1.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

A. DEFINITION
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a navigation system consisting of 24 satellites,
placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense. Originally intended for military
applications, it was made available for civilian use in the 1980s. It is free of charge,
works 24/7, anywhere in the world, in any weather condition

B. HOW DOES THE GPS WORK?

• GPS satellites circle the Earth twice a day in a very precise orbit, then transmit signal
information to the Earth.
• GPS receivers take this information and use trilateration to calculate the user's
exact location.
• 3 satellites are needed to calculate a 2-D position and track movement.
How accurate is the GPS?
The accuracy of the system depends on many factors including the following:
Type of receiver - i.e. recreational/ commercial, mapping/differential, and survey
grade Sources of errors - i.e. atmospheric effects and obstructions
Types of GPS Receivers:
Recreational/Commercial grade
These receivers are available from commercial retailers and are designed for general
navigation and simple waypoint marking. The accuracy of this type of unit is usually
greater than or equal to 3 meters.
Mapping/differential grade
Mapping grade receivers incorporate higher quality antennas and implement
corrections that improves the accuracy of the location. Its maximum accuracy can
range up to less than one meter.
Survey grade
Survey grade receivers are the most accurate and expensive. These are often used by
professional surveyors and excel in high accuracy measurements of fixed positions.
The accuracy is within centimetres.
Sources of Errors:
Atmospheric effects
Layers of the atmosphere refract GPS signals. This causes the speed of the transmitted
signal to be different from the speed of the GPS signal in space.
Obstructions
Any object in the path of the GPS signal can cause interference with the reception.
These objects include buildings, large trees and terrain features.
THE .GPX FILE FORMAT
GPX (the GPS exchange Format) is a data format for exchanging GPS data between
programs, and for sharing GPS data with other users.
• It allows you to exchange data with a growing list of programs for Windows, MacOS,
Linux etc.
• It can be transformed into other file formats using a simple webpage or converter
program.
Data recorded in the GPS receiver (waypoints, tracks etc.) are saved, by default, in
.GPX file format.
• Before uploading any data in your GPS receiver, be sure to convert it first to .GPX
format
2.Curve Layout & Global Positioning Systems
Aim
1. Understand the principles of laying out a horizontal and vertical curve.
2. Understand the basics of GPS technology.
3. Learn basic operation of GPS receivers for data capture.
4. Understand how to differentially correct data.
Curve Layout
There are a few different methods to laying out a curve. The first method is to set up
on the Point of Curvature (PC), use the deflection angles from the Tangent, and
measure the Long Chord distances to each station along the curve. However, this
assumes that you have a direct line of sight from the PC to each station until the PT.
What if you didn’t have a direct line of sight from you PC, what then? If you can
measure to your first station then you can perform the other method of traveling
from station to station. Simply, one begins by measuring and staking the first station.
Then the total station is moved to the station that was just staked, a reference
measurement is taken back to the PC, and then the next station is staked following
the same process. This is repeated until the PT has been staked. In this case, our
conditions allow us to follow the easier method of only measuring from the PC and
using the Long Chords and deflection angles.
Positions uniquely identified through trilateration
Actually, three satellites in most cases will do, but the fourth is used to correct timing
errors in the receiver’s clock. Since there is a constellation of 32 satellites continuously
orbiting the earth, GPS measurements may be taken almost any time of day. A
limitation of GPS is that a view to the sky must be maintained in order to ensure that
at least four satellites are available. This means that it is difficult to use GPS in
metropolitan areas or when working near any large structure. Almanacs (downloaded
from the satellites themselves) can be used with computer software to help plan the
most optimal time of day to perform GPS work for a given area. Survey grade GPS
systems consist of a receiver and a data collector, or controller. The receiver is used to
communicate with the satellites, and the data collector is used to control the receiver
as well as store data collected by the receiver. The GPS software on the controller
allows for you to classify data points and assign attributes. Survey grade GPS data
needs to be adjusted to compensate for variation in the signal as it comes through the
atmosphere. This can either be done in real time, real time kinematic (RTK), or during
post processing.
Typical GPS data capture is accomplished with three steps
1. Create a data acquisition plan.
2. Collect the data.
3. Post-process the data.
 Data dictionary codes:
“Tree”, Point
“Height of Tree”, Menu
“Tall”
“Short”, Default
“Medium”
“Utilities”, Point
“Type”, Menu
“Manhole”
“Electrical”
“Sprinkler”
“Light Pole”, Point
“Height”, Numeric, 0-30
“Flower Box”, Area
“Type and condition”, Text, 100
“South Side Walk”, Line
“Width”, Numeric, 0-6.0
“Diagonal Side Walk”, Line
“Width”, Numeric, 0-6.0
“Stairs”, Line
“Comment”, Text, 100
“Bike Rack”, Area
“Comment”, Text, 100

Laying out the curve

1. Begin with you total station set up on your PVC point.

2. Orient to north.
3. Turn to the RIGHT the first azimuth of your first station (approx. 87.58°)
4. Using the total station measure the distance and match it to the long chord
distance for that point. Once matched place a marker to identify that station and
move to the next.
5. Repeat the process to lay out the rest of the centerline a. Turn your deflection
angles to the remaining stations using your azimuths and using the long chord lengths
place markers at your stations on the curve until you reach your PVT
6. Using a tape measure, stake the slope intercept points, left and right,
perpendicular to your curve.
7. Inform your TA you are finished and they will check your work.

