypothesis in future research, 1.4.10 GENERALISATIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS Research is significant in the sense that it seeks to arrive at generalizations based on empirical observations and logical validity. Generalization could involve explaining the results of research in the context of existing theories or previous studies. It is possible for generalization to open new questions that require further research. Common feature and attributes that underpin the nature and conduct of research is that research is cyclical and an interactive process. Sometimes research is presented in a very simplistic linear succession of steps with definite start and end, this is erroneous Research appears more as a spiral or iterative process. Stages or steps in research process are not mutually exclusive but mutually inclusive. They are neither separate nor distinct. Usage of a term may vary from place to place and may have several interpretations meaning it may be ambiguous. Often people do not understand what we wish to communicate. We thus need concepts and conceptualization1.4.11. PREPARATION OF THE REPORT OR THE THESIS: Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following: 1, The layout of the report should be as follows: i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text, and (ii) the end matter. In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. The main text of the report should have the following parts: (a). Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part. {b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language. if the findings are extensive, they should be summarised. {c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken- down into readily identifiable sections. (a) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his, research clearly and precisely. In fact, itis the final summing up. At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, ie, list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report. 2 Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like. 3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the Information more clearly and forcibly. 4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in conducting research oper Ins may as well be stated,Unit-2 Unit-1 Research Design: Need, Problem Definition, variables, research design concepts, Literature survey and review, Research design process, Errors in research. MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN: “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.” The design includes an Outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data. one may split the overall research design into the following parts: a. the sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the given study; b. the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be made; ©. the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and (d) the operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out. We can state the important features of a research design as under: a. Itisa plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem. b, tis strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the data. ©. Italso includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints. In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research problem; (b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the population to be studied; and (d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data. 2. NEED FOR RES EARCH DESIGN * Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research Operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. ‘+ Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money. ‘+ Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the relia constitutes the firm foundation of the entire research work. ‘The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies * Design can even be given to others for their comments and critical evaluation and to provide a comprehensive review of the proposed study lity of the results arrived at and as such 2.2 PROPBLEM DEFINATION A research problem must be identified and defined without any ambiguity. Unless itis clearly identified, it will not be possible to proceed further to carry out the project. If a researcher proceeds with ill defined problems, one may end up with misleading conclusions or aborting the research project in themiddle, due to poor pay-off identified through interim evaluation of the research. Hence the research problem should be clearly defined. 2.2.1 TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM The research problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique involves the following steps generally one after the other: 1, statement of the problem in a general way; understanding the nature of the problem; surveying the available literature developing the ideas through discussions; and Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition. A brief description of all these points will be helpful 41, Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem some times by undertaking some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey. The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. 2. Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about and with what objectives in view. 3.Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature. 4.Developing the ideas through discussions: Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. S.Rephrasing the research problem: Finally, the researcher must rephrase the research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the environment has been defined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses, In addition to what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while defining a research problem: (a) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined, (b) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be clearly stated. (c) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e, the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided (a) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem. (e) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be stu mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem. lied must be2.3 VARIABLES There are several kinds of variables that are relevant to a problem definition and hyphothesis formulation. The following are the most important of these. a) Independent Variable (IV) or predictor variable, which influences the Dependent Variable(DV) or criterion variable. b) The dependent variable or criterion variable is of primary importance for research. There can be more than one independent/dependent variable in a problem situation. Two other kinds of variables ~ Moderator variable and intervening variable ~also need to be defined, Moderator variables: The Moderator Variable (MV) has contingent influence on the relationships between the independent variable and the dependent variable . The following examples illustrate this. The environment variables in an organizational study are independent variables and the performance variables of the organization are dependent variables. An organization’s performance is influenced by its environment. If the environment is placid, then the performance of the organization many be very high terms of market share and profits, but if the environment becomes more turbulent, the performance is going to be affected and profit and market shares may fall. But this relationship between performance and environment can be altered by the development of a suitable strategy by the company (blow figure) such that the profits and market shares do not fall with the increased competition as much as before. The role of a strategy is to alter the relationship between the environment and performance and therefore, strategy is a moderator variable. Environment Performance Strategy Fig: Strategy as a moderator variables Intervening Variable: Another kind of variable is recognized in most social psychology research. This is called intervening variable, The intervening variable has a temporal dimension. it does not add to the variance of the dependent variable as explained by the independent variable but it Is a necessary variable, included in the relationship with the time dimension T1 TR 3 uv Fig: Intervening variable2.4 RESEARCH DESIGN CONCEPTS Dependent and independent variables: A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’. if the values can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables or ‘discrete variables’. Ex Age. If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, itis termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age is an independent variable. 2, Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable. 3. Control: The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions. 4. Confounded relationship: When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s). 5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, itis termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable. 6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design. Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in which an independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’ 7. Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or special condition, itis termed an ‘experimental group’. 8. Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are Usually referred to as ‘treatments’. 9. Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to examine the Usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment. If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed as ‘a comparative experiment. 10. Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments areused, are known as experimental units, Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very carefully 102.5 LITRATURE SURVEY The process of literature survey or literature review is a critical informational analysis procedure. Listing Of bibliography is not research. Critical evaluation and analysis of research material for purpose of interpretation and comparison requires reflective thinking and hence it can be considered as a descriptive research ‘The role of the literature review, is only to check whether a similar problem was researched earlier and solved, whether it is totally new, or whether a method in the literature needs a modification to solve the current research problem. The literature survey has four broad aspects: 1) choice of literature, 2) search for location/source of literature 3) study of literature and 4) organization of literature. 1) Choice of literature: In an academic research, a researcher gradually gains focus. An area of research is chosen by the student depending upon his interest and practical experience if any. If he is not a scholar in his area of research, he has to study widely a number of books, journal articles, reports, reviews and so on. The study can be extensive but not necessarily highly critical. Armed his background knowledge, he will choose a topic of research of interest to him, 2) Search for location/ Source of literature: the institution/university where the scholar is carrying out ‘research may have @ good library but in most cases that would be inadequate for getting all the literature required for the problem area. However, it may help him to locate the source through indexes to periodicals, which list journal articles in alphabetical order. in addition, computer search digtel libraries are also available in many universities, each having its own search language/ syntax. There = are many virtual librates in the World Wide Web that can be searched online 3) Study of Literature: In recent times, the literature available in any research area is generally "voluminous. So one can divide/partition the reswarch literature in to three broad categories. Firstly, (general literature)in the broad area of specialization has to be browsed quickly. Secondly, literature related to the(problem area)in which research is being carried out. This has to be studied intensely and a bibliography many be developed. Summaries of some of the designs adopted, measurements made, and analysis methods and findings may be generated, The gaps must be identified and one of the gap must be selected as a problem with the help of the guide/supervisor. Then a very critical review is made of the journal articles, theses, and research reports close to the problem. Their methods , merits, shortcomings, difficulties should be elaboratély detailed to be able to efficiently formulate the research problem and investigate i. 4) Organization of the literature: the following points are important in organizing literature © The sequencing of literature presentation should be from the general to broad to the specific and critical, leading to the problem statement. * The general literature should occupy fewer pages in the review than the specific one. ‘+ Inthe literature, close to the problem the details of each study should able specified, classified, and critically evaluated. Shortcomings should be discussed and shown how they are related to the research problem at hand, 5) Meta analysis: Meta analysis is a relatively recent development. It is a systematic and statistical examination of several previous research studies, in order to combine thelr findings or synthesize uwthe researchers. The statistical procedures used in meta analysis are essentially the same as those used for analysis of collected research data. 2.6 RESAERCH DESIGN PROCESS The following are the stages in research design process: Selection of the type of research : the type of research determines the strategy of collecting research data and onformation directily from the respondents bye the of the following methods: ‘* Field survey research: in this method data/information are obtained from a general study of a large number of respondents (large sample}, eliciting direct responses to specific questions The responses may be collected orally, by meetings, or remotely, through mail in written form. The collected data can be generalized to represent a larger population, ‘+ Filed survey: this is an in depth study of a single respondent or a very small number of respondents to obtain rich (deep) data of specific instances by using methods of probing. It Uses combinations of several data collection procedures. + Experiment: there are two types of experimental design |. Basic design : this considers the effect of manipulating only one independent variable I. Statistical design: this considers the effect of manipulating more than one variable There are three major types of experiments: 1) laboratory experiments 2) simulation experiments and 3) experiments in field setting ‘+ Mathematical models of phenomena : in this approach the decision problem is represented by a mathematical model, solutions are obtained, and conclusions are drawn from them. A high degree of understanding of the system is necessary to model them. That is they are close to experiments in traditional research 2. Selection of the measures and the measurements techniques: Measurement is defined s the assignment of numbers to characteristics of objects, persons, states, or events according to rules. The most critical aspect of measurement is the development of rules for assigning numbers to the characteristics. There are many techniques to overcome this problem. Techniques of measurement: there are four techniques available based on kind of variables defined. |. Questionnaire: a set of questions are used as an instrument for seeking relevant information directly from respondents. The questions pertain to one or more of characteristics of the respondent, like behavior, demographic characteristic, knowledge , options, attitudes, beliefs and feelings. Ul. Attitude scales: these scales elicit self-reports of beliefs and feelings towards an object. There are different types of attitude scales: (1) Rating scales that require the respondent to place the ‘object at some point on a continuum that is numerically ordered; (2) composite scales require @ respondent to express a degree of belief with regard to several attributes of an object;(3) multidimensional scales and scales developed using conjoint analysis are mathematically developed scales to be used for inferring specific aspects of an individual's attitude towards an object as against direct evaluation for the respondents. Ul, Observation: this is the direct examination of behavior or results of behavior 12IV. Depth interviews: these are interviews in which individuals are made to express their feelings freely and without fear of dispute or disapproval and details are recorded in specially designed sheets. Errors in measurement: All measurement is subject to errors or imperfections. Though a measurement technique should be precise, unambiguous and flawless, in practice it is difficult to achieve There are usually three sources of variations True differences across units of analysis 2.Biases introduced by measurement, and 3.Errors of measurement due to random or chance factors The kind and the number of subjects sampled, i.e , sample design: sampling designs are aimed at two major objectives: (i)the sample is representative of the population and (ithe size of the sample is adequate to get the desired accuracy. In general sampling process consists of: ‘+ Definition of the target population in terms of elements, sampling units, domain, and period; ‘+ Specification of a frame of sampling if probability is used (eg: telephone directory, map etc) © Specifying sampling units (eg, a firm, a group, department etc) ‘+ Determination of sample size which is the number of elements in the sample ‘+ Implementation of the sampling plan Selection of the data collection procedures: data collection will involve the development of the instruments for there are two sources of data , and the context in which the sampling has to be done. There are two sources of data- secondary data and primary data. a Secondary data: this kind of data is generated for purposes other than for solving the problem under study. The sources of secondary data are data available in published “Journals, reports, books, data generated: with the organization through reports, log books records of unions and computer search of databases and the world wide web. b. Primary data: the procedures for collecting the primary data are questionnaire mail surveys, interviews of several kinds, observation of phenomena/subjects, and special techniques like audio/video recording /projective methods. The selection of methods of analysis: data is useful only after analysis, There are three levels of data analysis methods. They are uni-variate analysis, bivariate analysis and multi-variate analysis. Data analysis yields information in terms of means, percentages, distributions, assertions relationship and estimates Basic procedure involved : a. Data reduction: involves the following steps: i. Field controls to minimize errors in data collection ii, Editing to ensure readable and accurate data ili, Coding to categorize the edited data iv. Transferring data to usable media, like tapes v. Generation of new variables by aggregation, scale changing and transformation vi. Calculating summary statics like mean, SD, proportion and son on. b. Hypothesis testing: this includes 13i. Hypothesis testing requiring interval data; tests for single sample - sample mean and sample proportions; tests for multiple samples involving differences in means, differences in proportions of both independent and related samples ji, Hypothesis testing using ordinal and nominal data ‘Multivariate hypothesis testing ©. Bi-variate measures of association: this constitutes i. Simple correctin and regression analysis using ration/interval data Ii, Rank correction analysis using ordinal data iii, Contingency co-efficient deter ation for nominal data 4d. Multivariate measures of association : includes the following techniques i. Multiple regression analysis Discriminant analysis iil, Path analysis iv. Factor analysis v. Cluster analysis 2.7 Errors in Research ‘The errors are outlined are below: 1, Identification error: this error occurs when the researcher is unable to recognize the correct problem and finds solutions to wrong ones. 2. Variable selection error: these errors are type | and type ll, i.e. omitting the relevant variable and including an irrelevant variable, respectively, for the purposes of formulation of problems or development of hypothesis Surrogate information errors; the respondents in .roduce this error while answering the researchers’ questions, The information required is different from the information sought for 4, Measurement error: the difference between the researchers’ requirement of the information and what the instrument provide is measurement ertor. 