Field Book: 1. Show a rough sketch of the features you captured relative to the Survey Hill and other
recognizable landmarks using the GPS.

2. On a separate sketch, draw the curve you staked out including the slope intercept points

3. List the name of the job you used.

4. List the names of the shape (SHP) files you exported

5. List the points and their associated codes which you personally took.

6. Make a note in your field book comparing the benchmark coordinates you shot with the ones
provided (from Step 6). Are they different? If so, how is this possible?

7. Include a printed ArcMap layout displaying the location of the features you collected. Remember
to include a north arrow, legend, scale, inset map, your name, and section number.

Benchmark N (Latitude, m) E (Departure, m) Z (Elevation, m)

301 4,455,321.189 444,929.449 1397.511
302 4,455,248.321 444,919.465 1393.013
303 4,455,263.060 445,016.196 1390.073
 3.Electronic Distance Measurement

Electronic distance measuring instrument is a surveying instrument for measuring

distance electronically between two points through electromagnetic waves. Electronic
distance measurement (EDM) is a method of determining the length between two
points, using phase changes, that occur as electromagnetic energy waves travels from
one end of the line to the other end.

There are three methods of measuring distance between two points:

DDM or Direct distance measurement – This is mainly done by chaining or taping.

ODM or Optical distance measurement – This measurement is conducted by
tacheometry, horizontal subtense method or telemetric method. These are carried out
with the help of optical wedge attachments.
EDM or Electromagnetic distance measurement – The method of direct distance
measurement cannot be implemented in difficult terrains. When large amount of
inconsistency in the terrain or large obstructions exist, this method is avoided.
As an alternative to this optical distance measurement method was developed.
Still it gained a disadvantage of limited range of measurement. It is limited to 15 to
150m with an accuracy of 1 in 1000 to 1 in 10000. Above all we have EDM with an
accuracy of 1 in 105, having a distance range of 100km.
Electronic distance measurement in general is a term used as a method for
distance measurement by electronic means. In this method instruments are used to
measure distance that rely on propagation, reflection and reception of
electromagnetic waves like radio, visible light or infrared waves.

Types of Electronic Distance Measurement

Instrument
EDM instruments are classified based on the type of carrier wave as

1. Microwave instruments
2. Infrared wave instruments
3. Light wave instruments.
1. Microwave Instruments
These instruments make use of microwaves. Such instruments were invented as early
as 1950 in South Africa by Dr. T.L. Wadley and named them as Tellurometers. The
instrument needs only 12 to 24 V batteries. Hence they are light and highly portable.
Tellurometers can be used in day as well as in night.

The range of these instruments is up to 100 km. It consists of two identical units. One
unit is used as master unit and the other as remote unit. Just by pressing a button, a
master unit can be converted into a remote unit and a remote unit into a master unit.
It needs two skilled persons to operate. A speech facility is provided to each operator
to interact during measurements.

Infrared Wave Instruments

In this instrument amplitude modulated infrared waves are used. Prism reflectors are
used at the end of line to be measured. These instruments are light and economical
and can be mounted on theodolite. With these instruments accuracy achieved is ± 10
mm. The range of these instruments is up to 3 km.

These instruments are useful for most of the civil engineering works. These
instruments are available in the trade names DISTOMAT DI 1000 and DISTOMAT DI
55.

3. Visible Light Wave Instruments

These instruments rely on propagation of modulated light waves. This type of
instrument was first developed in Sweden and was named as Geodimeter. During
night its range is up to 2.5 km while in day its range is up to 3 km. Accuracy of these
instruments varies from 0.5 mm to 5 mm/km distance. These instruments are also
very useful for civil engineering projects.

Error in Electronic Distance Measurement

Instruments
Personal Errors

 Inaccuracy in initial setups of EDMs and the reflectors over the preferred
stations
 Instrument and reflector measurements going wrong
 Atmospheric pressures and temperature determination errors
Instrumental Errors

 Calibration errors
 Chances of getting maladjusted time to time generating frequent errors
 Errors shown by the reflectors
Natural Errors

 Atmospheric variations in temperature, pressure as well as humidity. Micro

wave EDM instruments are more susceptible to these.
 Multiple refraction of the signals.
The advantage of using EDM instruments is the speed and accuracy in measurement.
Several obstacles to chaining are automatically overcome when these instruments are
used.