5. Experimental errors: these errors due to extraneous variables in an experiment and the actual impact of the independent variables on the dependent variables is different from the impact, attributable in the experiment to the dependent variables. 6. Errors of subject selection: this error is due to two reasons. a) the population required is different from population actually selected (b) the population specified is different from populations listed in a frame. Its also called frame error. 7. Sampling esror: sampling error is the difference between a truly representative sample and a probability sample. ‘ror: this indicates errors due to the difference between a truly representative sample and a non-probability sample. 9. Non-response error: errors introduced by the lack of response of certain respondents in a sample. 14Unit -3 Unit-III Research Modeling: Types of Models, Model building and stages, Data e and Testing, Heuristic and Simulation modeling. Simulation: Need for simulation, 1 of simulation, 3.1 Types of Models ( classification of models) : jera ypes What is a model: A model is a way of representing phenomenon. The behavior of the phenomenon can be studied by studying the behavior of the model under different conditions. A model can be a verbal model, an iconic model, or an analog model or a symbolic model. A verbal model is a representation ofa phenomenon or a decision- making situation using sentences in which well defined terms are employed. A iconic model is a replica of the physical system, usually ‘scaled down’ in dimensions, for example, construction models. it also can be scaled up, as in the case of models of molecules of hydrocarbons, A schematic model is one in which relationships are shown in a diagrammatic manner, for example, network, flow chart, and so on. An analog model is a representation in which an analogy is made use of, for example, a map. A typical symbolic model is a mathematical representation of a decision-making situation as is widely used in management science, for example and inventory model Symbolic models can be further classified based on the planning horizon, nature of variables, purpose of application, and methods used for deriving solutions. Static planning horizon refers to simple period models and dynamic models are those that take into consideration period-to-period iterations in a multi-period study of a phenomenon. The uncontrollable variables used in the model may be deterministic or probabilistic. In relatively unexplained situations in which the researcher is interested in understanding the behavior of the system, a descriptive model will be developed. When the problem is amenable to deriving a solution directly by exact mathematical methods, analytical solutions are obtained. When analytical solutions are not possible or computationally intractable, heuristic procedures using rules of thumb many be used to derive solutions for special problems. When a system becomes too complex to solve by analytical methods, simulation methods are generally used. 15Figure: classification of models 163.2 Stages in model buildin; 1. Opportunity identification 2 Model Purpose 3, Model scope 4, Data availability ‘5, Model-building criteria 6. Model specification 7. Parameterization 8. Validation 9. Cost-benefit considerations 10. Use 1. Updating v73.3 Data consideration and testing: 183.4 Heuristic and Simulation modeling. Heuristic optimization: Definition of Heuristics: the word ‘heuristic’ means ‘to discover’ in Greek. In heuristics, one endeavors to understand the process of solving problems, especially the mental operation of a human problem- solver, which is most useful in this process. According to Simon and Newell, heuristics are, “rules of thumb, that allow us to factor, approximately the complex perceived world into higher simple components and to find, approximately and reasonably reliably, the correspondences that allow us to at on that world predictably”. ‘Tongue, defines heuristics as, “Principles or devices that contribute, on the average, to the reduction of search in problem-solving activity”. According to Merbach, heuristics is usually understood as, ‘an iterative algorithm, which converges toward the solution of a problem’, Today the term is used almost exclusively in operations research, computer science and management to describe algorithm that are effective at solving complex problems quickly, but yield less that optimal solutions of the accompanying speed improvement. For ex. Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP) in OR Applications of Heuristic: Heurists programmes have been applied in management with varying degrees of success, to a wide range of problems such as: * Assembly line balancing © Facility layout © Portfolio selection 19‘+ Job shop scheduling © Warehouse location * Vehicle routing and scheduling ‘+ Inventory control ‘© Resource allocation to large projects Why use heuristics: there are several reasons for using heuristic methods for solving problems. These, according to Silver, are as follows: 1, The mathematical problem is such that an analytic or iterative solution is unknown. 2. Although an exact analytic or iterative solution procedure many exist, it may be computationally prohibitive to use or it may be unrealistic in its data requirements 3. The heuristic method is simpler for the decision maker to understand; hence, it markedly increases the changes of implementation. 4. Fora well-defined problem that be solved optimally, a heuristic method can be used for learning purposes, 5. In implicit enumerations approaches, a good starting solution can give a bound that drastically reduces the computational effort. Heuristics can be used to give such good starting solutions 6. Heuristics may be used as part of an iterative procedure that guarantees the finding of an optimal solution. Heuristic Methods: One can consider three subsets in heuristic methods 1) Heuristic problem solving 2) Artificial intelligence 3) simulation of human thought Huristic problem solving: this method involves the problem-oriented use of heuristics to achieve a reduction of search in the attachment of a stationary solution. Businessmen frequently develop and follow various heuristics in their operations, some of them are Stock market investing, inventory control, ‘Accounting and job scheduling, Artificial Intelligence: Search - systematic investigation of the solution space. Pattern Recognition: the acceptance of certain groupings of elementary units as identifiable entities Organization Planning- the breaking down of a complex problem into sub-problems the sequencing of analysis according to priorities and recombination into a solution of the higher-level problem. Learning- programme modification resulting from experience Inductive Inference- generalization for the purpose of prediction and decision-making ‘Simulation of human thought: in this method, heuristic computer programme is used to replicate the thought process of a human decision-maker. 20Heuristic problem solving approaches: * Decomposition methods: here the problem under consideration is broken into smaller parts that are solved separately. Decomposition is prevalent in to the functional areas of an organization, A second common type of decomposition is the separation of system design from system operation Commonly the operational effects are ignored in the design phase and then operational rules are developed based on the design having been chosen problems into the system design from system operation * Inductive methods: the idea here is to generalize from smaller versions of the same problem. Sometimes the situation where a particular parameter becomes very large is particularly case to analyze, again proving insights for a more difficult case of intermediate values of the parameter. ‘* Feature extraction (or reduction) methods: the general approach here is to first obtain the optimal solutions to several numerical cases user consideration. Common features of these solutions are extracted and are assumed to hold in general. A good example of this approach is the use of assumption that in any reasonale inventory control strategy, the frequency of stockout occasions will be quite low. ‘* Methods involving model manipulation : The idea here is to change the nature of the model in some way so as to facilitate the solution and then use the solution of the revised model as representative of the solution of the original mathematical problem. Examples of model manipulation include: © Modification of the objective function, for ex, linearization of a non-linear function © Relaxation of certain constraints, some of which may be flexible in any event © Change nature of probability distributions; for ex, the assumption of normality instead of a more complex distribution © Aggregation of variables, the idea being to reduce the number of decision variables ‘© Constructive methods the basic idea of a constructive method is to literally build up to a single feasible solution, often in a deterministic, sequential fashion. ex. travelling sales man problem ‘+ Local Improvement methods: in contrast with the constructive procedures, here we start with a feasible solution and improve upon literately. The work center location problem can be solve this fashion. The initial feasible solution may be existing layout in the manufacturing plant or it may be solution of a constructive procedure. One method of local improvement is to attempt to switch pairs of centres; when an attractive switch Is found, it is made and the process continued until no further improvements can be achieved by any single switch Meta-Heuristics: Modern heuristic techniques, such as ant colonies, immune, mimetic, and scatter search, are taking firm steps as robust problem-solving mechanisms. These types of heuristics are generally termed as meta- heuristics. Meta-heuristics can be defined as an interactive generation process which guides a subordinate heuristic by combining intelligently different concepts for exploring and exploiting the search space using learning strategies to structure information in order to find efficient near optimal solutions’. Generally, meta-heuristics are classified according to these basic design choices: (i) Use of adaptive memory (ii) the type of neighborhood search adopted and (iil) the number of solutions carried across two successive iterations, 21Examples of Some meta-heuristics : Simulated Annealing(SA), Tabu search, genetic algorithm (GA), Ant colony algorithm Choice of heuristic methods: some factors that significantly affect the choice of a particular heuristic method are: Strategic (system design) versus tactical (system operation) problem, frequency of decision, amount of conceptual effort permitted, number of decision variables, number of controllable variables, size of the problem, discrete versus continuous variables, deterministic versus probabilistic variables. Evaluation of heuristics: Criteria for evaluating heuristics 1) Quality of solution : can be measured in two ways (i) the proximity of the objective function value to the optimal value, to the estimated optimal value (ii) ability of the algorithm to generate the feasible solution, 2) Running time and storage 3)_ Difficulty of implementation: the intricacy of the coding and the extent of the data requirements 4) Flexibility : they should easily handle changes in the model, constraints, and objective function 5) Robustness: ability to perform sensitivity analysis and the ability to generate bounds on the solution obtained 6) Simplicity and analyzability and interactive computing Methods for evaluating heuristics: three methods 1) Performance evaluation: this method is subdivided into two parts dealing with (i) worst-case performance and average case performance. 2) Probabilistic analysis: includes (i) investigation of statistical properties of heuristics, assuming a simple probability distribution of the data input (i) point/interval estimation of true optimum based ‘on statistical distribution of heuristic solution obtained, 3) Empirical analysis: the algorithm designers feel that the most trusted form of analysis appears to be empirical analysis. This is due to the fact that this approach does solve, problems, similar to those that researchers are interested in, Performance measures/measure of effectiveness Itis the ratio: Va = L/L * Where L denotes the value of linax produced by a given heuristic, L* denotes the optimal value and V, measures the performance of the heuristic ns of heuristic methods Advantages and limita * Are simple to understand and therefore easier to implement * Help training people to be creative * Save formulation time * Save programming language and storage requirements * Save computer running time (speed) 22* Produce multiple solutions Problems with heuristics ‘* Heuristics that consider all possible combinations can seldom be achieved in practical problems. * Sequential decision choices can fall to anticipate future consequences of each choice * ‘local movement’ can short-circuit the best solution because heuristics lacks global perspective © Interdependencies of parts of a system are ignored by the heuristics 4, Simulat n modeling ulation is an experiment conducted on a model of some system of interest. A simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real world process or system over a period. Whether does by hand or on a computer, simulation involves the generation of an artificial history of a system, and the observation of that artificial history to draw inferences concerning the operating characteristics. Some of the systems on which simulation experiment can be carried out are : ‘Simulation of waiting behavior of customers at reservation counters of a transport corporation; Simulation of customers’ waiting at bank counters. ‘Simulation of labour turnover and absenteeism. etc. 4.1 Need for simulation Consider an example of the queuing system, namely the reservation system of a transport corporation. The elements of the system are booking counters (servers) and waiting customers(queues). Generally, the arrival rate of the customers follows poissions distribution and the service time follows exponential distribution. If the reservation system has the above combination of distributions, then the queueing model, namely (M/M/1):(GD/ee/e°) can be used to find the standard results. The arrival rate and service time both follow different combinations of distributions, in each of the cases and if they are non-standard distribution for the queing system may be discrete distribution, uniform distribution, normal distribution etc. under such situation the standard model (M/M/1):{GD/22/e2) cannot be used. The last resort to find the solution for the non-standard queing ‘model is to use simulation. If there is a deviation from other standard models of queuing systems, one can use simulation. 4.2 Types of simulation There are following four types of simulation 231. Identity simulation : observing the behavior of the real world under as many operational Configurations as possible to get an insight into system behavior is called identity simulation. But, the identity simulation is very expensive, seldom feasible and time consummating 2. Quasi-identity simulation: in Quasi-identity simulation, pects of the real world system are preserved while some elements whose presence would make the identity simulation impossible are excluded 3. Laboratory simulation: this is cheaper than the earlier two methods Computer simulation: if we remove people from the laboratory simulation with a well-designed Computer logic and retain other aspects, then itis called ‘computer simulation’. ‘Advantages of simulation ‘* The time for experimentation can be compressed. * The system performance can be studied under all possible conditions * The success or failure of a system can be tested using a conceptual system. Major steps of simulation Model building Real world Model of interest to us | Comparison with reality Interpretation Model Behavior * 24Unit 4: Report Writing Report Writing: Pre-writing con: writing, formats of report writing, Formats of publications in Research Journals. Technique of Interpretation, Precaution in Interpretation, Significance of Report writing, Different steps in writing Report, Layout of the Research Report, Types of Reports, Report Format, ‘Typing Instructions, Oral Presentations. Research reports can be broadly classified into: * Dissertations submitted for obtaining research degrees like M.Sc and Ph.D in a university ‘+ Reports of research submitted to the organization sponsoring the research ‘* Publications in the form of research papers in research journals, + Reports of research toa client organization 4.1 Pre-writing Considerations 4.1.1 Dissertations/Theses Some helpful points to be kept in mind while writing the thesis are: * Research should put himself in the position of a reader. Since the subject matter and the details of the thesis are intimately known to the student he may unconsciously assume the same on the part of the reader, who does not have the benefit of familiarity of the subject matter. ‘+ While preparing drafts, particularly if they are supported by well structured outlines, it is better to put in efforts and care to make the draft as close as possible to the finished product. 25* While developing a synopsis, when the university wants it as short as there to four pages, itis better initially develop a longer one, say 10 pages and clip the unimportant portions. * Foot notes should be given for the important references ‘Some of the issues to be considered before writing the report, which are not important in dissertations. ‘These are related to: * The purpose of the report — what is being communicated must be well understood. * To whom is the report addressed —the answer to this question will help understanding the background, the needs and view points of the reader. ‘* Time available for developing the report. 4.1.2 Style and composition of the report ‘* The report should be written in a clear and logical manner in a straight forward simple language. It should convey precise information in a reader friendly. ‘* Figures, charts and tables should be captioned carefully and concisely and must be numbered serially from the first to the last. Statistics should be presented using (i) semi-tabular presentation (ii) tabular presentation (ii) graphs ( line graph, pie charts, 3D charts) 4.1.3 Principles of thesis writing: the following are the principles of thesis wiring ‘* Consistency : there should be consistency : (i) the objectives of the research stated, in the introduction, results obtained, and conclusions drawn in the last chapter; (i) in the location, typing and format of captions for tables and figures; (ii) in the referencing format employed in the text;(iv) in the structure of each reference under books, reports and journals, in. bibliography; and (v) in the indentation used in the chapter © Connes the text of the thesis should not have abrupt and ragged beginnings and endings. Section to section and chapter to chapter transition should be logical * Indentation : the thesis should be indented or cut into meaningful chapter and sections depending upon the structure and content of the various aspects of presentation. ‘* Continuity: the flow of the thoughts and ideas, in each section should be carefully maintained, * Highlighting: it is necessary to emphasize and highlight the major aspects or points that are significant in his work. * Openness: Every research has limitations and errors. A tacit appreciation of this is a frank and open approach to putting down the errors and limitation in data, in method, and even in the tools used. © Clarity: simple language and concise and direct statements should be used. Ambiguous word, phrases, and sentences should be avoided * Asserting : when assertions are made the student should enunciate the support of earlier research for such assertions or of the facts obtained and of analysis made in the research work. * Ordering: when discussing objectives, variables and results it is necessary that different objectives, variables and results are ordered in the same way. ‘© Compatibility (boundedness) : Conclusions and inferences must be compatible with the data and techniques of analysis and must not transgress them, * Jargon: Every discipline has its own special words, modes of expression, and phraseology. The student would do well to use them to let the examiner know of his knowledge. 26* Elaboration/brevity : one of the most difficult things while developing a thesis is to appreciate where or at what point in the thesis the student has to compress a considerable amount of research material, and where there is a need to elaborate. The student should develop discernment in this regard. * Self-sufficiency: whenever tables, graphs, figures, and illustrations are presented in the text, itis desirable to make these as complete as possible, to be read and understood by themselves without the need to look into the text. ‘+ Enrichment: after the main objective of the thesis is achieved, the student should expoint the opportunity of enriching his work by presenting by-products and related rresullts from any additional data or information not directly relevant to the objective, but which would add to knowledge. ‘+ Synthesis-analysis-synthesis: in writing the thesis, the sine qua non is to employ synthetic and analytic approaches in cycles. Get an overview (outline/content) of the thesis (synthesis). Delve into the details and structure the parts (analysis). Then once again get an overview by standing away and looking at the totality ( synthesis). Many errors, inadequacies, and incongruences will surface in such an approach. i ps6ob2 4.2 Format of Report Writing > 4.2.1 Format of dissertations A typical format for a dissertation is as shown below 1. PRELIMINARY Title ‘Acknowledgement Abstract or synopsis Table of contents List of tables List of figures MAIN BODY OF THE REPORT Introduction Background of the problem Statement of the problem Brief outline of the chapters 3. LITRATURE REVIEW 4, THE RESEARCH DESIGN/METHOD The theoretical framework (variables) Hypothesis/model Instrument for data collection Reliability and validity of the instrument Data collection 5. RESULTS Pilot study Descriptive analysis Hypothesis testing Model testing Data analysis techniques Tables and figures 76. CONCLUDING REMARKS Summary Support for hypothesis/ use of models Contributions Shortcomings 7. Directions for further research BIBLIOGRAPHY There are many variants and orderings used while presenting research material. A typical format consists the above sections. Main body of the dissertation: the body of the dissertation will have five major components ~ introduction , literature review, the research design with details of the research study and conclusions. Introduction: the introduction should clearly logically bring out the background of the problem addressed in the research, and how the researcher identified the problem. Whether the problem emerged from a review of research literature must be stated. The theoretical and practical importance of the problem should be highlighted, the rationale of the problem should be enunciated, and broad and comprehensive statement of the problem and the scope of the reaserch should be given The literature review: a comprehensive review of the research literature referred to must be made. ‘A good approximation many be 80:20 rule- 80% of the literature review must dwell on specifics and 20% on the general Research design or method: this chapter should provide an overview of the design of the research undertaken. it should include the sample of subjects/ organisations; a separate section on the instrument/questionnaire, its design and appropriateness; and one on the method of analysis ‘employed for solving the research problem. Results: in this chapter, the data , the reliability and validity of the results of the statistical analysis are presented, usually in the form of tables, figures, and equations. Conclusions and remarks: the chapter on concluding remarks should discuss the results obtained in the earlier sections. As well as their usefulness and implications. it may be worthwhile to give a brief summary of the dissertation before presenting the contributions. References and bibliographies: it includes publications that are referred to in the dissertation text and those that are studied by the student but not referenced. Appendices : these are for the purpose of providing detailed information that would be too cumbersome/inappropriate within the main body of the dissertation, 4.2.2. Format of Research Reports: A typical format of a research report is as shown below TITLE PAGE A, Title B, Author's name and affiliation C. Running head D. Acknowledgement (if any) ABSTRACT ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS 28IV. INTRODUCTION A. Statement of the problem 8. Background/ review of literature €. Purpose and rationale/hypothesis V. METHOD ‘A. Subjects/sampling design/ research design 8. Apparatus or instrumentation (if any) . Procedure for data collection and data analysis VI. RESULTS ‘A. Tables and figures B._ Statistical presentation C. Limitations Vil. DISCUSSION ‘A. Support or non-support of hypotheses 8. Practical and theoretical implications C. Conclusions Vill. REFERENCES /BIBILIOGRAPHY IX, APPENDIX (if appropriate) 4.3 Format of publication in a Research Journal Alllreputed journals require a particular general format and style from authors. These differ from journal to journal. But a typical format is, introduction; the case; the method; results and conclusions. Material for publication is for more difficult to write than reports or dissertations. 4.4 Technique of Interpretation Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation, The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps: (i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. (ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration. (ii) tis advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results, (iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate. 294.5 Precautions in Interpretation Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation: (i) At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that (a) the data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the data reflect good homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been done through statistical methods. (ii) The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to false generalization and/or due to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings beyond the range of observations, identification Of correlation with causation and the like. He should be well equipped with and must know the correct use of statistical measures for drawing inferences concerning his study. {iii) He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much intertwined with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must take the task of interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those precautions that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis viz., precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and comparison of results. (iv) The task is not only to make sensitive observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors that are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable the researcher to do his job of interpretation on proper lines. (v) The researcher must remember that “ideally in the course of a research study, there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical conceptions. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical orientation and empirical observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie.” He must pay special attention to this aspect while engaged in the task of interpretation. 4.6 Significance of Report Writing ‘© Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. * The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others, Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge. All this explains the significance of writing research report, * But the general opinion is in favour of treating the presentation of research results or the writing of report as part and parcel of the research project. ‘Writing of report is the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research. This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose, 4.7 Different steps in writing report 30The usual steps involved in writing report are: (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter; (b) preparation of the final outline; (c) preparation of the rough draft; (d) rewriting and polishing; (c) preparation of the final bibliography; and (f) writing the final draft. Though all these steps are self explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of these will be appropriate for better understanding. Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of @ subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b) chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for doing or making something usually follow the chronological order. Preparation of the final outline: It "Outlines are the framework upon which long-written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organization of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.” Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of the final outline. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem concerned, Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. in addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writing—grammar, spelling and usage. Preparation of the final bibliography: The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, isa list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles. The entries in bibliography should be made adopting the following order: For books and pamphlets the order may be as under: 1) Name of author, last name first 2) Title, underlined to indicate italics 3) Place, publisher, and date of publication. 4) Number of volumes, Example: Kothari, CR, Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt, Ltd., 1978. For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under: 1) Name of the author, last name first. 2) Title of article, in quotation marks. 3) Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics. 4) The volume or volume and number. 5) The date of the issue. 6) The pagination. 31Example: Robert V. Roosa, “Coping with Short-term International Money Flows", The Banker, London, September, 1971, p. 995. Writing the final draft: The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it seems", “there may be”, and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the research findings to others. 4.8 Layout of the research report — ere The layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain, A comprehensive layout Of the research report should comprise (A) preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and (C) the end matter. Let us deal with them separately. (A) Preliminary Pages: In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the report. (8) Main Text: The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page. Each main section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report should have the following sections: Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research. A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report. The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to allthis, the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood by all concerned. Ifthe findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the summarised form. Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the form of tables and charts together witha validation of results, is the next step in writing the main text ofthe report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over several chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splitted into readily identifiable sections, All relevant results must find a place in the report. 32'V. Implications of the results; Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below: (2) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to apply in similar circumstances. (b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study. (c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them. V. Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary, ye jeingeesing in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn from the research results, (C) End Matter At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect_of all technical data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones. Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index should invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report. 4.9 Types of reports AA research report can be classified into decision-oriented report (technical report) and research oriented rt. Further, the research-oriented report can be classified into survey esearch report _and algorithmic research report. - 4.9.1 Decision -oriented or technical report Steps of preparing a technical report are: i) Identification of the problem ii) Establishment of objectives i) Generation of decision alternatives iv) Evaluation of decision alternatives ¥) Selection of the best decision alternatives vi) Development of action plan vil) Provision for correction plan after implementation of the decision 4.9.2 Survey-based Research Report ‘The main body of the report for the survey-based research contains the followin; 1. Problem definition IL, Objectives of the research IH. Research methodology IV. Data analysis V. Interpretations of results and suggestion VI. Conclusions 4.9.3 Algorithmic Research Report The algorithmic research report can be classified into the following categories: 33iv. v, vi vii. viii, Algorithmic research report for combinatorial problem: ‘The body of this type of research report will contain the following Problem identification Literature review Objectives of the research Development of mathematical model Design of algorithm Experimentation and comparison of the algorithm with the model in terms of solution accuracy Experimentation and comparison of the algorithm with the best existing algorithm in terms of solution accuracy Case study Conelusions Exact algorithmic research report for polynomial problem Problem identification Literature review Objectives of the research Design of the exact algorithm Experimentation and comparison of the exact best existing algorithm in terms of computational time Case study Conclusions ‘Another category of the report called popular report. The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams, We give below a general outline of a popular report. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most practical interest and on the implications of these findings. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of the study is made in this section of the report: Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with the specific objectives of the project under study. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the report. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study are resented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, ete, is presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely meant for general public. 344.10 Report Format A standardized format for the report will help researchers present their contributions and findings more systematically. The different items of a research report are presented below. L 2 Cover page: gives the title of the research, dept/faculty to which report is submitted, degree, name of the researcher and supervisor, address, month, year of submission etc. Introductory pages: > Viva : gives brief bio-data of the researcher. > Acknowledgment: all the help received for research should be acknowledged with sufficient details > Abstract : gives the overview of the research report outlining the title of the research, objectives, shortcomings of existing literatures, need for further research etc. > Table of contents > List of tables > List of figures > Uist of variables : the researcher will be forced to use different variables and abbreviations in ferent chapters of the research report to discuss about the models, equations and results > Chapters : the text of the report should be divided into different chapters depending on the type of research, Main sections: Subsections Footnotes vvvy Conclusions Bibliography : its is an alphabetical catalogue of different literature which are used in the research. These references are classified into journals, books, magazines, newspapers, research studies etc. Appendices: in a chapter, if there is any material whose absence within that chapter itself does not affect the flow of reading and grasp of the moment, then it can be presented at the end of the report under this heading. 4.11. Typing Instructions This sections deals with important instructions for typing the report. The different items which are to be concentrated are paper, margins, indentation, spacing between lines and spacing with in a sentence. Paper: the quarto-size white thick unruled paper is used for the final printing of the report. Printing should be done on one side only. Margins : the margins left , right, top and bottom of the report should be 1.5 inch, 1 inch, 3 inch and 1 inch respectively. Indention: usually 10 spaces from left mat 35Spacing between lines: - should have double spacing except indented paragraphs, tables and footnotes. The indented paragraphs, tables and footnotes are to be typed with single spacing, Spacing within a sentence: the spacing between words, after a semicolon or colon or comma or a full stop or before bracket should be 1. The spacing between the first quotation mark and the next word, between the end quotation mark and the proceeding word should be 0. 4.12 Oral Presentation ‘The presenter should consider the following aspects of communication to make his presentation more effective, » Purpose of the presentation should be identified the purpose may be to inform the audience, selling the idea, persuading, changing the attitude etc. > Knowledge about the mix of audience » The breadth and depth of the message should be decided to suit the audience > better time is to have the presentation in the beginning of the day there there is a choice > audience should be provided with the hand-book if necessary > room size should be according the number of audience > Oral presentation is effective when supplemented by various visual devices. Use of slides, wall charts and blackboards is quite helpful in contributing to clarity and in reducing the boredom, if any. > Distributing a board outline, with a few important tables and charts concerning the research results, makes the listeners attentive who have a ready outline on which to focus their thinking, Unit-V Research Ethies and Morals: Issues related to plagiarism, collaborative models and ethics, acknowledgements. Intellectual Property Rights: copy rights, copy left; Patents, Industrial designs, Trade marks, Research Ethics: Research ethics involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving scientific research. In addition, research ethics educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard. The scientific research enterprise is built on a foundation of trust. Scientists trust that the results reported by others are valid. Society trusts that the results of research reflect an honest attempt by scientists to describe the world accurately and without bias, But this trust will endure only if the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying and transmitting the values associated with ethical scientific conduct. ‘There are many ethical issues to be taken into serious consideration for research. Sociologists need to be aware of having the responsibility to secure the actual permission and interests of all those involved in the study. They should not misuse any of the information discovered, and there should be certain moral responsibility maintained towards the participants, There is a duty to protect the rights of people in the study as well as their privacy and sensitivity. The confidentiality of those involved in the observation must be carried out, keeping their anonymity and privacy secure. In terms of research publications, a number of key issues include and are not restricted to 36» Honesty. Honesty and integrity is a duty of each author and person, expert-reviewer and member of journal editorial boards. » Review process. The peer-review process contributes to the quality control and it is an essential step to ascertain the standing and originality of the research. > Ethical standards, Recent journal editorials presented some experience of unscrupulous activities, > Authorship. Who may claim a right to authorship? In which order should the authors be listed? The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals that various codes address: Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications, Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public. Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research. Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action. Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals, Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources, Be open to criticism and new ideas. Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize, Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for itary secrets, and patient records. publication, personnel records, trade oF 1 Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication. Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions. Respect for colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly. Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy. Non-Discrimination: Ayoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity a7Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole. Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies. Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments, Human Subjects Protection: When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly 5.1 Issues related to plagiarism With easier access to information on the Internet and the technological ability to easily copy and paste information, both academic and commercial plagiarism have become growing concerns. In a society that has put inereasing pressure on quick results and instant gratification, many writers see taking creative shortcuts as ‘working smart’ instead of 'working hard.’ As plagiarism becomes more prevalent, there are more and more issues to deal with What is Plagiarism? Plagiarism is using the ideas or words of another person without giving appropriate credit. Whether it's copying word for word or paraphrasing an original idea without citing the original author, plagiarism is using somebody else's work for the writer's personal gain, Students do this to try to get better grades, while professional writers might be tempted by plagiarism to make a quick buck Self-Plagiarism:, defined as the reuse of significant portions of the author's own published work or works, without attribution to the original source. Examples of plagiarism include verbatim copying of published articles; verbatim copying of elements of published articles (e.g., figures, illustrations, tables); verbatim copying of elements of published articles with crediting, but not clearly differentiating original work from previously published work; and self-plagiarism, Itis the responsibility of the author to obtain proper permission and to appropriately cite or quote the material not original to the author. In this context, “quote” is defined as reusing other works with proper acknowledgement. Appropriate citation applies whether the material was written by another author o the author him or herself. How Plagi ism Happens Pressed for time, some writers will look for @ shortcut to produce before a deadline. Students might think they are incapable of earning a good grade with their own writing and will copy someone else's. Often a writer will justify her use of plagiarism by claiming that she couldn't have worded an idea better herself. With so much content available on the Internet, the temptation is great to simply copy a paragraph or two into a word document, change the font style and size to make the writer's work appear uniform. Understanding Plagiarism 38One of the most wide spread forms of corruption is plagiarism, which is the act of copying someone's other work and showing that as your own. The easy access to information and the online availability of the information through the online books and the libraries is playing an important role in enhancing the plagiarism, The easy access of knowledge is the demand of the age and the Consequences are the threats to the development and prosperity of mankind, Therefore, for reducing the increasing rate of plagiarism certain steps are needed to be taken. There are many people, who are doing plagiarism because they want to get the quick access to the end results, prefer the time safety on the importance of work, and feel themselves as eligible for doing the certain task. Another group of people is doing the plagiarism because of the unawareness of the terminology and also because of the non-restricted environment. In all of the cases, the end result is the same and that is the disobedience of copyrights. Reasons of Plagiarism Most of the views and the discussions on the reasons of plagiarism also elaborate the fact that most of the people are not aware of the different types of plagiarism. You can take the example of a person who is going to write a research paper and he includes the statistical analysis of the other writer to show his own conclusions, although he is not claiming that data as his own but because of the lack of poor referencing he can be liable for copyrights. Plagiarism does not only include the copy of the words but also the copy of expressions, ideas, and many other creative tasks. ‘Types of Plagiarism There are different types of plagiarism based on the intensity of plagiarism and some of them are as follows: Minimal Plagiarism: It is type of plagiarism, which is most common in the educational sector and in this plagiarism the person do plagiarism by substituting the synonyms and editing the original text. Substantial Plagiarism: Adding more details in the text and just changing the patterns of the text leads to substantial plagiarism. Complete plagiarism: Without making any change in the data and presenting it as your own is the complete plagiarism. On the other hand there are the some other types of plagiarism, which must be never forgotten while coming up with any written article or idea like: Sources Not Cited: This include The Ghost Writer for simple copying, Photocopy, Potluck Paper in which different sources are used; Poor Disguise by changing the wordings and the outlook, Labor of Laziness in which different phrases are joined together to make your own work, and Self-Stealer in which the person can depict his own work as the new one in another article. Sourees Cited ‘There are some cases in which the writers quote the sources but still it is considered a plagiarism like; The Forgotten Footnote for only giving the writer's name and nothing other accessible link to the material, Misinformed for giving wrong references, Too-Perfect Paraphrase in which the proper way of writing down the copied work is not followed, Resourceful Citer in which the plagiarism is 39merged with the original work, and the differentiation is very vague, Perfect Crime in which along with the reference many things are without references which show the work original but in reality the work is the copied one. ‘Therefore, plagiarism can have the chance to exist in your original work. Hence, understanding the plagiarism and the types of plagiarism is very important for all of the writers in any field of life. 5.2 Collaborative Model and Ethics The Collaborative Research Model is a flexible model for collaborative student research in Coursework across the curriculum. The foundation of the model lies in its cooperative stance, which Supports students in working together toward informed decision making on a common research problem. Many variations on the model are possible, but successful implementations include collaborative esearch projects in lieu of individual research papers. For instance: In a sociology class, students might work together to explore issues relevant to population growth, create issues briefs focused on a common resolution with common claims and counterclaims that represent multiple perspectives, and then engage in a cooperative debate. Students in an early-childhood education class might decide to examine various perspectives on reading instruction, working together to create a common resource bank, and then engage in a round table discussion for pedagogical decision making, ‘The Collaborative Research Model works well in both small and large undergraduate classrooms, and has the potential to result in interesting and innovative research by lower-division students, as well as sophisticated research products by upper-division students. What Do Students (and Teachers!) Gain from Collaborative Research? > A successful collaborative research project will: > Interest and engage all course participants—students and instructors » Provide a realistic rhetorical context to motivate students toward creating and presenting thei research, ® Encourage consensus decision-making, small-group collaboration, cooperative learning, and critical thinking, > Increase student abilities for locating, gathering, and synthesizing diverse perspectives, > Heighten student awareness of how research is valued and assessed. 5.3 Acknowledgements ‘The acknowledgments section of a dissertation or research report allows the author to recognize and thank those who helped contribute to the finished product. Unlike a dedication, acknowledgments should mention only those who directly influenced the work. It is useful to jot down the names of people worthy of acknowledgment throughout the research and writing process to ensure you do not 40forget anyone, Wording the acknowledgments is fairly simple, as it merely involves listing names and adding statements of genuine gratitude. Guidelines for writing acknowledgements A page of acknowledgements is usually included at the beginning of a Final Year Project, immediately after the Table of Contents. Acknowledgements enable you to thank all those who have helped in carrying out the research. Careful thought needs to be given concerning those whose help should be acknowledged and in what order. The general advice is to express your appreciation in a concise manner and to avoid strong emotive language, Note that personal pronouns such asl, my, me ..." are nearly always used in the acknowledgements while in the rest of the project such personal pronouns are generally avoided, The following list includes those people who are often acknowledged, Note however that every project is different and you need to tailor your acknowledgements to suit your particular situation. Main supervisor Second supervisor Other academic staff in your department ‘Technical or support staff in your department Academic staff from other departments Other institutions, organizations or companies Past students Family Friends 5.4 Intellectual property rights Intellectual property rights (IPR), very broadly, are rights granted to creators and owners of works that are the result of human intellectual creativity. These works can be in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic domains. They can be in the form of an invention, a manuscript, a suite of software, or a business name, as examples. In general, the objective of intellectual property law is to grant the creator of a work certain controls over the exploitation of that work, as the unfettered ability of others to copy the work or invention may deprive the creator of reward and incentive, For some intellectual property rights, the grant of protection is also in return for the creator making the work accessible to the general public. 41Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the mind for which a set of exclusive rights are recognized. For each set of exclusive rights there is a corresponding field of law — intellectual property law. Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to a variety of intangible assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works; discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs. Common types of intellectual property rights and respective laws include: * Copyrights - Copyright and Neighbouring Rights Act, * Trademarks ~ Trade and Service Marks Act, * Patents ~ Patents Registration Act, + Industrial design rights and + Trade secrets. 54,Copyright + Copyright is one of the key branches of IP law and it protects the expression of ideas but not the idea itself. For a work to gain copyright protection, it has to be original and should be expressed in a fixed material form, for example, in writing. Copyright is thus effective upon the creation of the work, * Copyright is the sole legal right to print, publish, perform, film or record a literary or artistic or musical work * A copyright is an intangible right granted by law to an author or originator of certain literary or artistic productions. The author or originator is granted, for a limited period, the exclusive privilege to make copies of the same for publication and sale, Such exclusive right may also be transferred to another person. + A copyright is a legal device that gives the creator of a literary, artistic, musical, or other creative work the sole right to publish and sell that work. * Copyright owners have the right to control the reproduction of their work, including the right to receive payment for that reproduction. Authors of original literary and artistic works shall be entitled to copyright protection for their works under the Copyright law, by the sole fact of the creation of such works + An author may grant or sell those rights to others, including publishers or recording companies. Violation of a copyright is called an infringement Copyright is distinct from other forms of creator protection such as patents, which give inventors exclusive rights over use of their inventions, and trademarks, which are legally protected words or symbols or certain other distinguishing features that represent products or services. Similarly, 42Whereas a patent protects the application of an idea, and a trademark protects a device that indicates the provider of particular services or goods, copyright protects the expression of an idea. Whereas the operative notion in patents is novelty, so that a patent represents some invention that is new and has never been made before, the basic concept behind copyright is originality, so that a copyright represents something that has originated from a particular author and not from another. Copyrights, Patents, and trademarks are all examples of what is known in the law as intellectual property. What is copylett? Unies the rights toa document are explicitly transferred to the public, it is implicitly understood that “all Tights are reserved" by the author, and none are transferred to the user. The samo is true of any document without copyright: by default, all rights are reserved unless otherwise stated. Paradoxically, then, the free Circulation of works has to be defended using a form of copyright (which we call copyleft) and NOT by ‘refusing to make it explicit (as in the case of “anticopyright’). Under current legislation, in other words, if anyone wants to guarantee that the public has the right to copy (and alter and redistribute) their work, the rightsholder must explicitly say so. That is what makes copylett. The strategy of copyleft, then, isto use the legislation to turn copyright on its head by explicitly stating the terms ofthe copyright in the form of free dissemination, copying and alteration; in other words, by inverting the rights that are typically protected by restrictive copyright. To put it another way, copylet is a legal mechanism whereby copyright legislation is utlised to defend and establish a community of free exchange of knowledge and techniques. information and art, Members of Sindominio's copyleft mailing list discuss aspects related to the copyleft community in the Spanish-speaking world. You can consult the group to obtain more information or clear up any queries you may have on the community How do I make a document copyleft? |tmmight not seem it, but using copyleft licences is actually very simple. You just have to add the following text to the document you want to licence under copyleft; Copyright (c) year author's_name. Licence_note. Where ‘year’ is the year of publication of the document, “author’s_name” is the name of the author of the document and “licence note" is the note that sets out the terms of the copylett licence (it is a good idea to ‘add a link to the complete, legally valid, licence—f there is one). Just by adding this text, you will automatically be making the document copyleft (provided the licence note ‘meets the standards of the copyleft community. 5.5 Patent 43‘The term patent usually refers to an exclusive right granted to anyone who invents any new, useful, and non-obvious process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof, and claims that right in a formal patent application. A patent is not a right to practice or use the invention. Rather, a patent provides the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the patented invention for the term of the patent. A patent is, in effect, a limited property right that the government offers to inventors in exchange for their agreement to share the details of their inventions with the public. Like any other Property right, it may be sold, licensed, mortgaged, assigned or transferred, given away, or simply abandone 5.6 Industrial design To design means to make a drawing or plan of something that will be made or built. Creation and development of concepts and specifications aimed at optimizing the functions, value, and appearan of products, structures, and systems. Industrial design (ID) is the professional service of creating and developing concepts and specifications that optimize the function, value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefit of both user and manufacturer Industrial designers develop these concepts and specifications through collection, analysis and synthesis of data guided by the special requirements of the client or manufacturer. They are trained to prepare clear and concise recommendations through drawings, models and verbal descriptions. Industrial designers, as professionals, are guided by their awareness of obligations to fulfill contractual responsibilities to clients, to protect the public safety and well-being, to respect the environment and to observe ethical business practice. 5.7 Trademark ‘A trademark or service-mark is * A distinctive name, symbol, motto, or design that legally identifies a company or its products and services, and usually prevents others from using identical or similar marks. * symbol, word, phrase, logo, or combination of these that legally distinguishes one company’s product from any others. Any infringement on a trademark is illegal and therefore grounds for the company owning the trademark to sue the infringing party. * According to the Trade and Service Marks Act, Cap. ....."trade or service mark" means any visible sign used or proposed to be used upon, in connection with or in relation to goods ot services for the purpose of distinguishing in the course of trade or business the goods or services of a person from those of another; + Coca cola and Pepsi cola each has a trade mark 44